C H A PT E R -I

INTRODUCTION

“Education is the fundamental right o f every person, a key to other

human rights; the heart of the development; the essential prerequisite to for

equity, diversity and lasting peace” (World Education forum, Dakar 2000).

Education is a key component of human resource development and a

great liberating force. The growth of any nation can objectively be measured

only through the efforts it makes to elevate the weakest sections o f the

society. Education occupies a very important place in its development of

weaker sections. Education has continued to evolve in diversity and extent in

its reach and coverage since the dawn of human civilization.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948 (Art. 26) expressed

that “every one in the world; men, women, boys and girls o f all ages have the

fundamental right to education”. The Indian Constitution through its articles

29,30,45 and 46 guaranteed free and compulsory primary education to all

children. Article 46 in particular, emphasized education o f the tribals much

more than their economic advancement.

In post independent India, great importance was accorded to education,

and our political leaders, planners and thinkers were convinced that education

is an instrument of development. Our planners translated this ideology into a

policy. Kothari Commission 1966 also stated that “the destiny of India is now

being shaped in her classrooms. This, we believe, is no more rhetoric. In a

world based on science and technology, it is education that determines the

level of prosperity, welfare and security”.

With this in view, our leaders and planners gave adequate importance

to education in the five-year plans. The ninth five-year plan envisages UEE

to mean universal accesses, universal retention and universal achievement.

As a result of the efforts made by the central and state Governments, 94% of

the country’s rural population has primary schools within one km. At the

upper primary stage 84% of her rural population have schools within a

distance o f three km. Enrolment rates at primary stage have gone up from

42.60% in 1950-51 to 94.90% in 1999-2000. Based on the recommendations

of the National Committees of state education Ministers, a new scheme ‘Sarva

Shiksha Abhiyan’ (SSA) has been evolved to pursue Universal elementary

education in a mission mode. The goals o f SSA are that (1) all 6 to 14 age

group children are in school / EGS Centre / bridge course by 2003; (2)

Complete five year primary education by 2007 and (3) complete eight years

o f schooling by 2010. (Government o f India, 2002)

According to 1991 census, the literacy percentage of the Indian

population was 52.11%, being 63.86% for males and 39.92% for females. It

has been increased according to the provisional census 2001, total population

was 65.38%, being 75.85% for males and 54.16% for females. On the other

hand the figure with regard to scheduled tribe population, total literacy was

29.60% with 40.65% literate males and 18.19% literate females (1991

census). Evidently, there is a large gap between the tribal and non-tribal

population. Although tribal female literacy has grown from 8% in 1981 to

14.5% in 1991 as against 24.8% among the total female population in 1981 to

just 32.2% in 1991, the gap between tribal and general population remains

conspicuous.

Education of Girls in India, The National Policy of Education-1986

resolves “ Education will be used as an agent o f basic change in the status of

women.” NPE is a major landmark in the evolution o f the status o f women in

India. The NPE goes substantially beyond the equal educational opportunity

and social justice (equity) approach and expects education to become an

instrument o f women’s equality and empowerment. The removal o f women’s

illiteracy and obstacles inhibiting their access to, and retention in elementary

education will receive overriding priority through provision of special support

services and setting up of time targets and effective monitoring.

Education of girls in India is influenced by several factors, which in

turn exert a strong influence on many development variables. Education

accessibility for girls is limited or facilitated by the broader parameters o f the

status o f women; polices and programs for women in general and younger

girls in particular. It is further governed by the accident o f birth in a certain

social class, caste, ethnic group, residence in tribal, rural, or urban area.

The present study is an attempt to find out the extent o f influence of

Household, Community and School factors on Access, Enrolment, Drop out.

Retention and Achievement of tribal girls in the district o f Wayanad, Kerala.

In order to address this problem it is necessary to look at the tribal education

scenario in our country. Hence details of tribal education at National, state,

and Wayanad district level are presented in the following pages.

1.1. TRIBAL EDUCATION IN INDIA ; AN OVER VIEW

There are six hundred and thirty five tribal communities with a

population o f 6,77,58,380 as per 1991 census. India has the largest

concentration of tribal population in comparison to any country in the world.

Though the tribal population constitutes little more than 8% of the total

population in India, the tribals exhibit a tremendous degree of variability as is

evident in the fact that tribal people o f India speak 155 languages and 255

subsidiary languages. Indian tribal population is evidently at different stages

o f social as well as economic development.

