Introduction to Development Across the Lifespan

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What is Lifespan Development? Field of study that examines the patter ns of

growth, change and stability of behavior

throughout the entire lifespan Focus on the way we change as well as what

stays the same (stability)

Different approaches:

Biological Environmental

Combination of the two



Lifespan Development Broad f ield that covers diverse areas- developmentalists often focus

on one area for study

Physical development- study body makeup, brain, nervoussystem, muscles, senses, biological needs (food, dr ink)- may be

interested in how malnutr ition affects development Cognitive development- study lear ning, memory, problem solving,

intelligence. How do problem solving skills change throughout thelifespan?

Personality development- study traits and character istics thatmake us unique- Is personality stable over the lifespan?

Social development- study interactions among individuals andsocial factors like poverty. How do the effects of poverty or divorceinfluence development?



Lifespan Development Developmentalists have divided the lifespan into 8

broad ranges

Prenatal period (conception to birth)

Infancy and toddlerhood (birth to 3)

Preschool period (3-6)

Adolescence (12-20)

Young adulthood (20-40) Middle adulthood (40- 60)

Late adulthood (60- death)



Social Construction of Age Groups Social constructions are shared notions

of reality.

Age groups are shared notions (socialconstructions) among developmentalists

When developmental specialists discuss

ages- they are referr ing to the average agewhen most people reach a milestone



The Bio-ecological Approach to

Development Suggests that development is interconnected,

changes in one area affect changes in another area.

Example: parental loss of a job affects the homelife

Changes in one area without changes in another area can be of very little help

Example: Improving schools can be of little help if parents at home are not willing to help supportacademic success



The Bio-ecological Approach to

Development 5 levels of environment that influence us

Microsystem- everyday, immediate

env

iro

nme

nt (home, fam

ily, fr

ie

nds, teachers)

Mesosystem- connects the parts of themicrosystem like a chain. (binds the children toparents, students to teachers, employee toboss) Example: Parents and teachers workingtogether. Parents supervising children at play,parents attending sporting events with kids



The Bioecological Approach to

Development Exosystem- broader influences such as school,

community, church, parents workplace. Each affectshow the microsystem and mesosystem operate:

Example: The type of church a person attends can affect their personal morals and values which can influence how they respond to the others. Mother loses

job- indirectly affects child

Macrosystem- larger cultural influences (types of gov¶t,

religions, politics, society in general, economy,war) Wester n culture- what are our values and how do they influence

us?



The Bioecological Approach to

Development Chronosystem- underlies the previous

systems. Involves the passage of time and

histor ical events as well as histor icalchanges and how these things influence

development.

Example: Great Depression, 9/11, women

enter ing the workforce, divorces on the r ise)



Individualist v Collectivist Cultures When studying individuals, it is important to take

into consideration the culture in which they wereraised. (example of childrear ing)

Individualism- dominant in wester n societies-emphasizes the importance of personal identity,uniqueness, freedom and the worth of theindividual.

Collectivism- the well being of the group is more

important than the individual. Those raised in these cultures will often sacr if ice self happinessfor the group



Ethnicity and Race Race- a biological concept that refers to the

physical and structural character istics of a

species 99.9 % of human genetic makeup is identical so

it makes the term race seem insignif icant

Ethnicity- refers to cultural background,

nationality, religion and language.



Cohorts A group of people bor n around the same time in the same

place.

Example of a cohort- Baby boomers- increased births after

the end of WWII Cohort effects- Social events have similar impact on

members of a cohort (wars, depressions, famines,epidemics)

Baby boomers exper ienced cohort effects- Adolescencedur ing civil r ights movement, protests of the Vietnam War,parents had exper ienced the depression

How does experiencing these things affect the cohort?



Influences on Development History graded influences- histor ical events that

influence an entire age cohort. NY terror ist

attacks, depressions, social movements

Age graded influences- biological and

environmental influences that are similar for

individuals of an age group regardless of where

they were raised. Beginning school, puberty, menopause, death of parents-

these things are usually the same for all despite culture



Influences on Development Socio-cultural- graded influences- affect most people of a

particular culture or social class Depends on the individuals ethnicity, social class, and

subculture.

These influences would be different for a white affluent childthan for a minor ity child living in poverty (violence, Bar Mitzvah.Etc)

Non-normative life events- unusual events that happen to aperson at a time when those events are not expected and donot happen to most people

Losing both parents at age 6 Birth defects

Adoption



Major Issues in Lifespan Development Are changes continuous or discontinuous

(occur in distinct stages)?

Are there critical periods for development? Which part of the lifespan should be the

main focus for research?

Does nature or nurture have the biggest influence on development?



