《an Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology》Winter,2001 (1).en.es
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Transcript of Introduction to Petrology
![Page 1: Introduction to Petrology](https://reader033.fdocuments.net/reader033/viewer/2022061108/544fbb52b1af9f32678b4653/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
INTRODUCTION TO PETROLOGY
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Petrology
• Petrology is the study of rocks
• Petrology deals with the origin,
occurrence, mineral composition,
chemical and physical properties of
rocks
• Rocks are natural massive aggregates of
minerals, forming the crust of the Earth
• Petrology is further sub-divided into
Petrography and Petrogeny 2
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Geological Classification of Rocks
• Igneous rocks
• Sedimentary rocks
• Metamorphic rocks
3
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4
The Rock Cycle
georneys.blogspot.com
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Texture & Structure
o Texture refers to the mutual relationship
of the different mineralogical constituents
in a rock
o Structure refers to the large scale features
or field characteristics of the rocks
Importance:
• contribute to the strength of the rock
• act as a distinguishing feature
• reveal the mode of origin of the rock 5
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(a) Igneous rocks
• They are formed due to the cooling of
magma/lava
• They are called primary rocks, as they
are the first formed rocks that made up
the primordial Earth’s crust
• The basic classification of igneous rocks
is into extrusive and intrusive igneous
rocks6
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Classification based on the depth of formation
o Volcanic rocks – formed on the surface of
the Earth
o Plutonic rocks – formed at considerable
depths
o Hypabyssal rocks – formed at
intermediate depths (<2km) 7
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Granite, Intrusive
en.wikipedia.org
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9en.wikipedia.org
Basalt, extrusive
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Average mineralogical composition of Igneous rocks
Sl No
Mineral (%)
i Feldspars 59.5ii Pyroxenes and
Amphiboles16.8
iii Quartz 12.0iv Biotite 3.8v Titanium 1.5vi Apatite 0.6vii Accessory minerals 5.8
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Factors defining textures of Igneous rocks
• Degree of Crystallization
1. Holocrystalline
2. Holohyaline
3. Merocrystalline
• Granularity
1. Coarse-grained
2. Medium-grained
3. Fine-grained11
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Types of Textures
1. Equigranular
2. Inequigranular
1. Porphyritic
2. Poiklitic
3. Directive
4. Intergrowth
5. Intergranular
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Equigranular texture -Granite
© Andrew Alden, 2007
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© Andrew Alden, 2006
Porphyritic texture - Andesite
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15© Andrew Alden, 2008
Poiklitic texture – feldspar
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Intergrowth in Lunar Granite
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Structures of Igneous rocks
• Structures due to mobility of
magma/lava
• Structures due to cooling of magma
• Miscellaneous structures
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Structures due to mobility of magma
1. Flow structures 2. Pillow
structures
3. Ropy and blocky lava 4. Spherulitic
structures
5. Orbicular structures
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Structures due to cooling of magma
1. Jointing structure
2. Rift and grain
3. Vesicular structure
4. Miarolitic structure
19
Miscellaneous structures
1. Reaction structure
2. Xenolithic structure
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Forms of Igneous rocks
Refers to the shape in which cooled
igneous masses occur in nature:
Form is decided by:
o Structural disposition of host rock
o Viscosity and composition of magma or
lava
Types:
o Concordant
o Discordant 20
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1. Concordant bodies
• Sills
• Phacoliths
• Lopoliths
• Laccoliths
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Sill
en.wikipedia.org
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23
Salisbury Crags, Edinburgh, Scotland, a sill exposed during the ice ages
en.wikipedia.org
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Phacolith
en.wikipedia.org
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Lopolith
en.wikipedia.org
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26en.wikipedia.org
Laccolith
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27en.wikipedia.org
Laccolith exposed by erosion of overlying strata in Montana
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2. Discordant bodies
• Dykes/dikes
• Volcanic necks
• Batholiths
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29en.wikipedia.org
Dike on the Baranof Cross-Island trail, Alaska
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31bio-geo-terms.blogspot.com
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Magmatic Intrusions
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(b) Sedimentary rocks
33
• They are formed by the accumulation,
compaction and consolidation of
sediments
• They are secondary rocks, derived from
the sediments produced by the
weathering of pre-existing rocks
• The accumulation and compaction of
these sediments usually take place in
the presence of water
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Environment of Formation
• Continental facies
• Transitional facies
• Marine facies
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Varying Mineralogical Composition
Factors influencing mineralogical
composition:
o Nature of gathering ground
o Duration of transport
o Mixing up of sediments
o Allogenic and authigenic minerals
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Textures of Sedimentary Rocks
Textures are determined by:
1. Origin of grains
o Clastic and non-clastic textures
2. Size of grains
o Coarse-grained - avg grain size
>5mm
o Medium-grained - avg grain size b/w 5
& 1mm
o Fine-grained - avg grain size <1mm
(contd.)
