Introduction to Optical & Thermal

Remote Sensing

Dr. Gülşen Taşkın Kaya gulsen.taskin at gmail.com

ITU Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Disaster Management

June, 2014

Outline

•  Electromagnetic Wave (EMR)

•  Solar Irradiance

•  Atmospheric Interactions

•  Interaction with Surface

•  Remote Sensing Platforms and Sensors

•  Thermal Remote Sensing

Remote Sensing

“The science of remote sensing consists of the analysis

and interpretation of measurements of electromagnetic

radiation (EMR) that is reflected from or emitted by a

target and observed or recorded from a vantage point by

an observer or instrument that is not in contact with the

target.”

[Mather, P.M and Koch, M., “Computer Processing of Remotely-Sensed Images: An Introduction”, Wiley-Blackwell, Fourth

Edition, 2011]

Remote Sensing Components

Chapter 1

Electromagnetic wave (EMR)

Electromagnetic Radiation •  Quite complex to define => out of scope.

•  The EM radiation is considered to be constituted of particles

called photons.

•  photons, like EM radiation, travels through space in the form of

periodic disturbances of electric and magnetic fields that

•  simultaneously oscillate in planes mutually perpendicular to each other

•  to the direction of propagation through space at the speed of light (c =

2.99792458 × 108 m/s)

•  The EMR transmits energy.

•  The disposition of the two fields

is described by the polarization state

of the EMR (either horizontal or vertical).

The EMR Terminology Wavelength

the spatial period of the wave-the distance over

which the wave's shape repeats.

Frequency

Frequency is the number of occurrences of a

repeating event per unit time.

Amplitude

a measure of its change over a single period

(such as time or spatial period)

Phase

denotes the particular point in the cycle of a

waveform, measured as an angle in degrees.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

400400 nm 700 nm500 nm 600 nm

700500 600

wavelength in nanometers

Visible

Reflected IR Thermal IR

1 nm = 10−9

1 µm = 10−6

RS Spectral Regions

Optic Remote Sensing (RS)

•  Ultraviolet (UV)

•  Visible

•  Infrared (IR)

•  Microwave Remote Sensing

•  Microwave

Visible Light

•  Composed of colors (different wavelengths)

•  These familiar colors range from violet (shortest wavelength) through indigo, blue,

green, yellow, orange and red (ROYGBIV).

•  The visible spectrum is also viewed as being composed of three equal-wavelength

segments that represent the additive primary colors;

•  Blue (400 to 500 nonometers)

•  Green (500 to 600 micrometers)

•  Red ( 600 to 700 micrometers)

400400 nm 700 nm500 nm 600 nm

700500 600

wavelength in nanometers

Visible

Infrared (IR) Band

•  The infrared (IR) band has wavelengths between red visible light (0.7

micrometers) and microwaves at 1,000 micrometers. Infrared means below

the red.

•  In remote sensing the IR band is usually divided into two components that are

based on basic property differences;

•  Reflected IR band : The reflected IR band represents reflected solar radiation which behaves

like visible light. Its wavelength span is from 0.7 to about 3 micrometers.

•  Emitted/Thermal IR band : The dominant type of energy in the thermal IR band is heat energy,

which is continuously emitted by the atmosphere and all objects on the earth s surface. Its

wavelength span is from about 3 micrometers to 4 micrometers.

Reflected IR Thermal IR

Microwave Band

•  The microwave band falls between the IR and radio bands

and has a wavelength range extending from approximately

0.1 centimeters to 1 meter.

•  At the proper wavelengths microwave radiation can pass

through;

•  Clouds

•  Precipitation

•  tree canopies Frequency

Wavelength 1 mm1 km 1 m 1 m 1 nm

1 MHz 1 GHz

IR UV

109 Hz

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Allocated Frequency (GHz)

X-BandC-BandS-BandL-BandUHF

VHF

Visible

1012 Hz

Ku

K

Ka

W

Chapter 2

Solar Irradiance

Energy: the capacity to do work. Measured in joules (J).

