Département de Bibliothéconomie et science documentaire

Master 1

-Administration des organismes documentaire et bibliothèque -Gestion et traitement d l’information

-Archivistique

Module, Langue Anglaise Enseignant : Benlefki Elhachemi

INTRODUCTION TO SENTENCES

At any top grammatical hierarchy is sentence. While linguistic utterances short of complete sentences

are certainly meaningful, it is through sentences that we convey propositional meaning. Consider the

following exchange between two language users, A and B

A: Would you like fiction or non-fiction?

B: non-fiction, please

What these examples and other examples like them demonstrate is that the function of sentences

corresponds rather loosely to their structural properties. Sentence function is determined in large part

by goals, purposes and communicative intention of the language users who use spoken written

sentence to convey messages to each other

Types of Sentences

In writing and speaking, there are four basic types of sentences that we use for different purposes:

declarative sentences

interrogative sentences

imperative sentences

exclamatory sentences

These different kinds of sentences in English allow us to express ourselves clearly. Using a variety of

sentences in your writing will add interest and help you get your ideas across effectively. To

communicate clearly, it's important to know the function of each type of sentence so you can make

the right choice, depending on your purpose.

Declarative Sentences

A declarative sentence is the most basic type of sentence. Its purpose is to relay information, and it

is punctuated with a period. For example:

The boy walked home.

I love honey.

He wants to eat cookies, but he doesn't know how to make them.

As you can see, these sentences make statements, whether of fact or opinion. Declarative sentences

can be simple, as in the first two examples, or compound, as in the final example. They can also be in

any tense, as long as they do their basic job of presenting information. This makes them the most

common sentence type.

Interrogative Sentences

Interrogative sentences interrogate, or ask questions. These are direct questions, and they are

punctuated with a question mark. For example:

Why does the sun shine?

Whose dog is that?

Will Sherri get to keep all her lottery winnings?

Many interrogative sentences start with question words like "how" or "why," but others are yes/no

questions that begin with the verb instead of the noun. It is important to remember that interrogative

sentences still require a noun and a verb to be complete.

Exclamatory Sentences

Exclamatory sentences are like declarative sentences in that they make a statement instead of asking

a question, but their main purpose is to express strong emotion. They are easily recognized because

they end in an exclamation point instead of a period:

I said I wanted tacos instead of pizza!

How well he sings!

Wow, he just won a gold medal!

Notice that each one of these examples contains both a subject and a verb, which is still a

requirement for a complete sentence. Exclamatory sentences are often used in casual conversation

and in written dialogue to show emotion, but they are not typically useful in academic or expository

writing. In these more serious works, it's better to make your point with well-written declarative

sentences instead.

Imperative Sentences

Imperative sentences do not simply state a fact but rather tell someone to do something. These can

be in the form of friendly advice, basic instructions or more forceful commands. For example:

Please shut the door to keep out the bugs.

Turn left at the bridge.

Stop bothering me!

Many imperative sentences end in periods, but some of the more forceful demands may end in an

exclamation point to highlight the emotion. You can identify an imperative sentence because it

appears to be missing a subject. However, the command of each imperative is directed at you,

making these sentences second-person. The subject of the sentence may be omitted, but it's called

"you understood" because the reader is aware that each sentence could be written as "you do this" or

"you do that."

Using Different Sentence Types in Your Writing

Though declarative sentences are by far the most common sentence type, they can lead to dull writing

if used exclusively. Take the following paragraph as an example:

I will show you how to make a snowflake. Paper snowflakes are easy to make and can even get

addictive once you learn the techniques. The steps outlined below will help you get started.

All three of these sentences are declarative, so the piece begins to sound a little flat. By contrast, see

what happens when a variety of sentence types are used instead:

Are you ready to learn how to make snowflakes? Paper snowflakes are easy to make, but be careful!

They can get addictive once you learn the basic techniques. Follow the steps below to get started.

As you can see, the paragraph above used one of each of the sentence types, and the result is a more

interesting piece. This is appropriate for writing with a casual, friendly tone, and in many works of

creative writing. Be careful with more formal writing. In the case of expository writing, declarative

sentences are the most appropriate choice.

The Bottom Line

Using the right type of sentence in your writing depends on your intention:

To relay information or to answer a question, use a declarative sentence.

To ask a direct question, choose an interrogative sentence.

To tell someone what to do, use an imperative sentence.

To show extra emotion use an exclamatory sentence (but as a rule of thumb these should be used

sparingly).

Your writing will benefit from a clear understanding and correct usage of all four types of sentences.

In addition, try to vary your sentence structure between simple, compound, and complex sentence

construction. Too many simple sentences may lose the reader's interest.

References:

Luis Cummings (2018) Working with English Grammar, Cambridge University press

E-source: https://grammar.yourdictionary.com/grammar/sentences/types-of-sentences.html

THE FOUR FUNCTIONS OF SENTENCES: TYPES OF SENTENCES

Exercise 1

Recognizing the four functions of sentences. Identify the type of each sentence below.

