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IntroductionPhysical Geography and the Tools Geographers Use
Chapter 1The Earth as a Rotating Planet
Chapter 2The Earth’s Global Energy Balance
Chapter 15Landforms Made by Running Water
Chapter 16Landforms Made by Waves and Wind
Chapter 17Glacial Landforms and the Ice Age
Chapter 12Volcanic and Tectonic Landforms
Chapter 13Weathering and Mass Wasting
Chapter 14Fresh Water of the Continents
Chapter 9Global Biogeography
Chapter 10Global Soils
Chapter 11Earth Materials and Plate Tectonics
Chapter 6Weather Systems
Chapter 7Global Climates
Chapter 8Biogeographic Processes
Chapter 3Air Temperature
Chapter 4Atmospheric Moisture and Precipitation
Chapter 5Winds and Global Circulation
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xiii
Chapter 12Volcanic and Tectonic Landforms 404
Chapter 13Weathering and Mass Wasting 438
Chapter 14Fresh Water of the Continents 466
Chapter 15Landforms Made by Running Water 494
Chapter 16Landforms Made by Waves and Wind 522
Chapter 17Glacial Landforms and the Ice Age 554
Appendix 1Climate Definitions and Boundaries 580
Appendix 2Conversion Factors 581
Appendix 3Topographic Map Symbols 582
Glossary 584
Illustration Credits 613
Photo Credits 615
Index 619
IntroductionPhysical Geography and the Tools Geographers Use 2
Chapter 1The Earth as a Rotating Planet 36
Chapter 2The Earth’s Global Energy Balance 56
Chapter 3Air Temperature 82
Chapter 4Atmospheric Moisture and Precipitation 110
Chapter 5Winds and Global Circulation 148
Chapter 6Weather Systems 182
Chapter 7Global Climates 216
Chapter 8Biogeographic Processes 264
Chapter 9Global Biogeography 304
Chapter 10Global Soils 342
Chapter 11Earth Materials and Plate Tectonics 372
Brief Contents
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xv
Chapter 2The Earth’s Global Energy Balance 56
EYE ON GLOBAL CHANGE
The Ozone Layer—Shield to Life 58
Electromagnetic Radiation 59RADIATION AND TEMPERATURE 61SOLAR RADIATION 61CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLAR ENERGY 61LONGWAVE RADIATION FROM THE
EARTH 62THE GLOBAL RADIATION BALANCE 63
Insolation over the Globe 64DAILY INSOLATION THROUGH THE
YEAR 65ANNUAL INSOLATION BY LATITUDE 67WORLD LATITUDE ZONES 67
Composition of the Atmosphere 69
Sensible Heat and Latent Heat Transfer 69
The Global Energy System 70SOLAR ENERGY LOSSES IN THE
ATMOSPHERE 70ALBEDO 71COUNTERRADIATION AND THE
GREENHOUSE EFFECT 71GLOBAL ENERGY BUDGETS OF THE
ATMOSPHERE AND SURFACE 71CLIMATE AND GLOBAL CHANGE 74
Net Radiation, Latitude, and the Energy Balance 75
FOCUS ON REMOTE SENSING
CERES—Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy System 78
A Look Ahead 79
Chapter 1The Earth as a Rotating Planet 36The Shape of the Earth 38
Earth Rotation 38ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF EARTH
ROTATION 38
The Geographic Grid 40PARALLELS AND MERIDIANS 40LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE 41
Map Projections 43POLAR PROJECTION 43MERCATOR PROJECTION 44WINKEL TRIPEL PROJECTION 45GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS 46
Global Time 46STANDARD TIME 46WORLD TIME ZONES 47INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE 49DAYLIGHT SAVING TIME 49PRECISE TIMEKEEPING 49
