1

CHAPTER-I

INTRODUCTION

The Deccan has been an important region in the history of South

India. It has witnessed rivalries of various kinds which resulted in open

conflicts and wars. The Vijayanagara and Bahmani Kingdoms dominated

India south of the Vindhyas for over 200 years. The disintegration of

Delhi Sultanate brought about the establishment of these two Kingdoms

which have added a new dimension to the history of South India. There

was a conflict of interest between Bahmani Kingdom and Vijayanagara

Empire. Many learned people migrated from Delhi to Deccan in order to

live a rewarding life in the region which was the cultural centre of India.

It is a rewarding academic exercise to trace the historical status of

Bahmani Kingdom which assumes great significance in the history of

medieaval India.

The geographical setting of Deccan is presented in the thesis with

special reference to Bahmani rulers (1347-1500 A.D). The geographical

areas ruled by the Bahmanis were a part of the Deccan Plateau which

covers most of the peninsular portion of India. It comprises Madhya

Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. The

Northern part of this table land runs from East to West. It has different

ranges called Vindhya Mountains. There are two peaks Mount Abu on the

2

extreme West and Mount Parasnath on the extreme East. These mountain

ranges have an altitudinal variations ranging from 1500 feet to 4000 feet.

The Vindhyas formed a strong barricade of mountain ranges and forests

between Northern and Southern India which had a natural obstruction in

former days in the integration of one empire, according to Encyclopedia

of Britannica (1768)1

The Deccan is surrounded by Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats

which are the two elevated sides running along the respective coasts of

India having the heights of 3000 feet and 1500 feet. The Western Ghats

form a sea wall of the Maharashtra state with only a narrow strip between

them and the shore whild the Eastern Ghats broken ranges which leave

broad level tracts between their base and the coast. The rainfall of the

Vindhya region is carried to the West and falls in the Gulf of Cambay

while the rainfall of the Southern half of the Deccan Plateau flows

eastward and falls in the Bay of Bengal. The three prominent rivers

namely Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery rise in the mountains, flow

eastwards and form deltas before they join the sea on the eastern shores.

The entire Deccan area basically consists of pene plains hedged with

highlands at intervals2.

These highlands are traditionally divided into three parts namely- i)

The northern part which include the Delta of Mahanadi, ii) The central

3

part comprising the Deltas of the Krishna and the Godavari and iii) The

third part comprising Tamil Nadu which was called Karnatak by the

medieval historians. These were the first two parts out of which the

territories of Bahmani kingdom were carved according to the historians.

Its frontier in the North West began from the coast of Chaul and

ran further Northwards across the Tapti and the Narmada, covered Mandu

and Gawillgarh from where the River Godavari served as the border line

upto Rajah Mundry in the East. In the South West it began from Goa, run

eastward and joins the river Tungabhadra at Bankapur. The Tungabhadra

River divided common borders of Vijayanagar Empire and Bahmani

kingdom while the Krishna River flows in the Deccan and joins Bay of

Bengal. Thus in the West from Chaul to Goa and in the East from Rajah

Mundry to Kondavidu in the Delta of the Krishna stretched the kingdom.

This territorial expansion commenced from 1358 and was completed by

1481 according to Sherwani (1985)3.

The Deccan highland had thick forest which had an impact on

military operation, administrative control and economic status of the

Bahmani kingdom. Gawan utilized this natural advantage and

strengthened the military system. The region also consists of vast hilly

area and many perennial and seasonal rivers. Krishna, Tungabhadra and

Godavari rivers determined the Southern and Northern territories of the

4

kingdom. These major rivers also had their tributaries namely Varadha,

Painganga, Bhima and so on4. Narmada and Tapti facilitated better

irrigation on the North Western frontier. The rivers flowed from west to

east since the slope of the land is oriented like that. The perennial and

seasonal rivers facilitated cultivation of different crops in the region.

Sometimes the Deccan was subjected to famine5.