Use D for declarative, INT for interrogative, IMP for imperative, and E for exclamatory.

1. Please correct your misspelled words now. ________________

2. Ginseng is an herb used for medicinal purposes. ________________

3. What a terrible accident! ________________

4. Which artist do you admire the most? ________________

5. Mary Pickford starred in My Best Girl. ________________

6. How many videotapes do you have in your collection? ________________

7. Drive to the first traffic light and turn right. ________________

8. How happy we all are today! ________________

9. In Greek mythology, Orpheus wrote beautiful music. ________________

10. Stop that shouting at once! ________________

Exercise2

Writing sentences with different uses. Write a sentence according to the directions given for each

of the following items.

1. Write an imperative sentence that begins with a verb.

________________________________________________________________________________

2. Write an interrogative beginning with Which.

_________________________________________________________________________________

3. Write a declarative sentence about your favorite hobby or pastime.

_________________________________________________________________________________

4. Write an exclamatory sentence beginning with How.

_________________________________________________________________________________

5. Write a sentence about music you enjoy. Identify which type of sentence it is.

_________________________________________________________________________________

What type of sentence is this? ________________

Adapted from Writing and Grammar Exercise Workbook, pg. 97-98

Département de Bibliothéconomie et science documentaire

Master 1

-Administration des organismes documentaire et bibliothèque

-Gestion et traitement d l’information

-Archivistique

Module, Langue Anglaise

Enseignant : Benlefki Elhachemi

Place of Library in Dissemination of Information

PARTE 1: READING COMPREHENSION

Libraries, through their books, are actually repositories of information and knowledge.

Information is indispensable for any human activity aiming at social progress. The researcher, the

teacher, the student, the administrator, the industrial and business manager, the artisan, the

entrepreneur, the farmer, the worker in the factory and the field, all need information to equip,

themselves better for the fruitful pursuit of their respective vocations. The basic information role of

the library is to collect material containing information through appropriate methods. It is primarily

in this sense that a library is described as an information centre. But a library also has an

information role in the sense of providing information relating to the socio-economic needs of the

people. Similarly, well-produced “how-to-do-it” type of books would be helpful in providing

guidance to youngsters wanting to start some enterprise. In short, a library should be so equipped

and organised that it will be able to serve its community with all types of information that may be in

actual or potential demand. Libraries also are undergoing a very drastic transformation in all aspects

of their growth. The changes that are occurring in different facets of human life in modern society

can be seen in some aspects. Pressures exerted by the population explosion. Socio-economic

changes. Political and educational changes. Research and development in the scientific and

technological fields. Industry, trade and business. Government and administration factors and

Cultural changes take place in the fine arts and music, in the show business, in films, satellite TV,

etc.

All these factors have radically changed the conventional functions of the library. The new

demands of users have to be met by several activities based upon documentation, information

analysis, consolidation and repackaging, computer based information systems, etc. that have sprung

up in the last 30 years. Many of these developments have also provided new opportunities for

commercialisation of information products and services, thus paving the way for an information

industry which is growing and flourishing steadily. These rapidly changing roles of the library have

made an eminent information scientist to remark that “in a metaphorical sense, we are moving from

a Ptolemaic world with the library at the centre to a Copernican one with information at the centre

and the library as one of its planets” (Robert S. Taylor).

The above statement vividly brings out the changing dimensions of knowledge and information and

the institutional mechanism to handle them. Now, information is at the centre, while earlier the

library was at the centre. Although the library essentially handles information and knowledge, the

institutional mechanism to meet the demands of users in an information society has expanded by

properly organising and operating many of the modern information systems and services.

Adapted from: Foundation of library and information science, lovely professional university 2018

Further reading

Henderson, Kathrine A. (2009), Case Studies in Library and Information Science Ethics, McFarland.

Prasher, Ram Gopal (1997), Library and Information Science: Information science, information technology and its application,

Concept Publishing Company.

PARTE 2 SELF ASSESSMENT:

1- Explain the underline quotation said by (Robert S. Taylor)

2- State whether the statement is true or false

a. Now, information is at the centre, while earlier the library was at the centre

b. Educational changes do not take place in the fine arts and music

c. New institutional mechanisms are being set up with the introduction of structural

innovation

d. repositories of information and knowledge are found through books in libraries

e. There are many factors that have taken in last few decades that changed the face of

libraries’ functions.

Département de Bibliothéconomie et science documentaire

Master 1

-Administration des organismes documentaire et bibliothèque -Gestion et traitement d l’information

-Archivistique

Module, Langue Anglaise Enseignant : Benlefki Elhachemi

5 LAWS OF LIBRARIANSHIP

“When we say that a library grows, what we mean is that each of its components grows” Michael Gorman

PARTE1: Read the following and use dictionary if necessary

Michael Gorman theorizes that there are new 5 laws of librarianship which controls the

landscape of library

1. Libraries serve humanity: This law covers the assistance of individuals and implies a desire to

provide a quality service which exceeds the user’s expectations.