The Earth’s Revolution around the Sun 49
MOTIONS OF THE MOON 50TILT OF THE EARTH’S AXIS 50THE FOUR SEASONS 51EQUINOX CONDITIONS 52SOLSTICE CONDITIONS 53
A Look Ahead 54
IntroductionPhysical Geography and the Tools Geographers Use 2Introducing Geography 4
HUMAN AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 5
Spheres, Systems, and Cycles 10THE SPHERES—FOUR GREAT EARTH
REALMS 10SCALE, PATTERN, AND PROCESS 11SYSTEMS IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 12TIME CYCLES 12
Physical Geography, Environment, and Global Change 13
GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE 13THE CARBON CYCLE 15BIODIVERSITY 15POLLUTION 15EXTREME EVENTS 16
Tools in Physical Geography 16
Maps and Cartography 16MAP PROJECTIONS 16SCALES OF GLOBES AND MAPS 19SMALL-SCALE AND LARGE-SCALE
MAPS 19CONFORMAL AND EQUAL-AREA MAPS 19INFORMATION CONTENT OF MAPS 19MAP SYMBOLS 20PRESENTING NUMERICAL DATA ON
THEMATIC MAPS 21
The Global Positioning System 22
Geographic Information Systems 23SPATIAL OBJECTS IN GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEMS 23KEY ELEMENTS OF A GIS 24
Remote Sensing for Physical Geography 25
COLORS AND SPECTRAL SIGNATURES 25THERMAL INFRARED SENSING 26RADAR 26DIGITAL IMAGING 27ORBITING EARTH SATELLITES 27
Earth Visualization Tools 30GOOGLE EARTH 31OTHER EARTH VISUALIZATION TOOLS 32
A Look Ahead 32
Contents
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xvi Contents
Chapter 5Winds and Global Circulation 148
EYE ON GLOBAL CHANGE
El Niño 150
Atmospheric Pressure 150MEASURING AIR PRESSURE 151AIR PRESSURE AND ALTITUDE 152
Local Wind Patterns 153PRESSURE GRADIENTS 153LOCAL WINDS 154WIND POWER 156
Cyclones and Anticyclones 157THE CORIOLIS EFFECT 157CYCLONES AND ANTICYCLONES 157
Global Wind and Pressure Patterns 158
SUBTROPICAL HIGH-PRESSURE BELTS 160ITCZ AND THE MONSOON
CIRCULATION 160WIND AND PRESSURE FEATURES OF HIGHER
LATITUDES 162
Winds Aloft 164THE GEOSTROPHIC WIND 164GLOBAL CIRCULATION AT UPPER
LEVELS 165JET STREAMS AND THE POLAR FRONT 167DISTURBANCES IN THE JET STREAM 167
Ocean Circulation 170TEMPERATURE LAYERS OF THE OCEAN 171SURFACE CURRENTS 171EL NIÑO AND ENSO 171PACIFIC DECADAL OSCILLATION 174NORTH ATLANTIC OSCILLATION 176DEEP CURRENTS AND THERMOHALINE
CIRCULATION 176
A Look Ahead 178
Chapter 4Atmospheric Moisture and Precipitation 110
EYE ON GLOBAL CHANGE
Acid Deposition 112
Water in the Environment 112THREE STATES OF WATER 112THE HYDROSPHERE 114THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE 114
Humidity 117SPECIFIC HUMIDITY 117DEW-POINT TEMPERATURE 118RELATIVE HUMIDITY 118
The Adiabatic Process 119DRY ADIABATIC RATE 119MOIST ADIABATIC RATE 120
Clouds 121CLOUD FORMS 122FOG 122
FOCUS ON REMOTE SENSING
Observing Clouds from GOES 124
Precipitation 125FORMATION OF PRECIPITATION 125PRECIPITATION PROCESSES 126OROGRAPHIC PRECIPITATION 126CONVECTIVE PRECIPITATION 127UNSTABLE AIR 128
Types of Precipitation 130RAIN 130SNOW 131SLEET AND FREEZING RAIN 132HAIL 132MEASURING PRECIPITATION 132
Thunderstorms 132SEVERE THUNDERSTORMS 136MICROBURSTS 136MESOSCALE CONVECTIVE SYSTEMS 137
Tornadoes 137TORNADO CHARACTERISTICS 138TORNADO DEVELOPMENT 138TORNADO DESTRUCTION 139
Air Quality 141AIR POLLUTANTS 141SMOKE AND HAZE 141FALLOUT AND WASHOUT 142INVERSION AND SMOG 142