The Deccan had black cotton soil, red soil and alluvial soil. The

Deccan had basically a vast portion of black cotton soil which consisted

of deep black, medium black and undifferentiated black soils. The deep

black cotton soil was the most fertile soil which facilitated the cultivation

of rice, jawar, bajra, sugarcane, pulses, oil seeds, wheat and other crops.

The red cotton soil was mostly in parts of Telangana area which

facilitated the cultivation of wheat, cotton, sugarcane and rice. The

alluvial soil was found on the banks of the rivers and facilitated better

agricultural productivity.

The Deccan was located in the region of sudanic climate governed

by the south west and easterly monsoons. The temperature was between

100c and 45

0c in extreme cases and normally between 14

0c and 34

0c. The

region also was known for moderate climate according to the writings of

foreign travelers. The Bahmani kingdom had people who shared different

races, languages, and religions. In the beginning, Deccan had linguistic

5

groups such as Marathi, Canarese and Telugu. The influx of the Muslims

with the establishment of Bahmani Sultanate found Turkish, Persian,

Afghan, Arabian and Abysinian elements to the population, observes

Ahmad (1904)6.

There were different castes and sub-castes in the region which were

more representative of economic groups than racial and social groups.

There were agriculturists, artisans, traders, skilled workers and other

segments of the population according to the works of historians7. The

people of the Bahmani kingdom belonged to Hindu and Muslim religions

predominantly. Among the Hindus the Chaturvarna system prevailed in

the region. Shias and Sunnis were the major groups of Muslims. There

were two classes namely aristocrats and common masses in the Bahmani

kingdom. The aristocrats led a royal life while the poor had lived below

the poverty line according to Gribble (1896)8 and other historians.

A Historical Perspective of Deccan

India and the Arab world have long shared a unique relationship. As a

matter of fact, the Arab world has a strange fascination for the Indian

mind. Indian Muslims in particular are greatly attached to the Arab world

because the area seats the cradle of their religion and the Arab nations

6

phenomenalise the pristine culture of Islam according to eminent

historian Asaf A.A.Fyzee (1967).9

The rise of Islam (AD 622) was a significant event for the Persian

Gulf which was a highway of international trade. The Arab conquests of

Syria and Persia and the transference of the epicenter of the Islamic

Empire to Damascus and Baghdad had a profound effect on the region.

Mesopotamia also emerged as a flourishing centre of economic activity,

writes Hitti (1960)10

.

The orthodox Caliphs dominated the religious and political

scenario after the death of Prophet Muhammad during AD 632 – 661.

The Persians, who were basically Aryans, enjoyed a national existence of

their own for centuries and were represented by a well-organized military

power which conquered the Arab world during the Second century –

Sixth century A.D. The Persians were defeated in AD 637 by the Arabs

during the Qadisiyah war which began an era of Arab rule in this region.

In AD 649 the first maritime victory was achieved for Islam and the first

island was added to the Moslem state by Abdullah. Umar first formulated

the ideology that in the peninsula itself none but the Moslem religion

should ever be tolerated. His military communistic constitution set up an

ascendancy of Arabism.

7

The Arabians came into possession not only of geographical areas

in Fertile Crescent on the lands of Persia and Egypt but of the earliest

seats of civilization in the whole world according to Charles Oman.11

Yazid earned the title fata-ul-‘Arab (hero of the Arabs) and gave a new

identity to Arabs during AD 685. Hitti (1960) adds: “One hundred years

after the death of the founder of Islam his followers were the masters of

an empire greater than that of Rome at its zenith, an empire extending

from the Bay of Biscay to the Indus and the confines of China and from

the Aral Sea to the lower cataracts of the Nile, and the name of the

prophet-son of Arabia, joined with the name of almighty Allah, was being

called five times a day from thousands of minarets scattered over south-

western Europe, northern Africa and western and central Asia.”12

The invaders from the desert brought with them no tradition of learning,

no heritage of culture, to the lands they conquered. The Arabs drew their

scientific knowledge from older Greek sources and received their first

inputs from there. The Umayyads subsequently ruled the roost politically

and socially in the Middle East. However, there was a decline and fall of

the Umayyad dynasty during AD 683-743 according to historical

documents.