2. Respect all forms by which knowledge is communicated: Gorman advocates the use of various forms

of knowledge and information.

3. Use technology intelligently to enhance service librarians: Gorman suggests that librarians embrace

technological advances, although print-on-paper remains the primary medium for the communication of

knowledge. Technology should be utilized to improve services, solve problems, and achieve cost-

effectiveness.

4. Protect free access to knowledge: Allowing the records of the past to disappear is a form of

censorship, which goes against a librarian’s belief and job description.

5. Honour the past and create the future: Gorman advocates the need to balance nostalgia for a pre-

digital past with the need to embrace new technologies if they greatly enhance the library service.

Adapted from: Our Singular Strengths [American Library Association, 1998].

PARTE 2: Write short essay you discuss the importance of those laws in librarianship:

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Département de Bibliothéconomie et science documentaire

Master 1 -Administration des organismes documentaire et bibliothèque

-Gestion et traitement d l’information

-Archivistique Module, Langue Anglaise

Enseignant : Benlefki Elhachemi

PART 1: Read the following paragraph use your dictionary ?

PART 2 Translate the paragraph into Arabic?

Paragraph in Arabic الفقرة بالعربية

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Département de Bibliothéconomie et science documentaire

Master 1

-Administration des organismes documentaire et bibliothèque

-Gestion et traitement d l’information -Archivistique

Module, Langue Anglaise

Enseignant : Benlefki Elhachemi

Information and communication technology ICT

Technological innovation, for example, is enabling us to create "brave new worlds"... But automated

environments are unfamiliar worlds. Our old intuitive habits of evaluation, which are adequate for

determining what is best in traditional worlds, are inadequate in new and different settings

(Severson 1995,13).

Technology plays a major role in the world in which we live, Information Communication

Technology (ICT) is an integral part of almost everyone’s life; be it at work, in education or socially. It is

felt paramount that children are exposed to technology and are given the opportunity to develop the skills

required. Teaching staff should integrate technology effectively into their teaching to create an inclusive,

innovative and exciting learning environment

ICT stands for Information Communication Technology It is widespread and essential to play a

meaningful role in changing and modernizing educational systems as well as the way of learning. It is

part of many aspects of our daily lives.

It refers to the technology that access to information. It includes any product that will store,

restore, operate, or receive information in a digital form. It is similar to IT that ICT focus more on

communication which includes internet, wireless network and other communication mediums. There are

some examples of ICT tools, such as computing industry, telecommunications, and electronic display.

The computing industry includes Internet, computer hardware and software. Internet means a

worldwide system of interconnected networks and computers. As we know that it is very useful for

everyone today. For example, there are 5 out of 10 students using their iPad to search information while

teacher is teaching. It is general and easy to have internet in the 21st century.

As a result, modern information and communication technologies make a way for people to

communicate with others across the world. For this reason, it is often affects the education today.

Moreover, ICT in education can also be broadly categorized in the following way as a subject (computer

studies), a tool to support traditional subjects (computer- based learning, presentation, research) and as an

administrative tool (education management information systems). It does not have only great impact on

education but also provided some bad impact to the educators. Similarly, ICT also has some great impact

on practitioners and schools.

Adapted from:

Essays, UK. (November 2013). Positive And Negative Impacts That Ict On Education Education Essay. Retrieved

https://www.ukessays.com/essays/education/positive-and-negative-impacts-that-ict-on-education-education-

essay.php?vref=1

QUESTION 1:

Rephrase the underline quotation?

QUESTION 2:

Summarize the text in 5 lines ? with your own English ?

Département de Bibliothéconomie et science documentaire

Master 1 -Administration des organismes documentaire et bibliothèque

-Gestion et traitement d l’information

-Archivistique Module, Langue Anglaise

Enseignant : Benlefki Elhachemi

Information and communication technology ICT

in library and information science

PART1- READING COMPREHENSION

A library plays an important role in the academic institution providing access to world-class

information resources and services and stimulates academic research in the country. Hence, the

success of any educational institution depends upon its library, as library services are fundamental,

which affect the whole educational system. University libraries being part of higher education are

no exception. University libraries support learning, teaching, research and other educational

functions appropriate to their parent institutions. The special collections cater to the needs, not

only for teaching and learning but also for research, publication, conservation of ideas and

knowledge. The new technologies especially electronic technologies have contributed to the

radical changes in LIS and practice.

The phrase ICT had been used by academic researchers since the 1950s, information and

communication technology has induced traditional libraries to transform into digital libraries. The

libraries have transformed from close-access libraries of earlier times to the present day hybrid,

digital, and virtual libraries. Librarians have been changed from mere storekeepers who were

concerned with the protection of books against theft, mutilation, and pilferage, to that of

information officers, navigators, and cybrarians who encourages use in the vast ocean of reading

or information material. They are busy satisfying their clients who want information anytime, any

format and anywhere. University libraries provide quicker and user-oriented services with the use

of ICT.