Radiant energy: the energy of EM wave.

Solar Irradiance

Terminology

Radiant flux or radiant power •  the flux or flow of energy in the stream of time

•  The measure of total of the total power of EMR in

a time unit, measured in Watt (W).

•  Total emitted light from the Sun

Radiant flux density or irradiance

Received radiant power per unit area, measured

(W2/m).

Incoming light from Sun

Radiant exitance

flux leaving per unit surface area.

dΦ

dA

Irradiance: F =d8

dA

Solar Irradiance Spectral irradiance : A quantity often used in remote sensing is the irradiance per

unit wavelength, measured with units W/m2/nm).

d

The Earth

•  The total radiant flux from the

Sun is approximately 3.84 ×

1026 W.

•  the mean Earth-Sun distance

(d) is 1.496 × 1011 m.

F0 =

3.84 × 1026

4π(1.496 × 1011)2= 1370 W/m2,

The total solar irradiance, over all wavelength,

incident at the Top of Atmosphere (TOP), at

normal incidence to the Earth surface :

Solar spectral irradiance

Solar spectral irradiance at the TOP. 6 1. REMOTE SENSING FROM EARTH OBSERVATION SATELLITES

200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

2

wavelength (nm)

Solar Irradiance (W/m

2/nm)

See [Thuillier et al., 2003].

•  Consider a blackbody adsorbing all of the incoming radiation

•  Blackbody transforms heat energy into radiant energy.

•  Planck’s Law describes the spectral exitance or spectral reflectance

(distribution of irradiance with wavelength) of a blackbody at a

temperature, T = 5777 K. as:

The Planck Law

=

B(λ, T ) =

2hc2

λ5(exp( hckBT λ

) − 1),

h : Planck’s constant, 6.626 × 10−34 J s.

kB : Boltzmann’s constant, 1.38 × 10−23 J/K.

c : speed of light, 2.99792458 × 108 m/s.

The Plank’s Distribution

100 1000 10000 10000010

−4

10−2

100

102

104

106

Sun

(5777K)

Lava

(1400K)

Forest Fire

(900K)

Ambient

(300K)Artic Ice

(220K)

wavelength (nm)

Relative Spectral Radiance

Blackbody emission of the objects at typical temperatures.

=

B(λ, T ) =

2hc2

λ5(exp( hckBT λ

) − 1),

The maximum emission intensity of the curve occurs around 500 nm.

Peak emission wavelength

The location of the peak emission is given by the Wien law:

Wien's displacement law

λmax =

b

T

T : absolute temperature of the black body

b : Wien’s displacement constant, equal to 2.8977721(26)×10−3 m K.

Peak wavelength is determined by Wien’s Displacement Law which relates

object’s temperature to emitted wavelength

Exitance vs. temperature

The dotted line joins the emitance peaks of the curves and is described by Wien’s displacement Law.

Total Emitted Power

Stefan-Boltzmann Law states that the total power emitted by a blackbody, per unit

surface area of the blackbody, varies as the fourth power of the temperature:

F = π

∫∞

0

B(λ, T )dλ = 5.671 × 10−8T 4 (W/m2) .

•  The solar radiation maximum

occurs in the visible spectrum.

•  About %46 of the total energy

transmitted by the Sun falls into

the visible waveband.

Valid only for a blackbody! Environment EM radiation sources

At sensor radiance

The incoming solar radiation, F0(λ) •  travels throughout the complex Earth atmosphere medium before is reflected by

the surface

•  and the reflected signal travels again throughout the atmosphere before it arrives

at the sensor.

The measured at sensor radiance is called TOA radiance.

What is radiance?

How to calculate spectral reflectance?