There was establishment of a new Abbasid dynasty which

consolidated Islamic forces in this region during AD 750-1258. The

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period AD 750 commencing from the ruling of al-Saffah till the ruling of

al-Mutawakkil in AD 847 is documented as the golden prime of the

Abbasids in this region.13

The Caliph was the head of the state. The

population throughout the empire was divided into four social classes and

the ruling Moslems represented the Calipha household and the aristocracy

of Arabian conquerors. The hereditary principle of succession instituted

by the Umayyad Caliphs was followed throughout the ‘Abbasid’ regime

which sadly produced evil results. Military department, Postal

department, Educational department and other welfare departments were

created by this regime in the region, writes Nadwi (1929)14

.

The basic pattern of Arabian social organization collapsed during

the Abbasids (AD 750 -1258) who lost their throne to foreign elements.

As the pure Arabian element receded into the background non-Arabs,

half-breeds and sons of freed women subsequently took over the regions.

There was organized development of industry and trade during this

period. Agriculture received great impetus under the early Abbasids since

they realized that farming was the chief source of state income.

Horticulture was also promoted on a priority basis. It included the

cultivation of fruits, vegetables and flowers. Christianity also grew in the

region during the Third – Twelfth Centuries.

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Hitti (1960)15

observes: “The Abbasid period (AD 750 –1000) was

a formative period during which Moslem civilization received that

distinctive stamp which it has retained down to our time. In theology and

law, in science and philosophy, in literature and the humanities, Islam is

today virtually what it was nine centuries ago. Its schools of thought,

developed then, have persisted in some form to the present day. Among

those schools the sects are the most important. Under the stimulus of

Christian as well as Hellenistic ideas Moslem asceticism became mystical

in the second Moslem century. From speculative mysticism, Sufism

advanced to theosophy. The step from theosophy to pantheism was not

difficult and was made chiefly under Indo-Iranian influences. For the first

five Islamic centuries, that form of religious experience termed Sufism

stood almost entirely on an individual basis. Various other independent

fraternities developed in various countries at different times, ranging in

their Sufism from ascetic quietism to pantheistic antinomianism. The Sufi

orders represent the only ecclesiastical organization in Islam. Moreover,

Sufism founded and popularized the cult of sainthood.”16

The Arab region was subjected to Ottoman rule during AD 1298–

1922. This was not only the greatest Moslem rule of modern times, but

one of the most enduring Moslem states of all time according to

historians. The rulers belonged to a nomadic tribe of Turks of Central

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Asian origin. In political terms the Ottoman Empire was a world power

which reflected great brilliance, since it consisted of economically

backward empire of soldiers, clerics and administrators resting on an

immobile, tax-paying, peasant base.

The history of the Persian Gulf represents several stages dating

from The Pre-Islamic age to modern times. No country and no nationality

has received so little consideration and study in modern times as have

Arabia and the Arabs, laments reputed historian Hitti (1960)17

. Arabs are

the heirs of the ancient civilization that flourished from the banks of the

Tigris and the Euphrates, to the land of the Nile and on the eastern shore

of the Mediterranean. They absorbed and assimilated the main features of

the Greco-Roman culture. Arabs have also contributed to human progress

substantially in the middle Ages.

Indian historian Vasanta Madhava (1996)18

writes: “One of the

main factors that influenced Arab relations with India was the

topographical peculiarities of the region, namely the existence of the

Arabian Sea. Trade was the determining factor in the relations between

Arabia and India. Various historical documents confirm that the Arab

civilization flourished largely on their Indian trade. Both the Arabic and

Indian sources allude to the existence of Indian trade centres in Arabia

11

and vice versa. It is interesting to note that the Arabs had appreciation for

Indian medicine and astrology.”

