Introduction to Security and Impact of Crime

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Introduction to Security and

Impact of Crime



References• 2007 CSI/FBI Computer Crime and Security Survey,

http://www.gocsi.com/forms/csi_survey.jhtml• Joris Evers, Computer crime costs $67 billion, FBI says, CNET News 19 January

2006, http://news.com.com/ Computer+crime+costs+67.2+billion,+FBI+says/2100-7349_3-6028946.html

• Center for Problem-Oriented Policing, A Theory of Crime Problems,http://www.popcenter.org/learning/ pam/help/theory.cfm

• The Home Office Policing and Reducing Crime Unit Research, Development andStatistics Directorate 1998, The Routine Activity Approach, http://www.

rouncefield.homestead.com/files/a_soc_dev_22.htm• Tom O Connor, Cybercrime: The Internet As Crime Scene, http://faculty.ncwc.edu/toconnor/315/315lecr12.htm

• Tom O Connor, Crime Theories,http://faculty.ncwc.edu/toconnor/111/111lect03.htm

• H.J. Eysenck, Chapter 10:Personality Theory and the Problem of Criminality,Muncie, John, Criminological Perspectives Essential Readings (Second Edition),Pages 52-56, 90-105, http://site.ebrary.com/lib/mmulibrary/Doc?id=10080914

• Ronald Clarke, The Theory of Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design,http://www.e-doca.net/Resources/Articles/Clarke_the_theory_of_crime_prevention_through_environmental_design.pdf

• US. Geological Survey Manual, Physical Security Handbook, http://www.usgs.gov/usgs-manual/handbook/hb/440-2-h/440-2-h.html



Definition of Crime

• Generally, a crime is an act that violates apolitical or moral law of any one person or social grouping.

• Specifically, a crime is a violation of criminal law (criminal standards of badbehaviour).

Source: Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime)



Categories of Crime Addressed by

Physical Security

• Malicious Destruction of Property. – Arson (Targeting a property for damage or fire). – Breaking and entering (Forced entry and destruction of

property). – Vandalism (Defacement of a structure or system).

• Causing Harm to Individuals. – Assault & Battery. – Rape. – Stalking. –

Kidnapping. – Homicide / Manslaughter / Murder (Tampering with life-sustaining equipment).

• Espionage/ Sabotage (Stealing secrets or destroyingcompetitors’ records).

Source: Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime



Categories of Crime Addressed by

Physical Security

• Theft. – Burglary / Looting (Break-ins to steal property). – "Carjacking" (Vehicle Theft). – Larceny / Theft / Robbery / Embezzlement (Theft of

property).• Fraud (Deception made for personal gain).

– Counterfeiting. – Identity theft.

– Forgery (Issuing false documents or information througha computer).• Criminal Threatening / Blackmail / Extortion (Threatening to

damage a person/property to obtain something).• Trespass (Unauthorized presence on someone’s property).

Source: Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime



Cost of Crime

• The average annual loss reported in 2007shot up to $350,424 from $168,000 theprevious year amounting to a total loss of

$66,930,950 of the 280 respondentssurveyed.

• Not since the 2004 report have average

losses been this high.

– Source: CSI 2007 Computer Crime and Security Survey, Computer Security Institute



Cost of Crime



Crime & Personality

• According to H.J. Eysenck (Criminological PerspectivesEssential Readings), studies show that different criminalactivities are related to different personality types.

• Male and female criminals appear to have similar

personality patterns.• These personality traits can generally be classified into 3

categories:

– P (Psychoticism).

– E (Extraversion). – N (Neuroticism).

• Older criminals have a higher range of P & N traits whileyounger criminals have a higher rate of P & E traits.



Traits Characterizing the

Psychoticism factor

Source: Adapted from Muncie, John, Criminological Perspectives Essential Readings (Second Edition), Page 94



Definitions(Adapted from Source: The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition, Houghton Mifflin

Company )

• Aggressive – Inclined to behave in an actively hostile

fashion.

• Cold – Not affectionate or friendly; aloof.

• Egocentric – Selfish; holding the view that the ego is the

center, object, and norm of all experience.• Impersonal

– Showing no emotion or personality.



• Impulsive – Inclined to act on impulse rather than thought.

• Antisocial – Not sociable; Antagonistic toward or disrespectful of

others; rude• Unempathic – Does not identify with and understand with another's

situation, feelings, and motives

• Creative – Having the ability or power to create

• Tough-minded – Facing facts and difficulties with strength and

determination; realistic and resolute.


Company )




Extraversion Factor





Company )

• Sociable

– Fond of the company of others; pleasant; friendly

• Lively

– Full of life and energy; vigorous

• Active

– Energetic, dynamic, vigorous, lively

• Assertive – Inclined to bold or confident assertion; aggressively

self-assured




Company )

• Sensation-seeking – Always looking for excitement.

• Carefree – Free of worries and responsibilities.

• Dominant – Exercising the most influence or control.

• Surgent – Rising, swelling

• Venturesome – Disposed to venture or to take risks; daring; involving

risk or danger




Neuroticism Factor





Company )

• Anxious – Uneasy and apprehensive about an uncertain event

or matter; worried.