India as a developing country is at the threshold of scientific and

technological advancement o f significant proportion. It is notable that in a

land o f diversities like India with very rigid social stratification and wide

social, educational, and economic disparities, the concept o f welfare society

and egalitarian social order still remains only a wishful thinking. The uplift of

the depressed classes is a must in the establishment o f the welfare state.

Among the depressed classes the tribal population is the most backward

(Khurana 1977).

The situation regarding the scheduled tribes is entirely different from

others. Traditionally there were territorially separated communities and did

not form part o f the settled Hindu society of villages and towns. They lived

their separate tribal life; each tribe its own in the remote fastness o f mountains

and forests.

Though the tribals were the inhabitants, for centuries they were treated

as second-class citizens, kept in ignorance and thus relegated from the main

stream o f national life. The large-scale changes witnessed in the country

completely bypassed the tribal. They are still at the mercy o f petty officials

and money-lenders and remain a constant source o f exploitation. A few

reports published by various news papers reinforce the above fact.

‘Nevertheless the tribes are still steeped in poverty, penury, disease, ignorance

and illiteracy and they, also continue to be exploited as before’ (Kutty 1980).

Ruhela (1996) observed “there cannot be education for all unless social

inequalities are weeded out from the society”. There is no discrimination in

admission to educational institutions, but socio-economic factors often

contribute to several segments o f the population remaining socially and

educationally backward. Generally, groups vulnerable to social

discrimination suffer more from economic deprivation.

The third five year plan (1961-66) explained education as the most

important single instrument in achieving rapid economic development and

technological progress and in creating a social order founded on the values of

freedom, social justice and equal opportunity.

Kothari Commission (1964-66) in its report also states that, “Education

has to be used as a powerful instrument o f social, economic and political

change”.

Any attempt for social change and social progress should start with the

eradication of the undesirable imbalance. In this connection the observation

o f the Task Force on the welfare of the backward classes o f the State o f

Kerala are significant. “Unless the ever increasing economic and social

imbalance in our society is halted, if not removed, this country cannot claim

to have achieved the object in the progress o f planning. The existence of

unclean, semi-naked, semi-starved people in large numbers, especially in rural

areas residing in name sake huts and in unsanitary surroundings without even

the minimum amenities, is certainly an indelible blot on an egalitarian

society” (Govt. Kerala 1972).

The problem of education in the tribal area is more acute, especially of

girls. Various studies show that there are many reasons for drop-out o f girls,

are leaving school on account of domestic compulsions of work and poverty;

parental illiteracy and lack of motivation; helping parents in occupation and

household activities such as fetching water, collecting fuel, cooking, cleaning

and washing, care of sibling and; early marriage and gender discrimination.

(Thakur 1994). This is further exemplified in the literacy rate o f tribal

population, which is very low as is evident from the table given below (Vide

Table l.I).

Table 1.1. : Disparity in the Literacy between Scheduled TribeLiteracy and overall National Literacy

Census Year National Literacy Scheduled Tribe Literacy

1961 28.3% 08.53%

1971 34.5% 11.30%

1981 36.17% 16.35%

1991 52.11% 23.89%Source: Census Reports o f India, 1961, 1971, 1981, 1991

The pursuance of the directive of the Indian Constitution and its special

provisions, the Governments, both at the center and at the state, have been

implementing special programmes for the socio-economic development o f the

weaker sections. The Indian Constitution has specially provided for the safe

interests o f the weaker sections and for their protection from social injustice

and exploitation. (Article 46,275,300,332,335,338 & 340) Article 45

guarantees free and compulsory education to all children up to the age of 14

within 10 years of adoption of the constitution. Programme o f action (POA)

1992 of NPE 1986, talks about some specific measures for the educational

development o f scheduled tribes. The state has made the provisions of

reservation for scheduled tribes in admission to educational institution at

different levels as per the proportion (7.5%) in the total population of the

country. More over it has launched several preferential schemes under the

five-year plans, which started soon after Independence for the promotion of

education of scheduled tribes.

The impact of educational policy and programmes of the state has not

been very significant on the scheduled tribes in India. The scheduled tribes

and scheduled castes have lagged behind the rest o f the population in

education. This backwardness is not a phenomenon of today. They had been

very backward in education in the colonial times. But after Independence the

Indian state has adopted preferential policies and programmes for

educational development of scheduled tribes. But the real impact could be

easily gauged by looking at certain important indicators such as literacy rate,

drop out rate and enrolment at different levels of education over the years.