A Look Ahead 144
Chapter 3Air Temperature 82
EYE ON GLOBAL CHANGE
Carbon Dioxide—On the Increase 84
Surface and Air Temperature 85SURFACE TEMPERATURE 86AIR TEMPERATURE 86TEMPERATURES CLOSE TO THE
GROUND 88ENVIRONMENTAL CONTRASTS: URBAN AND
RURAL TEMPERATURES 88THE URBAN HEAT ISLAND 88HIGH-MOUNTAIN ENVIRONMENTS 88TEMPERATURE INVERSION 92TEMPERATURE INDEXES 92
Temperature Structure of the Atmosphere 93
TROPOSPHERE 94STRATOSPHERE AND UPPER LAYERS 94
Daily and Annual Cycles of Air Temperature 95
LAND AND WATER CONTRASTS 95ANNUAL NET RADIATION AND
TEMPERATURE CYCLES 98
World Patterns of Air Temperature 98FACTORS CONTROLLING AIR TEMPERATURE
PATTERNS 100WORLD AIR TEMPERATURE PATTERNS FOR
JANUARY AND JULY 100
Global Warming and the Greenhouse Effect 101
FACTORS INFLUENCING CLIMATIC WARMING AND COOLING 101
THE TEMPERATURE RECORD 104TEMPERATURE RECONSTRUCTION 105FUTURE SCENARIOS 105
A Look Ahead 107
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Contents xvii
Chapter 8Biogeographic Processes 264
EYE ON GLOBAL CHANGE
Human Impact on the Carbon Cycle 266
Energy and Matter Flow in Ecosystems 268
THE FOOD WEB 268PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND RESPIRATION 271NET PRIMARY PRODUCTION 271THE CARBON CYCLE 272THE NITROGEN CYCLE 274
Ecological Biogeography 274WATER NEED 276TEMPERATURE 278OTHER CLIMATIC FACTORS 279GEOMORPHIC FACTORS 280EDAPHIC FACTORS 281DISTURBANCE 282INTERACTIONS AMONG SPECIES 282
Ecological Succession 284SUCCESSION, CHANGE, AND
EQUILIBRIUM 285
FOCUS ON REMOTE SENSING
Remote Sensing of Fires 286
Historical Biogeography 288EVOLUTION 288SPECIATION 290EXTINCTION 292DISPERSAL 292DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS 294BIOGEOGRAPHIC REGIONS 295
Biodiversity 295
A Look Ahead 299
Chapter 7Global Climates 216
EYE ON GLOBAL CHANGE
Drought in the African Sahel 218
Factors Controlling Climate 220
Temperature and Precipitation Regimes 221
TEMPERATURE REGIMES 221GLOBAL PRECIPITATION PATTERNS 223PRECIPITATION REGIMES 224
Climate Classification 225DRY AND MOIST CLIMATES 232HIGHLAND CLIMATES 232THE KÖPPEN CLIMATE SYSTEM 232
Low-Latitude Climates (Group I) 232WET EQUATORIAL CLIMATE 1 233THE MONSOON AND TRADE-WIND COASTAL
CLIMATE 2 233THE WET-DRY TROPICAL CLIMATE 3 235THE DRY TROPICAL CLIMATE 4 237
Midlatitude Climates (Group II) 238THE DRY SUBTROPICAL CLIMATE 5 239THE MOIST SUBTROPICAL CLIMATE 6 242THE MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE 7 243THE MARINE WEST-COAST CLIMATE 8 248THE DRY MIDLATITUDE CLIMATE 9 248THE MOIST CONTINENTAL CLIMATE 10 249
High-Latitude Climates (Group III) 250THE BOREAL FOREST CLIMATE 11 251THE TUNDRA CLIMATE 12 254THE ICE SHEET CLIMATE 13 255
A Look Ahead 256
Special Supplement—The Köppen Climate System 260
Chapter 6Weather Systems 182
EYE ON GLOBAL CHANGE
Cloud Cover, Precipitation, and Global Warming 184
Air Masses 184COLD, WARM, AND OCCLUDED
FRONTS 187
Midlatitude Anticyclones and Cyclones 190
ANTICYCLONES 190CYCLONES 191MIDLATITUDE CYCLONES 192MIDLATITUDE CYCLONES AND UPPER-AIR
DISTURBANCES 193CYCLONE TRACKS AND CYCLONE
FAMILIES 199COLD-AIR OUTBREAKS 200
Tropical and Equatorial Weather Systems 200
TROPICAL CYCLONES 201TROPICAL CYCLONE DEVELOPMENT 203TROPICAL CYCLONE TRACKS 204IMPACTS OF TROPICAL CYCLONES 205IMPACTS ON COASTAL COMMUNITIES 205