Radiance: the flux of EMR leaving a source

area A in the direction θ per solid angle α

which measured in watts per square meter

per steradian (W m-2 sr-1). e.g. Light received at satellite

Spectral reflectance: the amount of

reflected radiation divided by that amount

of incoming radiation in a particular

wavelength range. So, the reflectance •  varies with wavelength

•  varies with geometry

•  Diagnostic of different materials

Radiance & Reflectance

dΦ

dA

dω

Radiance: L =d2

8

dωdA

Illustration of the geometric characterization of the incident irradiance, radiant intensity,

total power

leaving the

surface

total power

hitting the

surface

ρ =

Radiance2Reflectance

•  the amount of reflected radiation divided by that amount of

incoming radiation in a particular wavelength range from DN )

anglezenith Solar :),cos(

/ IrradianceSolar Spectral:

/ Irradiance Spectral :

/ Surface theof Radiance Spectral :

eReflectanc Spectral :

2

2

2

sss

s

ss

mmWE

mmWG

msrmWL

E

L

G

L

Chapter 3

Atmospheric Interactions

Atmospheric Effects

Earth Atmosphere

The Earth’s surface is covered by a layer of

atmosphere consisting of a mixture of gases and

other solid and liquid particles. The principal

gaseous constituents: •  nitrogen (78%)

•  oxygen (21%)

•  argon (1%)

•  minor constituents (<0.04%).

•  Water vapor and an ozone layer are also present.

•  The atmosphere also contains solid and liquid

particles such as aerosols, water droplets (clouds or

raindrops), and ice crystals (snowflakes). These

particles may aggregate to form clouds and haze.

the atmosphere may affect

•  speed of radiation

•  intensity

•  spectral distribution

•  direction

Major subdivisions of the atmosphere and the types of molecules

and aerosols found in each layer

Absorption of EMR

Jensen 2005Jensen 2005Jensen 2005

window

Absorption of EMR

Atmospheric window: The region of the spectrum that are relatively

free from the the effects of the scattering and absorption.

0.3 0.5 1.0 1.5 3.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.02.0

0

100

SWIRUV VIS MIRII TIR FIRNIR I

wavelength (µm)

Transmission[%]

Figure 1.4: Relative atmospheric radiation transmission. Gray denotes absorption bands and blue areas

denote atmospheric windows (transmission peaks).

Atmospheric Effects

When the EMR from the Sun reaches Earth’s atmosphere, it may be;

Absorbed: incident radiation is taken in by the medium. A portion of the radiation is

converted into internal heat energy that is emitted or radiated back at longer thermal

infrared wavelengths.

Transmitted : incident radiation passes through matter with measurable attenuation

(absorbed or scattered).

Scattered: incident radiation is dispersed or spread out by the particles suspended in

the medium unpredictably in all directions.

Reflected : incident radiation bounces off the surface of a substance in a predictable

(specular reflection) or unpredictable (diffuse reflection) direction.

Atmospheric Scattering

The type of scattering is a function of: The wavelength of the incident radiant energy

The size of the gas molecule, dust particle, or water droplet encountered.

Based on wavelength of incident radiant energy, the size of the

gas molecule, dust particle, or water vapor droplet essentially two

types of scattering:

1.  Selective scattering

• Rayleigh

• Mie

2.  non-selective scattering

Atmospheric Scattering

•  The type of scattering is a function of: •  The wavelength of the incident radiant energy

•  The size of the gas molecule, dust particle, or water droplet encountered

•  Based on wavelength of incident radiant energy, the size of the

gas molecule, dust particle, or water vapor droplet essentially

two types of scattering:

•  Selective Scattering affects specific wavelengths of EMR •  Rayleigh

•  Mie

•  non-selective scattering is wavelength independent.

Rayleigh Scattering

Particles < Wavelength

•  Rayleigh scattering occurs when the diameter of

the matter are many times smaller than the

wavelength of the incident electromagnetic

radiation (particle size < 1 µm).

•  The amount of scattering is inversely related to

the fourth power of the radiation's wavelength

(λ-4).

•  For example, blue light (0.4 µm) is scattered 16

times more than near-infrared light (0.8 µm)

•  Scattering is mostly done by aerosols

rticles < Wavelength

Rayleigh Scattering

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Mie Scattering

•  Occurs when the particles are just about the same size as the

wavelength of the radiation.