Table 1.2. : Literacy rate of scheduled tribes and total population(Male, female, rural and urban)

Year & Gender Scheduled TribesTotal Rural Urban

Total populationTotal Rural Urban

1971Persons 11.30 10.68 28.84 29.45 23.73 52.44Males 17.63 16.92 37.09 39.45 33.76 61.27Females 4.85 4.36 19.64 23.60 13.17 42.141981Persons 16.35 14.92 37.93 36.23 29.65 57.40Males 24.52 22.94 47.60 46.89 40.79 65.83Females 8.04 6.81 27.32 24.82 17.96 47.821991Persons 23.62 21.81 46.35 52.21 44.69 73.08Males 32.49 30.66 54.80 64.13 57.87 81.09Females 14.50 12.74 37.16 39.29 30.62 64.05

Source: Figures drawn from Camershwar Choudhary (2001, Table-1)

A cursory glance at the level of education among scheduled tribe males

and females in the urban and rural settings, over decades, provides a realistic

overview of the literacy rate among tribal people. Rural urban and male and

female disparities exist both in case o f scheduled tribes and the total

population. The scheduled tribe women remain educationally more backward

than men and also the rest of women. A glance at the above table would

provide only a disappointing glimpse of literacy status.

Sex wise literacy rate of scheduled tribes is given in table 1.3. It shows

women’s literacy rate is lower than men’s for all communities. For instance,

the women’s literacy rates for tribal population in the large states for India

such as Andhra pradesh and Orissa are 10%. And Rajastan, it is as low as

4%. Viewed against such a black scenario, Kerala presents a much better

position with the tribal women in the state having an overall literacy rate of

51%.

Table 1.3. : Sex-w ise triballiteracy rates in India, 1991

SI. No. State/ Uts Male Female Total1 Andara Pradesh 25.25 8.68 17.162 Arunachal Pradesh 44.00 24.94 34.453 Assam 58.93 38.98 49.164 Bihar 38.40 14.75 26.785 Goa 54.43 29.01 42.916 Gujarat 48.25 24.20 36.457 Haryana - - -

8 Himachal Pradesh 62.74 31.18 47.099 Jammu & Kashmir - ■ - -

10 Karnataka 47.95 23.57 36.0111 Kerala 63.38 51.07 57.2212 Madhya Pradesh 32.16 10.73 21.5413 Maharashtra 49.09 24.03 36.7914 Manipur 62.39 44.48 53.6315 Meghalaya 49.78 43.63 46.7116 Mizoram 86.66 78.70 82.7117 Nagaland 66.27 54.51 60.5918 Orissa 34.44 10.21 22.3119 Panjab - - -

20 Rajasthan 33.29 4.42 19.4421 Sikkim 66.80 50.37 59.0122 Tamil Nadu 35.25 20.23 27.8923 Tripura 58.88 27.34 40.3724 Uttar Pradesh 49.95 19.86 35.7025 West Beagal 40.07 14.98 27.7826 Anda& N Islands 64.16 48.74 56.6227 Chandigarh - - -

28 Dt N Haaveli 40.75 15.94 28.2129 Daman Diu 63.58 41.49 52.9130 Delhi - - -

31 Lakshadeveep 89.50 71.72 80.5832 Pondichery - - -

India 40.65 18.19 29.60Source; Census of India, series 1,paper- 1 of 1991, provisional population totals.

Table 1.4. : Progress of Enrolment of tribal children

YearClasses (number in Lakhs)

I - V VI - VIII Total

1955-56 10.45 1.34 11.79

1970-71 24.63 3.79 28.42

1980 -.81 46.60 7.42 54.02

1983 -84 54.00 10.00 64.00

1993 -.94 85.95 21.94 107.89

Source: (1) Government of India (1986) selected Educational statistics, New Delhi

(2) Government of India ministry of Human Resource Development, Annual Report, 1994 - 95.

Since 1950 determined efforts have been made towards achievement of

the goal. The result is that there has been progress in Enrolment and

Retention o f all the categories. The above table 1.4 shows the progress o f

Enrolment of tribal children. In terms of the size and structure of school

enrolment o f tribes, significant increases from 11.79 lakhs in 1961 to 107.89

in 1991.