The library is an important component of any educational institution or college or university,

which is the hub of the teaching, learning and research activities where students, researcher, and

teachers can explore the vast resources of information. In the traditional libraries, users have to

spend more time searching a small piece of information and for that have to depend mainly on the

LIS professional or library staff. But in the age of information communication technology,

Internet and computers are being used for day-to-day housekeeping activity of the library which

saves the time of the end users, and LIS professional also and at the same time avoid duplication

of work and make the library service smooth and effective.

The availability of the right information at the right time and in the right form is of utmost

importance to users for their knowledge and developmental activities. Developments in

information and communication technology-ICT have greatly changed the methods of information

handling. ICT may be any combination of tools and procedures that facilitate the generation,

acquisition, storage, organization, retrieval, searching, viewing, updating and transmission of

information using electronic means. The tools used in ICT include computer programs, databases,

communication networks, analysis and design methods, programming languages, artificial

intelligence, knowledge bases, etc. ICT has long-standing influence in almost all areas of human

activity. Over the past two decades, libraries have become increasingly aware of the revolutionary

impact of developments in information and communication technology on their key functions. The

application of ICT facilitates easy and instantaneous access to information. It provides

opportunities for libraries and information centers to widen the scope of their resources and

services and to increase their significance within the organization they serve. The increasing

availability of information in machine-readable form allows much information needs to be

satisfied with the decreased involvement of library and librarians.

Adapted from:

K.m, P. (2018). Use of ict resources and services at state university libraries in Gujarat a study. Retrieved

from: http://hdl.handle.net/10603/247168

Vocabulary:

ICT: Information and communication technology

Institution: an organization founded for a religious, educational, professional, or social purpose.

LIS: Library and information science

Digital libraries: s a collection of documents in organized electronic form, available on the Internet or on

CD-ROM (compact-disk read-only memory) disks

Hybrid library: A library which is partly electronic and partly physical. It has a physical space with both

the physical and electronic resources

Cybrarian: a compound of cyber and librarian) is a library and information science professional that

specializes in using the Internet as a resource tool.

Information: knowledge obtained from investigation, study, or instruction, knowledge obtained from

investigation, study, or instruction

Data: facts and statistics collected together for reference or analysis

Database: a structured set of data held in a computer, especially one that is accessible in various ways.

Artificial intelligence (AI): refers to the simulation of human intelligence in machines that are

programmed to think like humans and mimic their actions. The term may also be applied to any machine

that exhibits traits associated with a human mind such as learning and problem-solving.

PART2- SELF ASSESSMENT

Fill in the blanks:

In general sense library allows students and users to……………………..to world-class

information resources, it is important and ……………………..in effecting education landscape,

electronic technology has…………………….the shape of library and information science from

traditional library into …………………….. and library service through ICT

becomes………………...and easy to control as well as it gives information centers to easily find

……………………and…………………..at the right time and in the right form.

Département de Bibliothéconomie et science documentaire

Master 1 -Administration des organismes documentaire et bibliothèque

-Gestion et traitement d l’information

-Archivistique Module, Langue Anglaise

Enseignant : Benlefki Elhachemi

MISSING WORDS LANGUAGE OF LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE

Complete the passage below, choosing your words from the box

1-……………………..: A society in which the central instrument of change, force and direction is

information and knowledge.

2-………………: It is any document written by hand, as opposed to being printed or reproduced in

some other way.

3- …………………….: It is a register of all bibliographic items found in a library or group of libraries,

such as a network of libraries at several locations.

4- …………………..: It is the practice of providing unrestricted access via the Internet to peer-

reviewed scholarly research.

5- …………………….: They are publications which are issued at regular intervals, such as journals,

magazines, and newspapers.

6-…………………….: Usually come at the end of a text (essay or research report) and should contain

only those works cited within the text.

7- ……………………: Means the disclosure of knowledge by any appropriate means (e.g. publications,

conferences, workshops, web-based activities).

8-…………………….: It is classroom-based, provided by trained teachers. Informal education happens

outside the classroom, in after-school programs, community-based organizations, museums, libraries, or

at home.

9- ……………………….: It is defined as the study of complementary networks of hardware and

software that people and organizations use to collect, filter, and process, create, and distribute data.

10-…………………: It is a form of protection given to the authors or creators of “original works of

authorship,” including literary, dramatic, musical, artistic and other intellectual works.

11-……………..…: Document that memorializes and provides objective evidence of activities

performed, events occurred, results achieved, or statements made.

Library Catalogue Open Access (OA) Copyright

Periodicals Reference Record

Dissemination Manuscripts Bibliography

Information systems (IS) Formal Education Documentation

Academic Library Public Library Author:

Technology Information society Metadata:

Digitization Librarianship:

12- ………………….: It is a body of knowledge used to create tools, develop skills, and extract or

collect materials.

13-…………………..: It is a library that is accessible by the general public and is generally funded

from public sources (such as taxes) and operated by civil servants.