The Indian sub continent also witnessed a historic struggle for the

establishment of a strong monarchy between Turkish Sultanate and Delhi

Sultanat. Iltumish (1210-1236 A.D.) played a major role in the

consolidation of the Turkish conquests in north India. He appointed

Raziya, his daughter as his successor who had to contend against her

brothers and Turkish nobles. Another Era began under the leadership of

Balban (1246-1287 A.D.) who increase the prestige and power of the

monarchy as the descendant of the legendary Iranian king Afrasiyab. He

strived his best towards sustaining the strategic and diplomatic relations

under the ageies of Delhi Sultanat. He was defeated by Jalaluddin Khalji

in 1286 A.D. which demoralized Mongols.

There was internal rebillions and the struggle for the territorial

consolidation of the Delhi Sultanat resulted in the extension of the

authority of the Sultan over Bihar, Orissa, North Bengal, Assam and other

parts of the country. The southern and western frontiers of the Delhi

Sultanat were not fully secured but the death of Iltumish had caused a

setback to the Delhi Sultanat. The establishment of a strong monarchy

and the consolidation of the Delhi Sultanat paved the way for its

expansion into western India and the Deccan writes Chandra (2007).19

12

Bakshi (2003)20

writes: “The Khaljis ruled the Delhi Sultanat

during 1290-1400 A.D. after overthrowing the incompetent successors of

Balban. The rise of the Khaljis who shared Turkish-Afghan origin ended

the Turkish monopoly over the Delhi Sultanat. Alauddin Khalji (1296-

1316 A.D.) won over most of the nobles and soldiers by adopting the

methods of severity and ruthlessness”. The Sultan also formulated ser ies

of regulations in order to prevent the nobles from conspiring against him.

There were no rebellions against him during his life time.

Historians have observed that the pattern of struggle in the South

did not allow divisions along religious lines. But political and economic

considerations played a major role in the conflict between the various

states in South India. In the west, Malwa and Gujarat were drawn into

the affairs of the Deccan. The Bahmani Kingdom acted as a cultural

bridge between the north and the south. The invasion of South India

began in AD 1308 when Malik Kafur was deputed by Ala-ud-din to

conquer the Deccan and procure valuables which were available in the

temples and palaces of the rulers of Deccan. The Kafur was able to

conquer Devagiri, Warangal, Malbar and other places. The sweeping

military successes of Kafur only show the unpreparedness of the local

rulers. In the south the result of the expedition was only of a temporary

character according to Nilakanta Sastry.21

13

Muhammad-bin-Tughlak was the most striking figure of mediaeval

Indian history. He changed the capital from Delhi to Devagiri in order to

control the southern provinces and strengthen the forces of Islam during

AD 1334. The closing years of the sultan’s rule were full of revolts. Firuz

recognized the independence of the Deccan. The Bahmani dynasty also

ruled South India during AD 1347–1684.

Writings on Bahmani History

There are very few writers of Bahmani history since most of the

writings are found in Persian language. Ferishta, Ali Tabataba, Barani

and Haroon Khan Sherwani are identified as the prominent writers of the

history of Bahmani Kingdom.

Ferishta

Ferishta was indeed a Persian historian who was called as

Muhammad Qasim Hindu Shah. He lived during 1560-1620 A.D. and

served as the captain of guards of King Murtuza Nizam Shah who ruled

Ahmadnagar. He was persuaded by Ibrahim Shah II to write a history of

India with special reference to Deccan dynasties since most of the

historians had not adequately documented the past history. Ferishta22

wrote Tarik-i-Ferishta which consist of several books on the Kings of

Ghazni and Lahore, Kings of Delhi, Kings of Dakhin (Kulbarga, Bijapur,

14

Ahmadnagar, Tilanga, Birar and Bidar), Kings of Gujarat, Kings of

Malwa, Kings of Khandesh, Kings of Bengal and Bihar, Kings of Multan,

Kings of Sind, Kings of Kashmir, rulers of Malabar, Saints of India and

an account of the climate and geography of India.