Table 1.5. : Drop out rates (scheduled castes, scheduled tribes andgeneral) 1987-88

Classes Scheduled castes Scheduled tribes General

I - IV 65.21 51.60 46.97

I-VIII 80.01 68.81 62.29Source: programme of action 1992 (NPE 986) govt, of India, 1992, p. 5.

Continuing educational backwardness of the scheduled tribes is also

reflected in the very high dropout rate o f students at all levels o f education. In

fact, their dropout rate is the highest at all levels even higher than scheduled

castes, another highly depressed section. It is noticed that the drop out rate

increases as they go higher in education. Table 1.5 which shows that in

7 6 ’r~

12

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. CANNANORE 1

KERALA ADMmiSTRATIVE DIVISIONS

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50

1987- 88 drop out rates percentages at the levels I- IV, and I- VIII were 65.21

and 80.01 respectively; but significantly lower for the population in general.

Indiresan (2002) has observed that the major reason why children drop

out o f school is that “they have to walk large distance to draw water and

gather fuel. The provision of water and fuel at the doorstep of rural

households will be more effective in filling up the nation’s class rooms than

enacting a constitutional amendment”.

1.2. STATUS OF TRIBAL EDUCATION IN KERALA

Kerala is one of the Southern most states o f India, As per 1991 census

population in Kerala was 29,098, 518 o f which 320967 belong to the category

of scheduled tribes. Tribal communities are found in almost all districts of

Kerala. But numerically their major concentrations in Wayanad, Idukki,

Kannur and Palakkad districts, comprising 35 different tribal communities.

Problems of educational development o f tribes received attention after

independence. After the formulation of Kerala in 1956, the educational

problems o f tribal people have received greater attention by the Government,

as is evidenced by the appointment o f various commissions and committees.

The education committee on the welfare of backward communities brought

out a report in 1963, which made several suggestions for the school and

college education (Govt, o f Kerala 1963). The Nettoor Commission and

Kumara Pillai Commissions were concerned with, the question of reservation

of jobs for backward communities, in Kerala. Apart from the Government

agencies a few individual scholars also have looked into the socio-economic

and educational problems of tribes in Kerala. Some o f these studies have

looked into the following aspects.

10

(1) Educational problems and performance o f tribal students at the high

school stage (Srekandan Nair 1985, Ashok, 1989, Nair, PKB 1975) at the

college level (George, 1975),

(2) Present day problems of tribes, such as land alienation, labors bondage,

and indebtedness (Mathur, 1977),

(3) Inter community variations in socio-economic educational status (Paul

1989; Balakrishnan 1989) and

(4) Gender difference in educational levels among tribes (Basheer 1994).

Kerala is in the forefront in literacy. In 1991 it has attained the highest

effective literacy rate o f 89.81 percentage. Kerala retained its position by

being on top with a 90.92% literacy rate (India 2002).

Kerala is one of the states that gives due emphasis to human resource

development. The dedicated efforts o f various agencies, the state, voluntary

agencies and religious organizations, have taken Kerala to high levels of

educational achievements. A large share o f Government expenditure is

devoted to education.

Table 1.6. : Gender and Community Literacy rates of Kerala

SI. No Category Male Female Total

1 Literacy rate o f Scheduled tribe 63.88 51.07 57.22

2 Literacy rate o f scheduled caste 85.22 74.31 79.66

3 Total Literacy 93.62 86.17 89.81

Source: Census of India 1991; series 10, Kerala, paper 3 of 1991 final population totals

It is noticed that literacy level of the tribes lag far behind those of the

other sections o f the population. The Government o f Kerala has made

significant efforts for tribal development.

11

The literacy rate o f tribal people in Kerala during 1991 was 57.22%

while the general literacy rate was 89%. As a part o f the total literacy

programme of the state a sub project for tribal literacy programme was

launched in September 1991. The programme could not achieve the desired

level of impact in certain remote tribal pockets. Hence, to bridge these gaps

and consolidate the literacy status already achieved by the tribal people, the

state ‘Saksharatha Samithi’ launched the post literacy and continuing

education among tribals in the state from September 1993. These

programmes included several items incidental to the cultural and socio­

economic advancement o f tribals. During 1995-96 the literacy programmes

were transferred to the ‘Panchayat Raj Institutions’ (Tribal sub plan 1999).