FOCUS ON REMOTE SENSING
The Tropical Rainfall Monitoring Mission 208
Poleward Transport of Heat and Moisture 209
A Look Ahead 212
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xviii Contents
Chapter 11Earth Materials and Plate Tectonics 372Minerals and Rocks of the Earth’s Crust 374
THE EARTH’S INTERIOR 374MINERALS AND ROCKS 375IGNEOUS ROCKS 376SEDIMENTS AND SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS 376METAMORPHIC ROCKS 379THE CYCLE OF ROCK CHANGE 382THE GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE 383
Major Relief Features of the Earth’s Surface 384
THE LITHOSPHERE AND ASTHENOSPHERE 384
RELIEF FEATURES OF THE CONTINENTS 385RELIEF FEATURES OF THE OCEAN
BASINS 388
Plate Tectonics 389PLATES AND BOUNDARIES 390THE GLOBAL SYSTEM OF LITHOSPHERIC
PLATES 393CONTINENTAL RUPTURE AND NEW OCEAN
BASINS 393ISLAND ARCS AND COLLISION OF OCEANIC
LITHOSPHERE 394ARC-CONTINENT COLLISION 394CONTINENT-CONTINENT COLLISION 395THE WILSON CYCLE AND
SUPERCONTINENTS 396THE POWER SOURCE FOR PLATE
MOVEMENTS 397CONTINENTS OF THE PAST 399
A Look Ahead 401
Chapter 10Global Soils 342
EYE ON GLOBAL CHANGE
Global Change and Agriculture 344
The Nature of the Soil 346INTRODUCING THE SOIL 347SOIL COLOR AND TEXTURE 347SOIL COLLOIDS 349SOIL ACIDITY AND ALKALINITY 349SOIL STRUCTURE 349SOIL MINERALS 350SOIL MOISTURE 351SOIL-WATER BALANCE 351
Soil Development 352SOIL HORIZONS 352SOIL-FORMING PROCESSES 353SOIL TEMPERATURE AND OTHER
FACTORS 355
The Global Scope of Soils 356OXISOLS, ULTISOLS, AND VERTISOLS 360ALFISOLS AND SPODOSOLS 361HISTOSOLS 364ENTISOLS, INCEPTISOLS, GELISOLS, AND
ANDISOLS 364MOLLISOLS 366ARIDISOLS 368
A Look Ahead 369
Chapter 9Global Biogeography 304
EYE ON GLOBAL CHANGE
Exploitation of the Low-Latitude Rainforest Ecosystem 306
Natural Vegetation 307STRUCTURE AND LIFE-FORM OF
PLANTS 308
Terrestrial Ecosystems—The Biomes 310
BIOMES, FORMATION CLASSES, AND CLIMATE 311
Forest Biome 314LOW-LATITUDE RAINFOREST 314MONSOON FOREST 315SUBTROPICAL EVERGREEN FOREST 318MIDLATITUDE DECIDUOUS FOREST 319NEEDLELEAF FOREST 320SCLEROPHYLL FOREST 323
Savanna and Grassland Biomes 324SAVANNA BIOME 324GRASSLAND BIOME 326
Desert and Tundra Biomes 329DESERT BIOME 329TUNDRA BIOME 333
Climate and Altitude Gradients 334CLIMATE GRADIENTS AND BIOME
TYPES 334
FOCUS ON REMOTE SENSING
Mapping Global Land Cover by Satellite 336
ALTITUDE GRADIENTS 339
A Look Ahead 339
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Contents xix
Chapter 12Volcanic and Tectonic Landforms 404
EYE ON GLOBAL CHANGE
The Indian Ocean Tsunami of 2004 406
Volcanic Landforms 407INITIAL AND SEQUENTIAL
LANDFORMS 407VOLCANIC ACTIVITY 408STRATOVOLCANOES 410SHIELD VOLCANOES 411
FOCUS ON REMOTE SENSING
Remote Sensing of Volcanoes 416HOT SPRINGS, GEYSERS, AND GEOTHERMAL
POWER 418
Tectonic Landforms 419FOLD BELTS 419FAULTS AND FAULT LANDFORMS 420THE EAST AFRICAN RIFT VALLEY
SYSTEM 422
Earthquakes 425EARTHQUAKES AND PLATE
TECTONICS 425EARTHQUAKES ALONG THE SAN ANDREAS
FAULT 425TSUNAMIS 428
Landforms and Rock Structure 428LANDFORMS OF HORIZONTAL STRATA AND
COASTAL PLAINS 429LANDFORMS OF WARPED ROCK
LAYERS 432METAMORPHIC BELTS 433EXPOSED BATHOLITHS AND
MONADNOCKS 433
A Look Ahead 434