Continuous v Discontinuos Change Continuous- change is gradual, achievements at

one level build on the previous level, changes are

a matter of degree and not kind. Example: a

child¶s height changes, but it¶s a quantitative

change- the number changes as it builds on the

previous number

Discontinuous- change occurs in distinct stages.Each change is qualitatively different from the

behavior or thinking process at an earlier stage



Continuous v Discontinuous Change Quantitative- can be measured

Qualitative- quality of change



Critical and Sensitive Periods A critical period is a specif ic time in development when an event

has the greatest consequences. Example: exposure to German measles at 11 weeks gestation v 30 weeks

In a cr itical per iod, certain kinds of environmental stimuli are

necessary for development to proceed normally. Example- bonding with mother within first few minutes to hours after

birth

Early developmental theor ists believed strongly in cr itical per iodsand their importance

Today theor ists believe that we aren¶t as likely to suffer damagefrom lack of certain social exper iences as once believed Children who have been placed in NICU and away from their mothers have

not shown any more problems with normal development than other children, consider ing the bonding does occur later on.



Critical and Sensitive Periods Theor ists today speak of sensitive

periods- we are particularly more

susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli in theenvironment dur ing these per iods, but the

absence of those stimuli does not produce

irreversible consequences to development.



What part of the lifespan should be the

focus of research? Early theor ists believed that infancy thru adolescence was

the most important and basically ignored other parts of thelifespan

Today we believe the entire lifespan is important We know that changes continue throughout the lifespan

H elps us to determine gains and losses as we age

Vocabulary grows with age, but reaction time slows.

H elps us to understand how people¶s values change with age



Nature v

Nurture

How much of our behavior is due to genetics and

how much is due to the environment?

Nature refers to traits, abilities and capacitiesinher ited from one¶s parents.

Eye color, hair color, athletic ability, brain development

Nurture refers to environmental influences that

shape our behavior Nutr ition, prenatal use of drugs or alcohol, parental

discipline, schooling



Nature v

Nurture

Consider the concept of intelligence

Is intelligence inherited or is created by the environment?

If it is f ixed at birth, then efforts to increase intelligence will fail

If intelligence is str ictly determined by environment then going toa great school, and parents who constantly help you lear n wouldcreate an intelligent child.

What we know is that sometimes those with the most stimulatingenvironments still can¶t lear n and sometimes those with nostimulation are still very intelligent

It is a combination of the two



Theoretical Perspectives on

Development A theory- organizes facts in order to explain a

phenomenon

5 major theoretical perspectives on development-each provides a different way of looking atdevelopment Psychodynamic

Behavioral

Cognitive Humanistic

Evolutionary



Psychodynamic Theory of

Development Believe that most of our behavior is influenced by

inner conflicts or memor ies in which we are

unaware.

Most of these memor ies or conflicts linger from

childhood and influence us throughout our life

Example: Mar issa and the car accident

Freud- the most recognized psychodynamictheor ist




Development Sigmund Freud¶s psychoanalytic theory-

suggests that unconscious conflicts influence

personality and behavior

3 levels of c onsci ou sness (Iceberg ): c onsci ou s

awareness, prec onsci ou s and u nc onsci ou s

Unconscious mind contains wishes, desires,

demands and needs which are hidden becausethey would be too disturbing for conscious

awareness




Development 3 levels of personality- Id, Ego and Superego

Id- part of personality present at birth. Operates on thepleasure principle- maximize satisfaction and reducetension. Responsible for pr imitive dr ives of hunger, sex,

aggression and irrational impulses (Give me what I wantwhen I want it)

Ego- Buffer from the real world and the pr imitive Id. Realitypr inciple- restrains the Id so that the person can be safe andf it in with society and also calms down the superego. Themediator (Keeps us straight)

Superego- our conscience. Helps us identify r ight andwrong. Morality principle. Our parents and teachers helpour superego develop.




Development Psychosexual Development- Freud believed we go thru a

ser ies of psychosexual stages dur ing which our personality isbeing formed

In

each stage thereis a pleasure

zo

ne assoc

iated w

ith abiological function or body part.

If a child is unable to gratify himself at any stage or if he over gratif ies himself, a fixation may develop- behavior reflectingan earlier stage of development due to unresolved conflicts in that stage

Example: f ixation in the oral stage may result in an adult whotalks a lot, chews gum, bites nails




Development Psychosexual stages (Freud)

Oral (mouth)

Anal (anus) Phallic (genitals)

Latency (no pleasure zone)

Genital (genitals)



Erik

Erikson (Psychodynamic)

Psychoanalyst who emphasized the importance of

social interactions (society and culture) rather

than unconscious conflicts

Er ikson¶s theory suggest that we go thru a ser ies

of Psychosocial development stages.

Dur ing these stages we encounter changes in our

interactions with each other and our knowledge of the

world



Erikson¶s Psychosocial

Stages

8 distinct stages that represent a conflict that theindividual must overcome.