In all the five-year plans, priority was given to educational

development o f scheduled tribes. The main reason for the very low spread of

education among scheduled tribes is the peculiar nature of their habitations.

Majority of the scheduled tribes is living in remote areas, far away from

educational Institutions. The social and economic conditions prevailing in the

tribal settlements are not conducive for studies. Lack of sufficient educational

institutions in tribal areas, poverty etc. curtails effective educational

development among scheduled tribes. More over illiteracy o f parents, neither

attaches much importance to education nor insists that their children attended

class regularly (Tribal sub plan 1999).

After two decades of special efforts by the Government for the

betterment o f education among tribal population, the level o f literacy among

them remained awfully low in the State (Government o f Kerala, 1984).

12

KEltALA

WAYANAD DISTRICT

CANNANORE

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1.3. TRIBES IN WAYANAD

Wayanad, one o f the 14 Districts o f Kerala, is situated at an elev£|ted,

picturesque, mountainous plateaus on the crest o f the Western Ghats. The

district came into existence on 1®' November 1980. Formerly it was paift of

Kannur and Kozhikode districts. The district has a geographical area of 2jl26

sq.kms, with a total population o f 6,72,000 as per 1991 census. The njiost

notable social feature o f Wayanad is its large tribal population, comprising of

different tribal groups. The scheduled tribes constitute 17.1% of the district

population. 35.82% of the states tribal population lives in Wayanad. They are

distributed in Mananthavady, Vythiri and Sulthan Bathery Taluks of the

district. As per 1991 census the total tribal population of the district is

1,14,959 among whom the Paniyan, Adiyan, Kattunayckan, Kuruman and

Kurichian are the major tribes. There are other smaller tribal groups who ilso

follow distinct customs, lifestyles, dialects and practices. Total tribal

population of each of these categories is given below.

Table -1.7 : Total tribal population of Wayanad District.

No Tribes F %

1 Adiyans 5701 5.0

2 Kurumans 16086 14.1

3 Kurichians 13367 11.7

4 Kattunayakans 9195 8.0

5 Paniyans 36560 31.9

6 Others 33591 29.3

Total 114500(17.1%) 100.0Total population of Wayanad in 1991 6.7 lakhs (Source 1991 Census)

Historians are o f the view that organized human life existed in these

parts at least 10 centuries before Christ. Countless evidences about new

Stone Age civilization can be seen in the Edakkal Cave near Ambalavayal.

13

In the tribal society family is the basic unit. Each tribe has its separate

dwelling locations. Cluster of families belonging to a particular tribal

community has common dwelling place and a common leader who acts as a

priest and administrative head. Traditional tribal economy is essentially a

subsistence economy. Members o f Kurchian and Kuruman communities are

traditional agriculturists. Adiyan and Paniyan are non-cultivating

communities. The Kattunayakans are the most primitive among the tribes of

Wayanad. Thurston conducted a study on the traditions, belief system,

customs and religious practices o f the various tribal communities (Thurston

1907).

Before proceeding to the further details, it is important to have a basic

understanding about the target group for the present study. They are Panyan,

Adiyan, Kuruman, Kurichian and Kattunaykan.

1.3.1. Panyan : A vast majority o f tribes in Kerala state hail from the

Paniyan tribal sect. Although Paniyans inhabit in the regions o f Wayanad and

the neighboring parts of Kannur and Malappuram districts, about 71.95% of

the Paniyan tribal population is found in Wayanad alone. The Paniyans

constitute the largest group o f illiterate amongst the various tribes in

Wayanad. The term “Paniyan” has originated from the word “Pani” meaning

work in Malayam. Paniyan means ‘worker or labourer. It is believed that

when ‘Chettis’ from Karnataka migrated to Wayanad, they found these

aborginals and forced them into bonded labour. As bonded labourers, the

landlords once sold the Paniyans along with the plantations. They are hardy

and good agricultural labourers, who by their unremitting exertions have

made most significant contributions to the development o f the once malaria -

ridden Wayanad district (Menon 1962). They dwell in small huts near the

plantations where they work and some times wander from place to place in

search of work. There are also a number o f Paniya families living in colonies

14

constructed by the Government in recent years. They are mainly agrarian

labours and very few posses own land. Some of them engage in collecting

forest produce such as honey, firewoods and fruits. The Panyans speak a

dialect, which has considerable difference with literary Malayalam.