•  Caused by particles having radii between 0.1 and 10 µm.

•  Example : Smoke, dust, water vapor

•  Effects shorter wavelength more than longer wavelengths

•  But disparity is not as great as in the case of Rayleigh

scattering.

Non-selective scattering

•  produced when there are particles in the low atmosphere

several times the diameter of the radiation being transmitted.

•  non-selective, i.e. all wavelengths of light are scattered, not

just blue, green, or red.

•  Thus, water droplets, which make up clouds and fog banks,

scatter all wavelengths of visible light equally well, causing

the cloud to appear white.

Chapter 4

Interaction with the surface

Interaction with the surface

•  Fundamental energy interactions with the surface •  Reflection

occurs when radiation "bounces" off the target

and is redirected.

•  Transmission

occurs when radiation passes through a target.

•  Absorption

occurs when radiation (energy) is absorbed into

the target.

EI(λ) = ER(λ) + EA(λ) + ET(λ)

Interaction will vary

•  for different earth features, depending on their material type and condition.

•  at different wavelengths.

Interaction with the surface

•  Remote sensing measures the radiation reflected from

targets.

Types of reflection •  specular reflection

•  specular or mirror-like reflection where all (or almost all) of the energy is directed

away from the surface in a single direction.

•  diffuse (Lambertain) reflection.

Diffuse reflection occurs when the surface is rough and the energy is reflected almost

uniformly in all directions.

Example : Fine- grained sand would appear fairly smooth to

long wavelength microwaves but would appear quite rough to

the visible wavelengths.

Spectral Response

•  The amount and spectral distribution of the reflected energy is used in RS to

infer the nature of the reflecting surface.

•  A specific targets (soil, water, vegetation, etc.) have an individual and

characteristic manner of interacting with incident radiation that is described by

spectral response (spectral signature) of the target.

•  Spectral response of the target will vary from time to time during the year (i.e.

vegetation).

•  The spectral response of the target also depends on

•  Orientation of the Sun (solar azimuth)

•  The height of the Sun in the sky (solar elevation angle)

•  The stage of health vegetation, if that is the target.

Spectral Response

•  The amount and spectral distribution of the reflected energy is used in RS to

infer the nature of the reflecting surface.

•  A specific targets (soil, water, vegetation, etc.) have an individual and

characteristic manner of interacting with incident radiation that is described by

spectral response (spectral signature) of the target.

•  Spectral response of the target will vary from time to time during the year (i.e.

vegetation).

•  The spectral response of the target also depends on

•  Orientation of the Sun (solar azimuth)

•  The height of the Sun in the sky (solar elevation angle)

•  The stage of health vegetation, if that is the target.

Reflectance curve

•  Reflection, being due to microscopic EM interactions

between the incident wave and the illuminated material, will

generally be λ-dependent

•  For any given material, reflectance will thus be depending

on the incident wavelength

•  if a reasonable number of acquisitions are available, it

is possible to outline reflectance as a function of λ,

thus obtaining the so-called “reflectance curves”

•  In EO, the considered interval is generally 0.4 – 2.5

µm.

Spectral response of vegetation

•  Chlorophyll

•  The reason of different colors of vegetation during the season.

•  Strong reflection within the NIR.

•  High NIR reflectance / Low red reflectance = Healthy

•  Low NIR reflectance / High red reflectance = Unhealthy

Vegetation spectrum in detail

Wavelenghth (micron)

Re

flecta

nce

NDVI Index

REDNIR

NIR RED

NDVI =

REDNIR

NIR RED

HIGH NDVI

REDNIR

LOW NDVI

HEALTYUNHEALTY

RED

NIR

NIR

Normalized Difference Vegetation Index

Spectral reflection of vegetation types

Spectral response of water

•  Longer wavelength visible and near infrared radiation is

absorbed.

•  blue or blue-green due to stronger reflectance at these shorter

wavelengths

•  darker if viewed at red or near infrared wavelengths.

