Introduction to psychology Human Development

Introduction to Psychology: KCC

Chapter 3

Human Development


Chapter 3

Heredity and Genes

• Developmental Psychology: The study of progressive changes in behavior and abilities

• Heredity (Nature): Transmission of physical and psychological characteristics from parents to their children through genes

• Chromosomes

• DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid): Molecular structure, shaped like a double helix that contains coded genetic information

• Genes: Specific areas on a strand of DNA that carry hereditary information – Dominant: The gene’s feature will appear each time the gene is present

– Recessive: The gene’s feature will appear only if it is paired with another recessive gene


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Chapter 3 Figure 3.2

FIGURE 3.2 (Top left) Linked molecules (organic bases) make up the “rungs” on DNA’s twisted “molecular

ladder.” The order of these molecules serves as a code for genetic information. The code provides a

genetic blueprint that is unique for each individual (except identical twins). The drawing shows only a small

section of a DNA strand. An entire strand of DNA is composed of billions of smaller molecules. (Bottom left)

The nucleus of each cell in the body contains chromosomes made up of tightly wound coils of DNA. (Don’t

be misled by the drawing: Chromosomes are microscopic in size, and the chemical molecules that make up

DNA are even smaller.)



FIGURE 3.3 Gene patterns for children of brown-eyed parents, where each parent has one

brown-eye gene and one blue-eye gene. Because the brown-eye gene is dominant, one child in

four will be blue-eyed. Thus, there is a significant chance that two browneyed parents will

have a blue-eyed child.


Chapter 3

Temperament and Environment

• Temperament: The physical “core” of personality

– Easy Children: 40%; relaxed and agreeable

– Difficult Children: 10%; moody, intense, easily

angered

– Slow-to-Warm-Up Children: 15%; restrained,

unexpressive, shy

– Remaining Children: Do not fit into any specific

category


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Environment

• Environment (“Nurture”): All external conditions that

affect development

• Sensitive Periods: A period of increased sensitivity to

environmental influences; also, a time when certain

events must occur for normal development to take place

• Congenital Problem: A problem or defect that occurs

during prenatal development; “birth defect”; becomes

apparent at birth


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Environment (cont'd)

• Genetic Disorder: Problem caused by inherited characteristics

• Teratogens - Anything capable of causing birth defects (e.g., narcotics, radiation, cigarette smoke, lead, and cocaine)

• Deprivation: Lack of normal stimulation, nutrition, comfort, or love

• Enrichment: When an environment is deliberately made more complex and intellectually stimulating

• Enriched Environments: Environments deliberately made more novel, complex, and stimulating


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Newborns (Neonates) and Their Reflexes

• Grasping Reflex: If an object is placed in the infant’s palm, she’ll grasp it automatically (all reflexes are automatic responses; i.e., they come from nature, not nurture).

• Rooting Reflex: Lightly touch the infant’s cheek and he’ll turn toward the object and attempt to nurse; helps infant find bottle or breast.

• Sucking Reflex: Touch an object or nipple to the infant’s mouth and she’ll make rhythmic sucking movements.

• Moro Reflex: If a baby’s position is abruptly changed or if he is startled by a loud noise, he will make a hugging motion.


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Maturation

• Physical growth and development of the body, brain, and

nervous system

• Increased muscular control occurs in patterns

– Cephalocaudal: From head to toe

– Proximodistal: From center of the body to the

extremities


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Emotional and Social Development

Social Smile: Smiling elicited by social stimuli; not

exclusive to seeing parents

– Invites parents to care for them



FIGURE 3.9 Infants display many of the same emotional expressions as adults do. Carroll Izard

believes such expressions show that distinct emotions appear within the first months of life. Other

theorists argue that specific emotions come into focus more gradually, as an infant’s nervous

system matures. Either way, parents can expect to see a full range of basic emotions by the end of

a baby’s first year.



FIGURE 3.6 Motor development. Most infants follow an orderly pattern of motor development.

Although the order in which children progress is similar, there are large individual differences in

the ages at which each ability appears. The ages listed are averages for American children. It is

not unusual for many of the skills to appear 1 or 2 months earlier than average or several months

later (Frankenberg & Dodds, 1967; Harris & Liebert, 1991). Parents should not be alarmed if a

child’s behavior differs some from the average.


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Mary Ainsworth and Attachment • Emotional Attachment

• Sensitive Period

• Separation Anxiety: Crying and signs of fear when a child is left alone or is with a stranger; generally appears around 8-12 months

• Quality of Attachment (Ainsworth)

– Secure: Stable and positive emotional bond; upset by mother’s absence

– Insecure-Avoidant: Tendency to avoid reunion with parent or caregiver

– Insecure-Ambivalent: Desire to be with parent or caregiver and some resistance to being reunited with Mom

– Insecure-Disorganized: Contradictory behaviors

• Contact comfort



FIGURE 3.10 In the United States, about two thirds of all children from middle-class families are

securely attached. About one child in three is insecurely attached. (Percentages are

approximate. From Kaplan, 1998.)


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Parenting Styles (Baumrind, 1991)

• Authoritarian Parents: Enforce rigid rules and demand strict obedience to authority. Children are obedient and self-controlled.

• Overly Permissive: Give little guidance. Allow too much freedom, or don’t hold children accountable for their actions. Children tend to be dependent and immature and frequently misbehave.

• Authoritative: Provide firm and consistent guidance combined with love and affection. Children tend to be competent, self-controlled, independent, and assertive.

• Neglectful: Little guidance, excessive freedoms, limited to no accountability.