14- ……………………..: It is a library attached to an academic institution i.e. an institution engaged in

teaching and or research and imparting formal education to students who aspire to complete a particular

course under a prescribed syllabus.

15-…………………..: Manuals, instructions, tutorials, procedures, specifications, etc., that accompany

a piece of equipment or software, and provide guidance for its proper use and maintenance.

16-……………..…: A list of books, articles, and other sources you use when researching a topic and

writing a paper.

17- ……………………: A representation of an object, image, sound, document or a signal (usually an

analog signal) by a discrete set of its points or samples.

18- …………………It is the data which describes the content and attributes of any particular item in a

digital library.

19- ………………… Broadly it defined as “the person who originated or gave existence to anything”

and whose authorship determines responsibility for what was created.

20- ……………………A profession concerned with acquiring and organizing collections of books and

related materials in libraries and servicing readers and others with these resources.

Summary of English language lessons By Yassine Forever

Modals

These modals express:

- 𝑀𝑢𝑠𝑡 ⟼ Strong obligation

- 𝑀𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑛’𝑡 ⟼ Prohibition “forbidden”

- 𝐻𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 ⟼ Necessity

- 𝑑𝑜𝑛′ 𝑡 𝑕𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜

𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑛′𝑡𝑑𝑜𝑛′ 𝑡 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜

⟼ Lack (absence) of obligation

- 𝐻𝑎𝑑 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝑠𝑕𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑔𝑕𝑡 𝑡𝑜

⟼ Advice

- 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡

⟼ Remote possibility (15%)

- 𝑚𝑎𝑦𝑐𝑎𝑛

⟼ Possibility (50%)

- 𝐼𝑡′ 𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑦 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡

𝐼𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑦 ⟼ Probability (80%)

- 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑦 ⟼ Certainty (100%)

The “ing” form:

As a past of verb called participle.

Examples: I’m waiting, I’m playing.

As a noun or gerund.

Example: The eating of GMF’s might harmful.

As an adjective.

Example: This book is more interesting than that one.

Stative (state) & action verb

A state verb: is a verb which describes a states (has not a well defined beginning & the end)

Examples: like, agree, believe, dislike, deserve, love, enjoy, prefer, hate, dread, and mind.

A state verb is usually use in the present form

A state verb can’t be progressive (Continuous form (“ing” form)).

An action verb: is a verb which describes an action or an event (has a specific beginning & the end).

Examples: go, stop, come, start, achieve, write, win, Describe, Search, and Replace.

An action verb can be used in simple and continuous form (“ing” form) (progressive)

Prefix & suffix

Prefix: it comes before the word and changes its meaning.

- Opposites

Agree ⟼ disagree Moral ⟼ immoral Legal ⟼ illegal Fair ⟼ unfair Direct ⟼ indirect Responsible ⟼irresponsible

Suffix: it comes after the word and changes its form to an adjective, an adverb, a noun, a verb.

Example:

- The suffix “ty” is added to an adjective to form a noun.

Stupid ⟼ Stupidity

- The suffix “y” is added to a noun to form an adjective.

Spice ⟼ Spicy

Conditionals

We have four types of conditionals:

Type zero: T0

If + Verb in present simple, Verb in present simple.

Eg: If you heat water, it boils.

T0 is used to describe a general or scientific truth.

Type one: T1

If + Verb in present simple, verb in future (will + stem)

Eg: If she works hard, she will go to university.

The situation in T1 is possible to happen.

Type two: T2

If + Verb in past simple, would + stem

Eg: If I were you, I would buy a car.

The situation in T2 is impossible to happen (an imaginary situation).

Grammar and Phonetics Focus

Summary of English language lessons By Yassine Forever

Type three: T3

If + Verb in past perfect, would have + past participle

Eg: If I had read the question well, I would have taken the best mark.

The situation in T3 is a regret about an event that had happened in the past

Quantifiers

- 𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑦𝑓𝑒𝑤

for countable nouns.

- 𝑚𝑢𝑐𝑕𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒

for uncountable nouns.

- 𝑎 𝑙𝑜𝑡 𝑜𝑓𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒

for countable & uncountable nouns(both).

𝑠𝑢𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒

= 𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑔𝑕 (It’s the right quantity).

𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑕 (It isn’t the right quantity).

The excessive and the insufficient of something:

An excessive amount: 𝑡𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑢𝑐𝑕 ⟼ 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑦 ⟼ 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑠

An insufficient amount: 𝑡𝑜𝑜 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒 ⟼ 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑒𝑤 ⟼ 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑠

Used for & Used to

𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟

are verbs used to describe purpose and function

of objects

Used to + stem (a verb without “to”)

Eg: It’s used to cut wood.

Used for + verb+ing (gerund) Eg: It’s used for cutting wood.

How …?

How: is a word question used for ask about dimension and size of objects.

- How tall…? - How long…? - How high…? - How far…? - How fast…? - How deep…? - How wide…? - How much…?

⟼ ⟼ ⟼ ⟼ ⟼ ⟼ ⟼ ⟼

Height Height Height Distance Speed Depth Width Weight

Content & structure (function) words

Sentences contain two kind of word:

Content words: are necessary and contain the meaning.