Spectral response of soil

organic matterand soil moisture content

water absorption band

0.85− 0.93 µm. ferric iron absoption band

Chapter 5

Remote Sensing Platforms and

Sensors

On the Ground, In the Air, In Space

Sensing from 1 meter to 36,000 km

height

Platforms are:

•Ground based•Ground based

•Airborne

•Spaceborne

Sources of EM energy

•  Passive sensor •  Depends on energy (daylight, heat)

•  Aerial Camera

•  Thermal Sensor

•  Active sensor •  Generates energy (illuminates)

•  Radar

•  Laser Scanners

Categorization of Sensors

visible

microwave domain optical domain domain

gamma ray spectrometer

• multi spectral scanner

• imaging spectrometer

• aerial camera

thermal scanner passive microwave radiometer

passive sensors

• video camera

radarradar altimeter

laser scanner imaging radar

active sensors

wavelength g

Satellite Characteristics: Orbits and Swaths

•  Orbit: The path followed by a satellite. •  altitude (their height above the Earth's surface)

•  their orientation and rotation relative to the Earth

Geostationary Orbit

•  These satellites are at very high altitudes, which

view the same portion of the Earth’s surface at

all times.

•  These satellites, at altitudes of approximately

36,000 kilometers, revolve at speeds which

match the rotation of the Earth so they seem

stationary, relative to the Earth’s atmosphere.

Near-Polar Orbits

•  These satellites are designed to follow an orbit

(basically north-south) which, in conjunction with the

Earth’s rotation (west-east), allows them to cover most

of the Earth’s surface over a certain period of time.

•  Two types of near-polar orbits:

• Sun-Synchronous:

- Cover each area of the world at a constant local time of day

- At any given latitude, the position of the sun in the sky

as the satellite passes overhead will be the same within the

same season

• Non-Sun-Synchronous:

Opposite of Sun-Synchronous

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Ascending & Descending

Most of the remote sensing satellite platforms

=> near-polar orbits

Ascending : traveling northwards on one side

of the Earth The ascending pass is most likely on the shadowed

side of the Earth

Descending : travelling toward the southern

pole on the second half of its orbit.

the descending pass is most likely on the sunlit side.

Passive sensors => descending pass

Active sensors => both available

satellite orbit

orbitdirection

descendingnode

ascendingnode

EARTH

north

south

orbitdirection

equatorialplane

The swath

swath width

•  As a satellite revolves around the Earth, the sensor “sees” a certain portion of the

Earth’s surface. The area imaged on the surface, is referred to as the swath.

•  Imaging swaths for space-borne sensors generally vary between tens and hundreds

of kilometers wide.

Behind the Scenes

Credit: NASA/NOAA

Resolution

•  Resolution determine the ability of remote

sensing data to distinguishing between

different objects.

•  There are four types of resolutions: •  Spectral

wavelength, or wavelength range

•  Spatial

location/size:

•  Temporal

Time

•  Radiometric

intensity/amplitude:

Spectral resolution

•  Capability to discriminate wavelengths => ∆λ

•  Mono- , multi- , hyper-spectral

Spatial/Geometric resolution

FOV : field of view, the total

angle that is scanned.

IFOV : instantaneous field of

view, the viewing angle of the

system.

http://geoinformatik.lehrewelt.de/abbildungsgeometrie/

http://www.oneonta.edu/faculty/baumanpr/geosat2/RS-Introduction/RS-Introduction.html

D = diameter of the ground cell (metres)D = diameter of the ground cell (metres)

β = IFOV (radians)β = IFOV (radians)

H = flight height (metres)

Ground

resolution

element

HD β ( di )HD ⋅= β (at nadir)

Pixel Sizes

Spatial resolution

Radiometric resolution

Radiometric resolution refers to the number of digital quantization levels used to

express the data collected by the sensor.

The greater the number of quantization levels, the greater the detail in the

information.