T r u st v M istr u st (birth- 12-18 months)

Au t onomy v Shame (12-18 months- 3 years) I niti ative v Gu ilt (3-6)

I nd u str y v I nf eri orit y (6-adolescence)

I dentit y v r ole c onfu si on (adolescence to young

adulthood) G ener ativit y v S t agnati on (middle adulthood)

I ntegrit y v Despair (late adulthood)



The Behavioral Perspective

Reject the idea that people pass thru a ser ies of stages

Believe that people are affected by their

exper iences and that they lear n and develop fromthem

Developmental patter ns are personal and dependon the environment and situations the individual is

exposed to. Believe development is quantitative rather than

qualitative




Classical Conditioning- The idea that we lear n through association

By pair ing a neutral stimulus with one that

normally evokes a response, we can create aresponse to the neutral stimulus.

Example: Pavlov¶s dog. The dog salivates at thepresentation of food. Pair a bell with the

presentation of food several times and the dog willbegin to salivate to the sound of the bell, in anticipation of the smell of food.




UCS- unconditioned stimulus- stimulus that naturallyproduces a response (food)

UCR- Unconditioned response- response to a naturallyoccurr ing stimulus (salivation)

Neutral stimulus (NS)- a stimulus that alone, causes noresponse (bell)

Conditioned stimulus (CS)- a previously neutral stimulusthat elicits a response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus (bell)

Conditioned response (CR)- a response to a previouslyneutral stimulus (salivation)




Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner )- lear ningin which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened by its association with positive or

negative consequences Reinforcement- positive stimulus provided to

increase the likelihood that a behavior will berepeated

Punishment- presenting an unpleasant stimulus

or removing a positive stimulus in order todecrease the likelihood of a behavior beingrepeated




Social Cognitive Learning Theory- we lear n by observingthe behavior of others (modeling)

We don¶t have to exper ience the consequences of a behavior to lear n. We can lear n by watching others exper ience theconsequences (positive and negative)

Albert Bandura- suggested lear ning thru observation takesplace in 4 steps

Observer must pay attention

Must successfully recall the behavior

Must reproduce the behavior accurately

Must be motivated to lear n and carry out the behavior



The Cognitive Perspective

Focuses on how people know,

understand and think about the world

Developmental researchers are interestedin how adults and children process

information differently and understand

things differently.

Example: page 23. Why does it rain?




Piaget¶s Theory of CognitiveDevelopment- most influential cognitivetheor ists.

Believed that we go thru a fixed sequenceof cognitive developmental stages

In each stage the quantity of knowledge

increases as well as the quality of knowledge and understanding




Children¶s understanding of the world can be explained byassimilation and accommodation

Assimilation- understanding a situation in terms of your current stage of cognitive development and understanding

See a furry 4 legged animal and call it a dog

All furry 4 legged animals are called dogs

Accommodation- changing the current way of thinking in response to new events or encounters in the environment

Mom tells you that animal is a cat

Child now understands that not all furry 4 legged animals aredogs



Information Processing Approach to

Development Interested in the way we take in, use and

store information

Can be thought of in terms of the waycomputers analyze and process information

Quantitative view- not a stage theory

Our capacity to handle information as well

as our processing speed and eff iciencychanges with age



Vygotsky¶s

Sociocultural

Theory

Russian developmentalist who believed that cognitive developmentis a result of social interactions between members of a culture

Our understanding of the world comes from our interactions withadults and other children who teach us problem solving skills aswell as proper and improper behavior.

The culture we are raised in will influence our way of thinking andviewing the world A child who is raised around extended family will have a different view of

family than one who sees family only once a year.

Emphasizes the idea of reciprocal transaction- people andenvironment influence a child who in tur n influences those people

and the environment I am influencing my son, who in tur n influences me.



Cognitive N

euroscience Approaches Focuses on inter nal brain processes that

underlie thinking, problem solving and other

cognitive behavior They try to identify the areas of the brain

associated with cognitive activity

Have identif ied areas of the brain that areactive when we speak, think, etc



Humanistic Perspective

Focuses on the unique qualities of individuals

Rejects the idea that our behavior is determined by theunconscious, lear ning from the environment, and cognitiveprocessing.

Emphasizes free will- our ability to make decisions about our own lives

Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow- major theor ists- believed thathumans have a desire to be loved unconditionally and respected.

Since other people provide these things, we become dependent on them.

Our self worth is a reflection of how others view us

Self- actualization is our pr imary goal in life- reaching our fullpotential (believed few people reach this point)



Evolutionary Perspective

Identify the behavior we inher ited from our

ancestors and to understand why we inher ited

certain behaviors

Based on the ideas of Charles Darwin

Genetics determines physical character istics and

also personality traits and social behaviors

Certain behaviors helped increase chances of survival



Which perspective is correct?

All of them are helpful

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Introduction to Development Across the Lifespan

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