- Main verb (play, go, work…). - Nouns.

- Adjectives (serious, nice…). - Adverbs (carefully, quickly…). - Demonstratives pronouns (this, that…). - Negative auxiliaries (wasn’t, couldn’t…). - Yes, No (auxiliary) questions. - Wh questions.

Structure (function) words: they make the sentences correct grammatically.

- Pronouns (I, he, they…). - Prepositions (on, the, at, to, under…). - Articles (a, an, the).

- Conjunctions (but, and, because…). - Auxiliary verbs (is, are, do, have, can…).

Note: Content words are stressed.

Structure words are not stressed.

Comparatives & superlatives

Comparatives

We must have two elements to compare.

- Superiority

Short adjectives: adjectives of one syllable

Adj + er + than (Eg: she is taller than me.)

Long adjectives: adjectives of two or more syllables

More + adj + than (Eg: meat is more expensive than chicken.)

- Equality

As + adj + as (she is as intelligent as her brother.)

- Inferiority:

Less + adj + than (he is less intelligent than me.)

Not as + adj + as (our garden is not as large as yours).

Not so + adj + as

not enough

Summary of English language lessons By Yassine Forever

Superlatives:

We compare one element to a group or a whole.

- Superiority:

Short adjectives: adjectives of one syllable

The + Adj + est. (Eg: Uranus is the biggest planet in the solar system.)

Long adjectives: adjectives of two or more syllables

The most + adj. (Eg: English is the most important language in the world.)

- Inferiority:

The least + adj. (Eg: the cat is the least dangerous animal.)

Adjectives Well/good Bad Far Many Much Little

⟼ ⟼ ⟼ ⟼ ⟼ ⟼ ⟼

Comparatives Better Worse Farther More More Less

⟼ ⟼ ⟼ ⟼ ⟼ ⟼ ⟼

Superlatives The best The worst The farthest The most The most The least

Similarity & difference

Expressing Similarity:

We use these expressions: like, the same as, such as, both, similar to, too.

Examples:

- She is intelligent like her brother. - Both she and her brother are intelligent. - She is intelligent the same as (such as) her brother. - She is similar to her brother, they are intelligent. - She is intelligent, her brother too.

Expressing difference:

We use these expressions: unlike, whereas, while, but, different from, in contrast to.

Examples:

- Unlike Algeria, U.S.A is a developed country. - Algeria is different from U.S.A. - U.S.A is a developed country but (while, whereas)

Algeria is not. - U.S.A is a developed country in contrast to Algeria.

Unless

Unless: expresses warning.

Unless = If … not

Unless + an affirmative verb

Unless + verb present, Future (will + stem).

(Will not = won’t)

Example: Unless you revise your lessons, you won’t pass

your exam.

The real meaning: If you don’t revise your lessons, you

won’t pass your exam.

Articles

Indefinite articles:

a: is used before consonants (sound).

an: is used before vowels (sound).

- We use it before countable nouns that are unknown:

Eg: a table, a car, a house.

- We use it before names of profession (jobs).

Eg: a doctor, a painter.

- We use it before measurement.

Eg: a liter, an hour.

Definite articles: (the)

- We use it before adjectives to specify the category of people.

Eg: the homeless, the poor, the jobless, the rich.

- We use it before an object that is the only one.

Eg: the moon, the earth, the pyramids.

- When we talk about institutions.

Eg: the radio, the bank, the television.

- When we refer to a class of animals.

Eg: the tiger is a dangerous animal.

Summary of English language lessons By Yassine Forever

Zero articles: (∅) no article is used.

- Before uncountable nouns. (money, oil …)

- Before abstract nouns. (Peace, happiness…) - Before names of people & places. - Before plural nouns.

Purpose (goal)

Expressing purpose:

We can express purpose using a number of conjunctional phrases: to, so as to, in order to, so that, in order that.

- Subject + verb + 𝑡𝑜

𝑠𝑜 𝑎𝑠 𝑡𝑜𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜

+ stem.

Examples:

John went to the station to meet his parents.

I study in order to succeed.

There are also negative forms:

- Subject + verb + 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑡𝑜

𝑠𝑜 𝑎𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑡𝑜𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑡𝑜

+ stem.

Examples:

The soldiers moved at night, so as not to alarm the villagers.

- 𝑠𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡

𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 + Subject + verb (model).

Example:

I leave the window open so that the cat can get out.

Note:

- The Present purpose: we use these models

𝑠𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡

𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 + Subject +

𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑦

+ stem.

- The past purpose:

𝑠𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡

+ Subject + 𝑤𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡

+ stem.

Example:

We took an umbrella so that we wouldn’t get wet.

Concession

Expressing concession:

We can express concession using a number of conjunctional phrases: although, even though, though, despite, in spite of.

- 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑕𝑜𝑢𝑔𝑕

𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑜𝑢𝑔𝑕

𝑡𝑕𝑜𝑢𝑔𝑕

+ Subject + verb …

Examples: Although it rained a lot, we enjoyed our holiday.