Monogomy is usually the rule among them. Polyandry is strictly prohibited.

Divorce is permitted, widow remarriage is not a taboo among them. Among

the Paniyan community there exists the institution o f headman, known as

Chemmi, This office is hereditary and is passed from father to eldest son. In

the absence of a son, daughter’s husband is selected to hold the office. He

presides over the council o f elders which takes decisions on important issues.

He acts as priest during marriage, funerals, etc. Now - a - days, the traditional

concept as headman as supreme authority is languishing now-a-days and

much reduced to the position of a priest. Despite the government effort for

their development, this tribal group still lives in the midst of poverty, ill

health, illiteracy and ignorance.

1.3.2. The Adiyan ; The Adiya population in Wayanad is only 5% o f the total

tribal population. The Adiyans are known as “Ravular” traditionally. Like

Paniyans, Adiyans are also one of the slave tribal sects in Kerala. They were

nomadic till few decades ago. They are an agricultural tribe who works in the

fields. The word Adiyan connotes a slave or vassal attached to a person of

standing (Luiz 1962). They eat non-vegetation food. Adiyans speak a dialect

similar to Kannada as their mother tongue. They are supposed to have come

to Kerala with the early migrants from Mysore called the Chettis and

continued to be their agricultural workers. In the nuclear Adiya tribal family,

the husband is the head of the household. The Adiyan settlements are located

on hillocks and the revenue land near where they work. Majority of them is

lowly paid agricultural labours. They are Hindus by religion and also

celebrate the festivals of ‘Onam’ and ‘Vishu’. They also visit temples (Luiz

1962).

15

1.3.3. The K urum an : The Kurumans are supposed to have been one of the

original inhabitance of Wayanad. They are the artisan tribe o f Wayand. They

live in a cluster, consisting of several settlements. They speak a dialect,

which is a mixture o f Kannada, Tamil and Malayalam (Mishra, 1972). A few

are agricultural labourers among them. Kurumans are skillful blacksmiths,

carpenters, potters and basket makers. They follow patrilineal system of

families. Like Kurichians, their men are also expert bowmen. They had

fought along with Pazhassiraja against the British.

Kurumans live in clean houses; the walls and roofs o f which are strong,

with good windows and doors. There settlements are known as ‘Kudi’ in

which there will be ten to twelve houses. Normally ‘Kudi is located adjacent

to their agricultural farm. In every Kudi there is a separate sacred place

known as ‘Davapura’ for performing rituals to their deity. At present the

Kurumans are engaged in all sorts o f employment, A good number of them

are in Government service.

1.3.4. The Kurichian ; The Kurichians are also an agricultural tribal

community. Just like Kurumans, some of them work on their own land. They

are said to be aristocrats among the tribes, occupying the highest social

position among the Wayanad tribes (Menon, 1962). However unlike

Paniyans they are averse to manual labour and are seldom hired as manual

labourers. A large number o f Kurichiyans once lost their land holdings to the

land-grabbing migrants. Now many of them are living in poverty. They are

concentrated mainly in the Manathvady block. They live in joint families.

Each o f their joint family consists o f as many as 20 to 30 members. The

Kurichiyans are considered to be the most advanced tribal group in terms of

educational and economic indicators among the tribal groups of Wayanad. A

small number o f Kurichiyans have converted to Christianity. They are

matrilineal. The Chieftain, known as ‘Pittan’, controls their social life. The

16

social control mechanisms are strong and efficient. They too joined Pazhassi

Raja to fight against the British. It is believed that Pazhassi Raja brought

Kurichians to Wayanad from other parts o f Kerala.

The Kurithiyans have clean food habits and they keep their house,

premises and dress always clean. Formally the Kurichiyans were shifting

cultivators. At present they are engaged in wet and dry cultivation.

1.3.5. The K attunayakan : They are a very backward and primitive tribe and

are employed as labourers. The Kattunayak community is found in Wayanad,

Kozikode and Malappuram districts. As their names denote the

Kattunayakans were the kings of the jungle regions engaged in the collection

and gathering of forest produces. They are known as ‘Ten Kurumans’ since

they collect honey from the forest. They have all the physical features o f a

hill tribe. Even now they seldom mingle with other communities. Their

language is a mixture of all the Dravidian languages. The Kattunayakan

tribes have a headman called ‘Muttan’, whose decisions are said to be final.