• Depressed – Low spirits; dejected.

• Guilt Feelings – Remorse caused by feeling responsible for some

offence.

• Low Self-Esteem – Low self-respect.




Company )

• Tense – In a state of mental or nervous tension.

• Irrational – Not rational; marked by a lack of accord with reason

or sound judgment.• Shy

– Easily startled; timid.

• Moody – Given to frequent changes of mood; temperamental.

• Emotional – Readily affected with or stirred by emotion



Theories of Crime

(Dr. Tom O'Connor)1. Biochemistry

• Causes of Crime: Heredity, vitamin deficiency, allergy, tumor, toxins,brain dysfunction, hormonal imbalance.

2. Psychology• Causes of Crime: low intelligence, psychopathy (personality disorders,

like the psychopaths, sociopaths, and antisocial personalities), stress.

3. Ecology

• Causes of Crime: Disorganized Neighborhoods (The study of relationships between an organism and its environment).

• This type of theory explains crime by the disorganized eco-areas wherepeople live rather than by the kind of people who live there.

4. Strain• Causes of Crime: Economic Goal Blockage. This type of theory sees

crime as the normal result of an "American dream" in which people settheir aspirations (for wealth, education, occupation, any status symbol)too high, and inevitably discover strain, or goal blockages, along theway.



Theories of Crime

(Dr. Tom O'Connor)1. Learning

• Causes of Crime: Imitation, “Peer Pressure” (Involves theanalysis of what is positively and negatively rewarding for individuals to imitate the group)

2. Control

• Causes of Crime: Socialization (based on relationships withauthority figures), low self-control.

3. Labeling• Causes of Crime: Negative labeling and “identity immersion”

(The social reaction of the individual who will eventually becomemore like the label because it becomes his/her identify)

4. Conflict• Causes of Crime: Competition, the study of power and

powerlessness (based on conflict between competing interestgroups)



Theories of Crime

(Dr. Tom O'Connor)

1. Radical• Causes of Crime: Class Struggle in a Capitalist Economy (criminalsare like rebels who try to make a statement against a society whichallows things to exist like millions of billionaires and millionaires whilethe vast majority of people live in poverty or just get by)

2. Left realism

• Causes of Crime: Predatory Relationships (focuses upon the reasonswhy people of the working class victimize other poor people of their own race and kind)

3. Peacemaking• Causes of Crime: Inner suffering and turmoil

4. Feminist

• Causes of Crime: Gender inequality, patriarchy (male domination)5. Postmodern

• Causes of Crime: Feelings of being disconnected from society anddehumanized



Opportunity Theory

• Criminal behavior is the result of the interactionbetween the person and the environment (criminalopportunity)

• Based on Ecology Theory

• 2 Opportunity Theories: – Routine Activity Theory

– Rational Choice Perspective

• Countermeasures: Crime Prevention Through

Environmental Design (CPTED) and Physical Security



Routine Activity Theory

(Cohen & Felson, 1979)

• Focuses on characteristics of Crime rather than thecharacteristics (personality of the offender)

• Routine Activity Theory: – States that criminal offenses are related to the nature of

everyday patterns of social interaction. – Explains how changes in the routine activities of society

affect the number of suitable “targets” for crime.

– States the for crime to happen, the following must be

present at the same place and same time:• A suitable target

• A potential offender

• The absence of an effective guardian




(Cohen & Felson, 1979)

• In the absence of effective controls, offenders will attack attractive“targets” (for property crimes, a “target” is a thing or object of value)

• Crime will occur where “handlers” (influential people in the lives of potential offenders) are absent, weak or corrupt.

• There is less opportunity for a target with an effective “guardian” (i.e.

police, security guards & others whose job is to protect people andproperty from crime) to be attacked than a target with an absent, weakor corrupt guardian.

• Guardians may use light to increase surveillance, engraving devices tomark property and other tools to reduce opportunities for crime.

• Place Managers (owners of a site/location and their agents i.e.

merchants, lifeguards, parking lot attendants, recreation and parkworkers, janitors, motel clerks, etc.) may use gates, fences, signs andother tools to control the behavior of offenders and potential victims




• Problems happen when offenders are at thesame places as targets without any effectivecontroller present.

Courtesy of PAM (Problem Oriented Policing) http://www.popcenter.org/learning/pam/images/triangle-complete2.gif




4 main elements which influence the target’srisk of attack by an offender (VIVA):• Value

– The worth of the target/property

• Inertia – The weight of the target/property

• V isibility – The chances of exposure of the target to potential

offenders (e.g. placement of valuable goods by the

window)• Access

– Location of target and ease of access to target bypotential offenders (e.g. street patterns, placement of goods near the door, etc.)



Rational Choice

Perspective/Theory• Concerned with:

– Understanding crime from the perspective of the offender. – the thinking process of offenders.

• What are they seeking?• How do they decide to commit a particular crime?• If prevented from committing them, what other crimes might they

choose to commit?

– How offenders evaluate criminal opportunities.• How do they weigh the risks & rewards involved in these crimes?• How do they set about committing them?

– Why offenders choose to obtain their ends by criminal andnot legal means.

Introduction to Security and Impact of Crime

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