- 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓

𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑒 + A Noun phrase or a Gerund.

Examples:

In spite of being ill, she went to school.

Despite her illness, she went to school.

Note:

𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡

𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 + Subject + verb…

Examples: we enjoyed our holiday despite the fact that it rained a lot.

Formation of plural

- The plural of the most nouns is formed by ending “s”

Boy Girl Book

⟼ ⟼ ⟼

Boys Girls books

- Nouns ending in “s, ch, sh, x, z” we add “es”

Brush Kiss Match

⟼ ⟼ ⟼

brushes kisses matches

- Most nouns ending in “o” also form their plural by adding “es” to the singular.

Hero Potato Volcano

⟼ ⟼ ⟼

heroes potatoes volcanoes

- Note that a few nouns ending in “o” merely add “s”.

Dynamo Piano Photo Logo Kilo

⟼ ⟼ ⟼ ⟼ ⟼

dynamos pianos photos logos kilos

Summary of English language lessons By Yassine Forever

- Nouns ending in a consonant “y”:

Before “y” a consonant, we change “y” into “ies”

Lady City

⟼ ⟼

ladies cities

Before “y” a vowel, we add “s”

boy ⟼ boys - Nouns ending in “f” or “fe”, we form their plural by

changing “f” or “fe” into “ves”.

Wife Leaf Half

⟼ ⟼ ⟼

wives leaves halves

Except some nouns like:

Chief Gulf Safe Proof

⟼ ⟼ ⟼ ⟼

Chiefs Gulfs Safes Proofs

Invariable nouns ending in “s” or “es”:

News, Series, species, Billiards, Dominoes

Some nouns form their plural by mutation:

Foot Tooth Goose Man Ox Child

⟼ ⟼ ⟼ ⟼ ⟼ ⟼

feet teeth geese men oxen children

Silent letter

A silent letter is a letter which is written and not pronounced.

- k before n at the beginning. - p before s at the beginning. - b before t at the end. - b after m at the end. - l before d - l before f - l before k - s before l - w before r at the beginning - t in the middle of some words - d in the middle of some words - g before n at the end - n after m at the end - h at the beginning - gh - r before consonant - h before the sounds 𝑘;𝑑 ; 𝑡

⟼ ⟼ ⟼ ⟼ ⟼ ⟼ ⟼ ⟼ ⟼ ⟼ ⟼ ⟼ ⟼ ⟼ ⟼ ⟼ ⟼

Knife Psychology Dept Lamb Should Half Walk Island Write Castle Wednesday Foreign Autumn Honest High Bird Ask him

Word formation

We can form verbs by adding the suffix “en” to some

adjectives.

- Wide + en ⟼ widen.

- Bright + en ⟼ brighten.

- Short + en ⟼ shorten.

The prefix “self” is added to some adjectives

Self refer to:

𝒎𝒚𝒔𝒆𝒍𝒇𝒚𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔𝒆𝒍𝒇

𝒉𝒊𝒎𝒔𝒆𝒍𝒇

𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒆𝒍𝒇𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔𝒆𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒔𝒚𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔𝒆𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒔

𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒔𝒆𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒔

Example: He is a self-educated person.

He is educated himself.

Expressing like & dislike:

-

𝑒𝑛𝑗𝑜𝑦

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒𝑑𝑜𝑛′ 𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑑

𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑

+ Gerund (verb + “ing”).

-

𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑕𝑎𝑡𝑒

𝑐𝑎𝑛′ 𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒

+ Gerund or to + stem (infinitive).

- It is better + to + stem.

- Would rather + stem (a verb without “to”).

Each other & one another

Compound pronoun, they express reciprocity.

Each other: is used to refer to two persons only.

Eg: Women kiss each other.

One another: is used to refer to more than two (a group)

Eg: players hug one another when they score.

Type of questions

We have two types of questions:

- Reference question: is a direct question. - Inference question: is a indirect question, you

have to read between the lines to find the answer.

Students join

Summary of English language lessons By Yassine Forever

Stress

Definition:

Stress is an extra force used when pronouncing a particular word or syllable.

- A prefix is not stressed - A suffix in not stressed - ə schwa is never stressed

a. A word of one syllable has stress on the first letter.

Eg: hot, teach, got, take.

b. A word of two syllables: - A noun has stress on the 1𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑦𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒.

Eg: teacher, actor, English.

- An adjective has stress on the 1𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑦𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒.

Eg: happy, sunny, stupid.

- A adverb has stress on the 1𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑦𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒.

Eg: under, over, always, never, after.

- A verb has stress on the 2nd syllable.

Eg: correct, present.

c. Most word of three syllables words: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs are stressed on 1st syllable.

Eg: difficult, consider, photograph.

But: remember, together, advisor.

- Nouns ending by “ion” are stressed on the syllable

before the last.

Eg: addition, solution.

d. Words ending in “ic” are stressed on the 2nd syllable from the end.