They also live in a cluster. Kattunayakans are mostly engaged in agricultural

activities as labourers.

It is observed that Wayanad district is the abode o f culturally different

tribal communities. They are in different stages o f development. Most o f

them are living in backward or under developed pockets or in the forests.

Some of them have shifted to the colonies constructed for them by the

Government. Many of them do not own land and make a living on manual

labour, collecting forest produces and making baskets etc. They have to be

approached with different schemes and strategies which suit to their way of

life and cultural background for their integral development.

17

1.4. TRIBAL EDUCATION IN WAYANAD DISTRICT

The tribal population still lag behind others in terms o f educational

development in this region. The percentage o f literacy as per 1991 census

was only 50.63%, which is in striking contrast with the tribal literacy rate of

Kerala 57.22%. Table is given below:

Table 1.8. : Disparity in the literacy between scheduled tribes’literacy in Wayanad and overall state literacy in percentage

State or DistrictGeneral

Male Female Total

Scheduled Tribes

Male Female Total

Kerala 93.62 86.17 89.81 63.38 51.07 57.22

Wayanad 87.39 77.69 82.73 57.89 43.45 50.63

Source. Census of India, service 12 paper 3 of 1991, final population totals.

Much of the available literature on the tribes o f Kerala, especially of

Wayanad, describes their educational backwardness and life conditions which

are terribly low.

Since the close o f the 18“* century Malabar came under the direct

British rule. The pioneer efforts for the introduction of modem system of

education were made during this period. ‘The Madras Local Board Act 1834’

and the subsequent ‘Elementary Education Acts’ were the early attempts for

spreading elementary schools in many parts o f Malabar. The Basel

Evangelical Missions established schools in parts of Malabar since the middle

o f the 19“' century. But the Wayanad region, which was mostly inhabited by

the tribal population, remained neglected in the field of education.

The history of education in Wayanad is very recent, starts with the

arrival o f settlers from the plain lands. Till the settlers come, the tribal people

had not heard about any formal education system. During the British period,

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when Wayanad was under the Malabar district o f the former Madras state, a

few educational institutions run by private individuals and Christian

Missionary organizations existed. The large influx o f settlers during the first

half of the 20*’’ century transformed the socio-economic and cultural scenario

o f the district. All the different sections of the Christian community started

schools in the district followed by other communities. There after formal

education began to spread in different parts o f Wayanad (Krishna 1999),

The first school in Wayanad was established in the year 1869 at

Manathavady, By 1900, there were six schools in the region. After the

formation o f the present state o f Kerala, 26 schools began in 1957 in several

remote areas of Wayanad, Until independence, education had remained the

privilege of the elite group o f the area. After independence, universal primary

education becomes the declared objective o f the state. Class education has

turned into mass education, with special emphasis on the education of the

backward group

The first high school in Wayanad was opened in 1944 at Kalpetta

under private management. The Government has ever since shown keen

interest in the educational progress of this area, which became a separate

district in the year 1980, The Government took various measures for the

educational development o f scheduled caste and scheduled tribe sections by

setting up special schools and providing financial and other incentives to the

learners. But this brought only limited impact on the education among the

weaker sections. No doubt, migration was a contributive factor in the

educational development o f Wayanad. But one o f the adverse effects of

migration was that, the migrants encroached upon the tribal land, which may

be the reason many tribal people are landless (Kurup, 1988) Due to their

lower and socio-economic status many of the tribal groups could not make

use of the educational opportunities.

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At present there are 253 schools in Wayanad District. Among them

120 are lower primary schools 77 are upper primary schools and 56 are high

schools. 138 schools are under Government Management and the remaining

115 schools are under private aided management. Unaided schools are very

few in number.

In all the five- year plans, educational development of tribes received

priority: even then, still they remain educationally backward. One of the

major reasons may be tribal settlements do not have adequate facilities.

Majority o f the scheduled tribes live in remote areas, far away from

educational institutions. There are only 0.39 schools per 1,000 population. In

Kerala, there is a school for an average population of 2,387; in Wayanad the

corresponding number is 2,591. Further, while the state has a school for an

average area o f 3.2 sq.km, in Wayand there is a school for only 8.07 sq.km.