Ferishta’s monumental work namely Gulsan-i Ibrahimi is

regarded as Ferishta’s history by the historians. The work is indeed one of

the most important works relating to the medieval period of the history of

India. The rest of the chronicles of the period are regarded as a kind of

supplement to its main theme. Ferishta has also furnished a good number

of sources on which he has compiled the history of Bahmani kingdom.

Prominent among them include – Shaikh Athari’s Bahman Namah,

Nizamuddin’s Tabaqat-i-Akbari, Mirza Haider’s Tarikh-i-Rashidi, Mulla

Muhammad Lari’s Siraju’g-tawarikh, Mulla Dawud Bidri’s Tuhfatu’s-

Salatin and so on.

Peter Jackson has pointed out that Ferishta mostly relied upon the

works of Barani and Sarhindi and other legends concerning the Bahmani

dynasty. Davare (1961)23

has stated that Ferishta’s account is the most

widely quoted history of Bahmani Kingdom which also contains

fabrication. Other historians have also argued that Ferishta’s work Tarik-

i-Ferishti is an independent, reliable and credible work on the history of

15

Bahmani Kingdom. His work has found wider acceptance among the

historians.

General J.Briggs (1829)24

translated the works of Ferishta which is

known has a meticulous translation of Ferishta’s works. It is widely

quoted and respected in the academic circle. Scholars have noted that

Briggs made several additions to the original works of Ferishta but

omitted the whole of the 12th

book which dealt with Saints of India. The

Urdu translation work was also carried out by the scholars in the field of

history.

Syed Ali Tabataba

Syed Ali Tabataba authored Burhan-i Ma’asir which is a widely

quoted book on Bahmani dynasty. It was written few years before

Ferishta. Recently, it has been published in Persian language by the

Persian Texts Society of Hyderabad Deccan. The author has drawn more

or less the same chronicles as Ferishta in regard to the history of the

Deccan. The Persian manuscript was rendered into English by King

(1900)25

which is also known as an authentic source of reference about

Bahmani kingdom.

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E-sami-Abd-Al-Malek

E-sami-Abd-Al-Malek was an Indo – Muslim poet who wrote the

history of Bahmani Kingdom in Persian language. He lived during 1311-

1350 A.D. in India. He had come over to India via Baghdad and visited

Delhi during the reign of Sultan Naer-al-Din Mahmud. He witnessed the

rule of Mahmmad bin Tughluq and died at the age of 90. He was also

aware of the formation of Bahmani dynasty by Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah

in 1347 A.D. He completed the writing of history in 1350 A.D. which

primarily deals with the rule of Muslim in India including Deccan.

Scholars have pointed out that this work does not contain any specific

name but it is called has piran-e Hendi-nezad which means ‘Old Men of

Hindustan’. Some scholars have also called this work as ‘old and reliable

witnesses’. It has been rated has a useful supplement to Barani’s work

(Tari-e-firuzsahi) which also provides a comprehensive version about the

history of Deccan. This work is also known as a useful source of

information on the history of Delhi Sultanate in general and history of

Deccan in particular according to the historians.

Zia-al-Din Barani

Zia-Al-Din Barani26

was an Indian born Muslim historian who

wrote history of India with special reference to Delhi Sultanate. He lived

17

in India during 1285-1357 A.D. which witnessed the rule of Delhi Sultan

and formation of Bahmani dynasty. The author was the direct witness to

the developments which took place in Delhi and Deccan regions.