Eg: graphic, sympathetic.

e. Word ending in “

𝑐𝑦

𝑡𝑕𝑦𝑡𝑦

𝑝𝑕𝑦𝑔𝑦𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑡

” are all stressed on the 3rd

syllable from the end.

Eg: competence, identical, democracy.

f. Word with prefix “

𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑠

” are stressed on the root.

Eg: impossible, disagree, mislead, irregular, illegal.

g. Word with suffixes like: ee, eer, ese are stressed on the suffix itself.

Eg: trainee, engineer, Japanese.

h. Word with the following suffixes are stressed on the syllable before them. - Ish - Ity - Aty

- Ive - Ia - Ial

- Ian - Ient - Ious

Eg: university, society, expensive.

Summary of English language lessons By Yassine Forever

Phonetics

The final “s”:

The final “s” is pronounced in different ways,

according the “Sound” before:

- “s” is pronounced 𝑠 after: 𝑝; 𝑡; 𝑘;𝑓; 𝜃 - “s” is pronounced 𝑖𝑧 after: 𝑠; 𝑧; ; 𝑡 ; 𝐷𝜁 - “s” is pronounced 𝑧 after:

Vowels: goes. Nasals sounds: cleans. Voiced sounds: drives.

The final “ed”:

The final “ed” is pronounced in different ways,

according the “Sound” before:

- “s” is pronounced 𝑡 after: 𝑝; 𝑘; 𝑓;𝜃; ; 𝑡 ; 𝑠 - “s” is pronounced 𝑖𝑑 after: 𝑡; 𝑑 - “s” is pronounced 𝑑 after:

Vowels: prayed. Nasals sounds: cleaned. Voiced sounds: traveled.

Active & Passive Voice

Use of Passive:

- Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not important or not known, however, who or what is performing the action.

- Sometimes a statement in passive is more polite than active voice

Form of Passive:

Subject (the Object in active) + finite form of to be + Past Participle (3rd column of irregular verbs) + Object (the Subject in active).

When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following:

the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence

the finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past participle)

the subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive sentence (or is dropped)

Examples:

Simple Present: Rita writes a letter.

- A letter is written by Rita.

Simple Past: Rita wrote a letter.

- A letter was written by Rita.

Present Perfect: Rita has written a letter.

- A letter has been written by Rita.

Future simple: Rita will write a letter.

- A letter will be written by Rita.

Modals: Rita can write a letter.

- A letter can be written by Rita.

Present Progressive (Continuous): Rita is writing a letter.

- A letter is being written by Rita.

Past Progressive (Continuous): Rita was writing a letter.

- A letter was being written by Rita.

Past Perfect: Rita had written a letter.

- A letter had been written by Rita.

Future perfect: Rita will have written a letter.

- A letter will have been written by Rita.

Conditional simple: Rita would write a letter.

- A letter would be written by Rita.

Conditional perfect: Rita would have written a letter.

- A letter would have been written by Rita.

Pronouns - I - She - He - It - You - We - They

- Me - Her - His - It - You - Us - Them

Summary of English language lessons By Yassine Forever

How to ask a question

“Wh” question:

Wh + Auxiliary + Subject + Verb?

If the auxiliary exist we don’t change the tense of

the verb. If the auxiliary doesn’t exist we use the infinitive of

the verb.

Example:

The lion eats the meats. (Subject, verb, object)

- What eats the meats? (subject) (we replace the subject by “Wh”)

- What does the lion do? (verb) - What does the lion eat? (Object)

WH Question Words:

- Who: subject person. a) His mother prepares the lunch. b) Who prepares the lunch?

- What: Subject (thing / animal)

𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑏 𝑂𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 (thing / animal)

a) The lion eats the meats. b) What does the lion eat?

- Whom: Object person. a) She phoned to her friend. b) Whom did she phone to?

- When: Time (Last, next, yesterday, tomorrow). a) She will have an exam next week. b) When will she have an exam?

- Where: Place. a) She is leaving to Paris. b) Where is she leaving?

- Why: Cause (reason). a) They move to new house because the first one is too

old. b) Why do they move to new house?

- What … for: purpose, goal (to, in order to, so as to). a) They are working hard to succeed b) What are they working hard for?

- Whose: possession

Whose + noun + aux + subject + verb?

a) The pen is mine. b) Whose pen is it?

- Which: choice

Which + noun + aux + subject + verb?

a) They took the blue Jacket. b) Which jacket did they take?

- How: manner a) She feels better now. b) How does she feel now?

How often: (Always, Usually, Often,

Sometimes, Never). a) He sometimes visits his friend. b) How often does he visit his friend?

How long: period of time (duration).

a) The exam lasted two hours. b) How long did the exam last?

How many: countable nouns (numbers).

a) Three pupils got a good mark. b) How many pupils got a good mark?

a) They will visit four towns in the country. b) How many towns will they visit?

How much: uncountable nouns (quantity).

a) He put some sugar in the cup. b) How much sugar did he put in the cup?

Mr.Benlefki Elhachemi