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Types of Child Discipline

• Power Assertion: Using physical punishment or a show

of force

• Withdrawal of Love: Withholding affection; refusing to

speak to a child or threatening to leave

• Management Techniques: Combine praise, recognition,

approval, rules, and reasoning to encourage desirable

behavior


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Language Acquisition

• Cooing: Repetition of vowel sounds by infants (like “oo”

and “ah”); starts at about 8 weeks

• Babbling: Repetition of meaningless language sounds

(e.g., babababa); starts at about 7 months

• Single-Word Stage: The child says one word at a time

• Telegraphic Speech: Two word sentences that

communicate a single idea (e.g., Want yogurt)


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Noam Chomsky and the Roots of Language

• Biological Disposition: Presumed readiness of ALL

humans to learn certain skills such as how to use

language

– Chomsky: Language patterns are inborn

• Parentese (Motherese): Pattern of speech used when

talking to infants

– Marked by raised voice; short, simple sentences and

repetition


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Jean Piaget and Cognitive Development

• Piaget believed that all children passed through a set series of stages during their intellectual development; like Freud, he was a Stage Theorist.

• Transformations/ Conservation: Mentally changing the shape or form of a substance; children younger than 6 or 7 cannot do this.

• Schemes

• Assimilation: Application of existing mental patterns to new situations.

• Accommodation: Existing ideas are changed to accommodate new information or experiences.


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Jean Piaget: Sensorimotor Stage

• Sensorimotor (0-2 Years): All sensory input and motor

responses are coordinated; most intellectual

development here is nonverbal.

– Object Permanence: Concept that objects still exist

when they are out of sight.


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Jean Piaget: Preoperational Stage

• Preoperational Stage (2-7 Years): Children begin to use

language and think symbolically, BUT their thinking is

still intuitive and egocentric.

– Intuitive: Makes little use of reasoning and logic.

– Egocentric Thought: Thought that is unable to

accommodate viewpoints of others.


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Jean Piaget: Concrete Operational Stage

• Concrete Operational Stage (7-11Years): Children become able to use concepts of time, space, volume, and number BUT in ways that remain simplified and concrete, not abstract.

– Conservation: Mass, weight, and volume remain unchanged when the shape or appearance of objects changes.

– Reversibility of Thought: Relationships involving equality or identity can be reversed.


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Jean Piaget: Formal Operations

• Formal Operations Stage (11 Years and Up): Thinking

now includes abstract, theoretical, and hypothetical

ideas.

– Abstract Ideas: Concepts and examples removed

from specific examples and concrete situations.

– Hypothetical Possibilities: Suppositions, guesses, or

projections.


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Lawrence Kohlberg and

Stages of Moral Development

• Moral Development: When we acquire values, beliefs,

and thinking abilities that guide responsible behavior

– Three Levels

– Preconventional: Moral thinking guided by

consequences of actions (punishment, reward,

exchange of favors)

– Conventional: Reasoning based on a desire to please

others or to follow accepted rules and values

– Postconventional: Follows self-accepted moral

principles

– Stage theorist, like Freud and Erikson


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Erik Erikson’s Eight Stages of Psychosocial

Dilemmas • Stage One: Trust versus Mistrust (Birth-1): Children are

completely dependent on others

– Trust: Established when babies given adequate

warmth, touching, love, and physical care

– Mistrust: Caused by inadequate or unpredictable care

and by cold, indifferent, and rejecting parents

• Stage Two: Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt (1-3)

– Autonomy: Doing things for themselves

– Overprotective or ridiculing parents may cause

children to doubt abilities and feel shameful about

their actions


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Erik Erikson’s Eight Stages of Psychosocial

Dilemmas (cont'd)

• Stage Three: Initiative versus Guilt (3-5)

– Initiative: Parents reinforce via giving children

freedom to play, use imagination, and ask questions

– Guilt: May occur if parents criticize, prevent play, or

discourage a child’s questions

• Stage Four: Industry versus Inferiority (6-12)

– Industry: Occurs when child is praised for productive

activities

– Inferiority: Occurs if child’s efforts are regarded as

messy or inadequate


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Erik Erikson’s Eight Stages of

Psychosocial Dilemmas (cont'd) • Stage Five (Adolescence): Identity versus Role

Confusion

– Identity: For adolescents; problems answering, “Who am I?”

– Role Confusion: Occurs when adolescents are unsure of where they are going and who they are

– How does adolescence differ from puberty?

• Stage Six (Young adulthood): Intimacy versus Isolation

– Intimacy: Ability to care about others and to share experiences with them

– Isolation: Feeling alone and uncared for in life


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Erik Erikson’s Eight Stages of

Psychosocial Dilemmas (cont'd)

• Stage Seven (Middle adulthood): Generativity versus

Stagnation

– Generativity: Interest in guiding the next generation

– Stagnation: When one is only concerned with one’s

own needs and comforts

• Stage Eight (Late adulthood): Integrity versus Despair

– Integrity: Self-respect; developed when people have

lived richly and responsibly

– Despair: Occurs when previous life events are viewed

with regret; experiences heartache and remorse


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Aging • Adolescence v. Puberty

– Primary Sex Characteristics

– Secondary Sex Characteristics

– Secular Trend

• Peak physical functioning

• Cognitive functioning – Fluid Intelligence

– Crystallized Intelligence

• Disengagement v. Activity Theories

• Elizabeth Kubler-Ross – Denial

– Anger

– Bargaining

– Depression

– Acceptance


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End of This Chapter

Introduction to psychology Human Development

Education

Transcript of Introduction to psychology Human Development