Scholars have observed that Barani has provided a partisan view of the

history in his work Tarik-i-Firuz Shahi since he was directly associated

with Delhi Sultanate. The work also provides the anecdotes of old

Persian Kings, viziers and sages along with traditions from the Prophet

Mohammad and other relevant details of Bahmani rule in Deccan. The

author has also provided an Islamic version of the Indian history and

Deccan history in his work. Scholars have noted that Barani’s experience

in India prompted his judgments but he looked to Iran as a cultural region

for their nourishment. His works are also translated by Indian historians

under different titles.

S.K.Sinha

Sinha basically hails from Hyderabad and he was brought up in the

environment of the late Nizam’s government. He undertook the

challenging task of writing the history of the Deccan in several volumes.

The scholar obtained detailed information from the contemporary

inscriptions, archaeological monuments, authoritative history and

documents which constituted an authentic record of the history of

Bahmani Kingdom. The scholar has documented the history not in its

18

political aspects only, but in its fuller meaning as the story of the

development of culture in its various phases. Sinha’s27

work namely –

Mediaeval History of the Deccan (volume-I) also covers two dynasties

namely – the Bahamanis and Adil Shahis of Bijapur. The work has been

appreciated as a document brimful of practical wisdom and will prove

subservient in shaping the future of our nascent state.

Major T.W. Haig

Haig (1907)28

has authored a book on historic landmarks of the

Deccan which provides relevant details of Bahmani kingdom. The scholar

has dealt with the boundaries of Bahmani kingdom, history of the

Bahmani dynasty, chronological details of Bahmani rule, rise and fall of

Bahmani dynasty and other factors. The work also provides

comprehensive details of the rule of Bahmani Sultans in general and their

contributions for educational, social, economic, political and cultural

progress of Deccan in particular. The scholar has also provided a detailed

account of two old capitals of the Deccan namely – Gulbarga and Bidar.

Haroon Khan Sherwani

Haroon Khan Sherwani was a renowned Indian historian who lived

in India during 1891-1980. He was educated in Aligarh, London,

Cambridge, Oxford, Grenoble and Geneva. He served the Osmania

19

University at Hyderabad as Professor of History and Political Science. He

was specialized in the history of Deccan in particular. Historians have

regarded his contributions to the study of Deccan history as authentic and

excellent. He has authored a good number of notable works which

include – Muslim Political Thought and Administration, The Bahmanis of

Deccan, Studies in the Foreign Relations of India – from the earliest

times to 1947, Cultural Trends in Medieval India, History of Medieval

Deccan, Cultural Understanding in Medidval India, The Bahmani

Kingdom, Sultan Muhammad Qutub Shah and so on.

In particular, The Bahmanis of Deccan29

covers a very important

part of the history of medieval India and corresponds to the period of a

unified Deccan. According to the scholar, the Bahmani history covers a

very important part of the history of medieval India and corresponds to

the period of a unified Deccan. The work is also regarded as the foremost

attempt at a comprehensive history of Bahmani dynasty by an Indian

historian. This book also provides relevant details about the Bahmani

rulers, social life, economic system, cultural influence, political

development and other aspects.

Saki (1998) authored a book containing two volumes entitled

Making History: Karnataka’s People and their Past30

which traces

Karnataka history from the time of the first signs of human habitation

20

40,000 years ago, till the time of its conquest by British colonialism. The

work is primarily based on a wide range of primary and secondary

sources which highlight the impact of British colonialism on Karnataka.

The author has also primarily dealt with the role of Bahamani rulers who

played a major role in transforming Deccan region.

Uma Das Gupta’s (2001) collected essays entitled The World of the

Indian Ocean Merchant-1500-180031

was brought out by Oxford

University Press. The author was one of the pioneers of maritime history

writing in India. The essays are useful sources of information which

emphasize general developments in the Indian connection with the Indian

Ocean pertaining to the period AD 1500-1800. The work also covers the

efforts made by the Bahmani rulers toward the empowerment of people in

Deccan region.