Quantization

The measured physical quantity (radiance) is a real value

• Yet the instruments electronics is digital, i.e. it can handle only discrete values,

generally binary coded

• Real values have to be converted into binary codes (Digital Numbers or “DN”)

• This translation implies a loss of information.

p

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantization_(signal_processing)

Radiometric resolution

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Temporal resolution

Revisit Time (minimum time between two images of the same area, can be

smaller than repeat cycle). The time factor in imaging is important when: •  persistent clouds offer limited clear views of the Earth's surface (often in the tropics)

•  short-lived phenomena (floods, oil slicks, etc.) need to be imaged

•  multi-temporal comparisons are required (e.g. the spread of a forest disease from one

•  year to the next)

•  the changing appearance of a feature over time can be used to distinguish it from near-

•  similar features (wheat / maize) can be considered to define the temporal resolution of the image sequence.

This sequence of Landsat TM images of an agricultural area in central California was

acquired during a single growing season: 27 April (left), 30 June (center), and 20 October

(right). In this 4-3-2 band combination vegetation appears red and bare soil in shades of

blue-green. Some fields show an increase in crop canopy cover from April to June, and

some were harvested prior to October.

Most surface-monitoring satellites are in low-Earth orbits (between 650 and 850

Temporal resolution

Multispectral Scanning

Multispectral scanner

• Wavelength Bands

• Band-SpectrumInfrared

p

• Sensor-Application

• Many applications

Infrared

band

Red bandRed band Blue bandBlue band

Green bandGreen bandBand combination

Green bandGreen band

Hyperspectral Imaging

(Imaging Spectroscopy )

Swath width of

imagining

sensor

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ack d

imensio

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up by

the

motio

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he space

craft

Spectral images taken

simultaneously

Thermal Remote Sensing

VIS

UV

NIR

TIR

MIR

SOLAR TERRESTRIAL

SOLAR AND TERRESTRIAL

SPECTRUM

Wavelength ( m)

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Thermal Infrared Radiation is a

form of electromagnetic radiation

with a wavelength between 3 to 14

micrometers (µm). Its flux is much

lower than visible flux.

Albedo

Albedo is a term referring to the measure of reflectivity of

the Earth's surface.

Reflected vs. Emitted

Reflected EnergyVNIR & SWIR

Emitted EnergyTIR

Reflectance : characterizes surface on how well it reflects radiation at different

wavelengths (NIR/SWIR)

Emissivity : characterizes surface on how well it emits radiation at different

wavelengths (TIR)

Emissivity

•  Emissivity can be used as spectra with TRS similarly like

Reflectance is used in the VIS/NIR/SWIR parts of the

spectrum.

•  Emissivity changes with different rock composition,

weathering state etc.

•  Geologic mapping

•  Emissivity needs to be known to get from Radiant to Kinetic

Temperatures

Two types of Applications

Main interest of study is :

•  Emissivity of surface; changes with wavelength

•  Temperature of surface

Volcanic Eruption Monitoring

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Geology and Mining

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Alluvial Fans from different

parental rocks

Rock composition mapping

Detecting Coal Fires

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Newly detected

HotSpots

Known CoalFire areas

Ruqigou and Wuda

Thermal RS

MASTER •  MODIS ASTER aircraft instrument

•  Airborne scanner, 5-50 m. spatial res., 50 bands spectral res.

ASTER

•  90 m. spatial res., 6 bands spectral res.

MODIS

•  1000 m. spatial res., 17 bands in TIR, High radiometric res. (16 bit).

SEABASS •  Spatial Enhanced Broad Array Spectrograph System

•  Airborne Scanner, 2-3 m. spatial res., 128 bands

References

SYNTHESIS LECTURES ON

IMAGE, VIDEO & MULTIMEDIA PROCESSING

CM& Morgan Claypool Publishers&

Remote Sensing ImageProcessing

Alan C. Bovik, Series Editor

Gustavo Camps-VallsDevis TuiaLuis Gómez-ChovaSandra JiménezJesús Malo

Fundamentals

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Natural Resources Ressources naturelles

Canada Canada

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