The average number o f students in Wayanad is 532, where as in Kerala it is

around 481.As transport facilities in the district is unsatisfactory, the children

find it extremely difficult to reach school (Lakshmana, 1995).

Another reason is : The social and economic conditions prevailing in

the tribal settlements are not conducive for studies (Government o f Kerala

1999- 2000 Sub- plan). As many as three- fifths of the scheduled tribe

households in the district were below the poverty line according to the survey

conducted by the Rural Development (Government o f Kerala) in 1992. Again

two thirds o f the adult population o f the tribes are, in general, illiterate

(Government o f Kerala, DPEP draft project report, 1994). They do not give

adequate importance to the education of their children; nor do they insist on

the regular attendance in classes by the children, who happen to be enrolled.

Most o f them are first generation learners.

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Literacy and enrolment o f girls in schools are interdependent. Girls

who have missed schooling, due to non-enrolment or dropout, grow into

illiterate adults who have a negative impact on the education of girls. Primary

education of girls acquires special importance as it is widely accepted that

five years o f effective schooling is necessary to build permanent literacy in a

population. The slow growth of female literacy is causing intense concern at

the national level.

Therefore, one o f the major obstacles to achieve universalisation of

elementary education in India is the poor enrolment ratio o f girl children. The

education o f girl child unfortunately is viewed as an area o f low priority by a

majority of Indian parents. Education of girls, therefore, has become a major

policy concern in India, both as human right and as a development imperative.

The situation is more pathetic among tribal girls. There is a need for

undertaking a study on the factors affecting access, enrolment, dropout,

retention and achievement of tribal girls. The present study is an attempt to

find out the extent of influence of household, community and school factors

on access, enrolment, dropout, retention and achievements.

1.5. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

“The Effect of Household, Community and School Factors on Access,

Enrolment, Retention and Achievement of Scheduled Tribe Girls at Primary

Level.”

1.6. NEED AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The Government has always stressed upon the universalisation of

primary education since independence. Yet more than half (almost 57%) of

the Indian population is illiterate according to 1991 Indian census. It is more

alarming for the tribal communities; almost 73% of them are illiterate.

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Literacy skills have now become a necessary tool in the process o f

education because they are an indispensable source o f communication.

Whenever verbal communication is not possible literacy comes to the aid of

the individual. For any society, education is considered an important

indicator. Literacy being the simplest and easily measurable aspect, its

percentage in any society, is taken as an indicator o f its development.

University Grants Commission of India states the Importance of

women’s education. “Women’s education has always been regarded as a key

factor in the development o f society, in the transformation of character and

utilization of all available human resources. It is a well-known fact that the

potentialities of a society cannot be developed fully unless women participate

in the economic, social and political activities as equal partners and it is in

that the education of women plays a significant part” (Annual Report

1983-84). .

The following figures amply provide a glance at the enrolment,

retention and dropping out of the tribal girls, where the study was undertaken.

The tribal girls enrolled in the year 1991- 92 June was 2044 in the I standard,

which was reduced to 1190 in the 3' year i.e. III standard, which again

lessened to 1135 (52.6%) in V standard by 1996- 97. (Survey, Edu. Dept.

1996- 97 DPEP, Wayanad). The availability o f school facilities in Wayanad,

especially in the tribal area, is far below the state average; there are number of

children in each Panchayat who have never been enrolled. If at all admitted,

many of them drop out, hence the rate o f physical drop out from schools on

the tribal area is high.

Systematic researches are therefore necessary to understand the

variables that have impeded the progress of education among the tribes in the

past and the present. This understanding will enable the suggestion of

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measures that may accelerate the extension and utilization o f education in the

tribal areas.

Resume of the study

The thesis is divided into five chapters. The first introductory chapter

dealt with the scenario o f educational system at all India, Kerala and Wayanad

level. It also contained with a brief description about the major tribes in

Wayanad, statement of the problem and need and significance of the study.

The second chapter deals with the review of the related literature.

Third chapter is devoted to the objectives o f the study, hypotheses,

methodology and procedure of the work along with the presentation of

different tools used for this study.

The entire fourth chapter is dedicated to the analysis o f the data,

collected through the field study. The entire data are analysed and the findings

are presented systematically.

The fifth chapter contains the summary of the major findings and its

implications. Based on the study few recommendations and suggestions are

made in view of enhancing the tribal education.

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