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3. Shapes of grains
o Rounded, sub-rounded, angular & sub-
angular
4. Packing of grains
o Open-packed (porous) and densely
packed
5. Fabric of grains
o Described in terms of orientation of
longer axes of grains
6. Crystallization trend
o Crystalline granular & amorphous
textures
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1. Mechanical structures
i. Stratification
ii. Lamination
iii. Cross bedding
iv. Graded bedding
v. Mud cracks
vi. Rain prints
vii.Ripple marks 39
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40
Stratification in the Grand Canyon
en.wikipedia.org
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41
Lamination in Travertine
en.wikipedia.org
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42
Cross-bedding in Sandstone
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http://www.earthsciences.hku.hk/shmuseum
Mud cracks
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Rain prints
http://www.earthsciences.hku.hk/shmuseum
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Ripple marks
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2. Chemical structures
46
1. Concretionary structures
2. Nodular structure
3. Geode structure
3. Organic structures
1. Fossiliferous structure
2. Stromatolic structure
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Concretionary structure
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48en.wikipedia.org
Geode structure
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Classification on the basis of mode of formation
49
o Clastic or Mechanically formed rocks
o Non-clastic rocks
o Chemically formed rocks
o Organically formed rocks
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1. Clastic rocks
Type Sub-division Size
GravelsBoulders > 256 mm
Cobbles 16-256 mm
Pebbles 2-16 mm
SandsCoarse sands 0.5-2 mm
Medium sands 0.25-0.5 mm
Fine sands 0.0625-0.25 mm
Silts 1/256 – 1/16 mm
Clay < 1/256 mm
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2. Non-clastic rocks
i. Chemically formed rocks
1. Siliceous deposits
2. Carbonate deposits
3. Ferruginous deposits
4. Phosphatic deposits
5. Evaporites
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ii. Organic deposits
1. Carbonate rocks
2. Carbonaceous rocks
3. Phosphatic deposits
4. Ferruginous deposits
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(c) Metamorphic rocks
53
• Metamorphism means change of form
• Metamorphism relates to the processes
responsible for the changes in a rock
under the influence of temperature,
pressure and chemically active fluids
• Metamorphic rocks are formed from pre-
existing rocks, under the influence of the
above factors
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54
Quartzite, Prospect Mountain, Wheeler Peak, Nevada, The U.S.A
en.wikipedia.org
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Terminology
• Ortho-metamorphic rocks - formed from
igneous rocks
• Para-metamorphic rocks – formed from
sedimentary rocks
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Metamorphic Agents
• Temperature
• Pressure
• Chemically active fluids
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1. Temperature
• Minerals are normally stable at
temperatures below 200° C
• Sources of heat for metamorphism:
– The internal heat
– The magmatic heat
• Metamorphic changes take place
between 300°C - 850°C
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2. Pressure
• Pressure causing metamorphism is of
two types:
– Uniform pressure (due to over-
burden), acts vertically downwards
– Directed pressure (from orogenic
activity), can act in any direction
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3. Chemically active fluids
• E.g.: water/steam, CO2, hydrofluoric acid
etc.