Chapter 13Weathering and Mass Wasting 438
EYE ON GLOBAL CHANGE
The Madison Slide 440
Weathering 442FROST ACTION 442SALT-CRYSTAL GROWTH 443OTHER PHYSICAL WEATHERING
PROCESSES 443CHEMICAL WEATHERING 443
Mass Wasting 448SLOPES 448EARTHFLOW 448MUDFLOW AND DEBRIS FLOOD 451LANDSLIDE 451INDUCED MASS WASTING 454
Processes and Landforms of Arctic and Alpine Tundra 455
PERMAFROST 456GROUND ICE 456ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS OF
PERMAFROST 457PATTERNED GROUND AND
SOLIFLUCTION 460ALPINE TUNDRA 460CLIMATE CHANGE IN THE ARCTIC 461
A Look Ahead 463
Chapter 14Fresh Water of the Continents 466
EYE ON GLOBAL CHANGE
The Aral Sea 468
The Hydrologic Cycle Revisited 470PATHS OF PRECIPITATION 470
Ground Water 472THE WATER TABLE 472AQUIFERS 472LIMESTONE SOLUTION BY GROUND
WATER 473GROUND WATER MANAGEMENT
PROBLEMS 476
Surface Water 478OVERLAND FLOW AND STREAMFLOW 478DRAINAGE SYSTEMS 480
Streamflow and Floods 480URBANIZATION AND STREAMFLOW 482RIVER FLOODS 482
Lakes 485THE GREAT LAKES 486SALINE LAKES AND SALT FLATS 488DESERT IRRIGATION 488
Surface Water as a Natural Resource 490
POLLUTION OF SURFACE WATER 490
A Look Ahead 491
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xx Contents
Chapter 17Glacial Landforms and the Ice Age 554
EYE ON GLOBAL CHANGE
Ice Sheets, Sea Ice, and Global Warming 556
Glaciers 558GLACIER FORMATION 558GLACIAL EROSION AND DEPOSITION 559
Alpine Glaciers 560LANDFORMS MADE BY ALPINE
GLACIERS 561
Ice Sheets and Sea Ice 561SEA ICE AND ICEBERGS 561
FOCUS ON REMOTE SENSING
Remote Sensing of Glaciers 564LANDFORMS MADE BY ICE SHEETS 567
The Ice Age 569INVESTIGATING THE ICE AGE 573POSSIBLE CAUSES OF THE ICE AGE 573POSSIBLE CAUSES OF GLACIATION
CYCLES 575HOLOCENE ENVIRONMENTS 576
A Look Ahead 577
Appendix 1Climate Definitions and Boundaries 580
Appendix 2Conversion Factors 581
Appendix 3Topographic Map Symbols 582
Glossary 584
Illustration Credits 613
Photo Credits 615
Index 619
Chapter 16Landforms Made by Waves and Wind 522
EYE ON GLOBAL CHANGE
Global Change and Coastal Environments 524
The Work of Waves and Tides 526WAVES 527MARINE SCARPS AND CLIFFS 528BEACHES AND LITTORAL DRIFT 528TIDAL CURRENTS 531
Types of Coastlines 534RIA COASTS AND FIORD COASTS 535BARRIER-ISLAND COASTS 535DELTA COASTS 537VOLCANO AND CORAL-REEF COASTS 538FAULT COASTS 539RAISED SHORELINES AND MARINE
TERRACES 540
Wind Action 541EROSION BY WIND 542DUST STORMS 543
Sand Dunes and Loess 544TYPES OF SAND DUNES 544COASTAL FOREDUNES 548LOESS 548INDUCED DEFLATION 550
A Look Ahead 551
Chapter 15Landforms Made by Running Water 494Slope Erosion 496
ACCELERATED SOIL EROSION 498SLOPE EROSION IN SEMIARID AND ARID
ENVIRONMENTS 499
The Work of Streams and Stream Gradation 500
STREAM EROSION 500STREAM TRANSPORTATION 500STREAM GRADATION 501LANDSCAPE EVOLUTION OF A GRADED
STREAM 504STREAM ORDER 504
Fluvial Landscapes 504GREAT WATERFALLS 504
FOCUS ON REMOTE SENSING
Canyons from Space 506AGGRADATION AND ALLUVIAL
TERRACES 508ALLUVIAL RIVERS AND THEIR
FLOODPLAINS 509ENTRENCHED MEANDERS 510FLUVIAL PROCESSES IN AN ARID
CLIMATE 512ALLUVIAL FANS 514THE LANDSCAPE OF MOUNTAINOUS
DESERTS 515THE GEOGRAPHIC CYCLE 516EQUILIBRIUM APPROACH TO
LANDFORMS 517
A Look Ahead 519
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