• These fluids act as carriers of chemical
components that drive the chemical
reactions with the minerals
• The pore fluids undergo expansion, with
rise in temperature
• Fluids present around rocks may react
with the minerals within them, at
elevated temperatures
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Types of Metamorphism
1. Thermal metamorphism
2. Dynamic metamorphism
3. Dynamo-thermal/Regional
metamorphism
4. Metasomatism
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(a) Thermal metamorphism
Refers to all metamorphic
processes in which heat plays a
predominant role.
o Contact metamorphism
o Pyro metamorphism
o Plutonic metamorphism
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(b) Dynamic metamorphism
o Pressure/stress plays the predominant
role
o Also known as cataclastic, mechanical or
dislocation metamorphism
o Stress is more effective at higher levels
of the crust, where rocks are rigid and
brittle
o Pressure causes movement of and
interaction between rocks, resulting in
their mechanical breakdown – cataclasis
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(c) Dynamo-thermal metamorphism
• Also known as Regional Metamorphism
• It refers to metamorphism under the
combined action of all the three agents
• Most prevalent of all metamorphic
processes
• Such conditions were available during
the mountain building activity, in the
history of the earth63
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(d) Metasomatism
Refers to the formation of new
minerals by the chemical replacement of
the existing ones, under the influence of
chemically active fluids
The chemically active fluid may be
provided:
o from within the rock (mineral
metasomatism)
o from outside the rock (rock
metasomatism)
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Types of Metasomatism
• Hydrothermal
• Pneumatolytic
• Additive
• Expulsive
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Effects of Metamorphism
• Recrystallization
• Rock flowage
• Granulation
• Metasomatic replacement
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Examples of Metamorphic changes
• Igneous rocks
Granites undergo dynamic
metamorphism, to form crush breccia
• Sedimentary rocks
Pure limestone, re-crystallizes
under conditions of contact
metamorphism, to marble67
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Metamorphic Grades
• Represents the extent to which an
original rock has been changed by
metamorphism.
• The grades are indicated by the
presence of a set of index minerals
• Low grade
• Medium grade
• High grade
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Metamorphic zones
Indicate the depth wise extension of
particular grades of metamorphism:
1. The Epizone (temperature < 300° C)
2. The Mesozone (temperature b/w 300° -
500° C)
3. The Ketazone
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Mineralogical composition of Metamorphic rocks
Depends upon:
o The composition of the parent rock
o Type and degree of metamorphism
Types of minerals formed:
o Stress minerals
o Anti-stress minerals
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Textures of Metamorphic rocks
• Crystalloblastic texture
• Palimpsest texture
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Structures of Metamorphic rocks
1. Cataclastic structure
2. Schistose structure
3. Gneissose structure
4. Maculose structure
5. Granulose structure
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A. Schistose structure
B. Granulose structure
C. Gneissose structure
A. Cataclastic
structure
B. Maculose
structure
C. Palimpsest
structure
Structures of Metamorphic rocks
© George Walter Tyrrell
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Large scale structural features
• Rock cleavage
– Flow cleavage
– Fracture cleavage
• Schistosity
• Foliation
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Gneiss, a foliated metamorphic rock
en.wikipedia.org
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Classification of Metamorphic rocks
• Foliated rocks – rocks that show
parallelism in their mineralogical and
structural constitution e.g. slates,
phyllites
• Non-foliated rocks – characterized by the
absence of foliation
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Reference
• Parbin Singh, Engineering and General
Geology, S K Kataria & Sons
• Chenna Kesavulu, N, Textbook of Engineering
Geology, MacMillan India
• Reddy, D V, Engineering Geology, Vikas
Publishing House
• Garg, S K, Physical and Engineering Geology,
Khanna Publishers
• Thompson, G R and J Turk, Introduction to
Physical Geology, Thomson Brooks/Cole 77