Berkemer et.al. (2001) edited a book entitled Explorations in the

History of South Asia: Essays in Honour of Dietmar Rothermund32

which

deals with German Indology, German Expertize and Influence. In

particular, the socio-economic features of Bahmani rule are also

presented by the author in this work. The work throws light on the

economic state of affairs which prevailed during the regime of Bahmani

rulers in South India.

21

Nilakanta Sastri (1964) brought out a book entitled Foreign

Notices of South India – From Megesthenes to Mahuan,33

which is a

collection of historical material on South India, covering about Fifteen

Centuries from the beginning of the Christian era. The scholar has based

this work altogether upon translations into modern European languages.

The work also contains precise details about the relationship that existed

between Bahmani Kingdom and the Persian Gulf. The researcher also

provides specific details of social reformation, cultural promotion and

economic development achieved by the Bahmani rulers.

Loch (1989) authored a book entitled Dakhan History Musalman

and Maratha34

which reveals that the Musalman nobles of the Dakhan

revolted against Muhammad Tughlak and established their independence

by 1347 A.D. The dynasty lasted for about 150 years with two capitals in

Gulbarga and Bidar and included Nasik and Ahmadnagar districts of

Maharashtra. The scholar has also provided interesting details about the

accomplishments of Bahmani rulers.

Chaurasia (2002) wrote a book entitled History of Medieval India-

From 1000 A.D. to 1707 A.D.35

which deals with the medieval period of

Indian history in general and the Bahmani Kingdom (1347-1526 A.D.).

The scholar has stated that the Bahmani Kingdom was ruled by fourteen

Sultans from 1347-1482 when it broke up in to five Sultanates which

22

continued to play an important part till 1526 A.D. The work also revealed

that the Bahmani dynasty at its zenith was a picture of absolute power,

untold wealth, munificence, cruelty, passion, pride and prejudice.

Satish Chandra (2007) authored a book entitled History of

Medieval India36

which contains two chapters on Bahmani rule and its

cultural contribution. The scholar has stated that the Vijayanagara and

Bahmani Kingdoms dominated India south of the Vindhyas for more than

200 years. The work also highlights the development of commerce and

handicrafts during the Bahmani rule and its disintegration in Deccan due

to several factors.

Stanley Lane-Poole (2003) authored a book entitled Medieval India

under Mohammedan Rule (A.D. 712-1764)37

which provides

comprehensive chronological details of Moghal Empire in India. The

author has presented a separate chapter on first Deccan conquests by Ala-

Ad-Din Khalji which enabled the Sultan to amass the vast wealth of

Deccan region through muscle power. The scholar has also dealt with the

disintegration of provincial dynasties which took place during A.D. 1450.

Mehta (1987) authored a book entitled Advanced study in the

History of Medieval India38

which presents the social, cultural and

political developments of Bahmani rule in Deccan. The scholar has noted

23

that Bahmani Kingdom of Gulbarga and Vijaynagar Empire came into

existence almost simultaneously and that the age of these two Kingdoms

constituted a distinct epoch in the socio-cultural history of the southern

half of the country. The scholar has also pointed out that the Bahmani

rulers were fairly indianised and carried a deep imprint of the south

Indian culture on their thoughts and deeds.

Day (2004) authored a book entitled Some Aspects of Medieval

Indian History39

which presents the Deccan Policy of Alaud-din Khalji.

The scholar has referred to the observations made by eminent historians

who pointed out that Alaud-din Khalji’s invasions of the Deccan and

South were in nature mere plundering raids and were similar to the raids

of Mahmaud of Ghaxna on North India. The scholar has also dealt with

the circumstances which facilitated the invasion of Deccan and rule of

Bahmani Kings who have left their foot prints as the facilitators of social

and economic progress of the region.

Bakshi (2003) authored a book entitled Advanced History of

Medieval India40

, which dealt with the foundation of Muslim rule in

India. The work also deals with the Bahmani Kingdom in the south of

India. The scholar has also provided a separate chapter on the origin,

growth and development of Bahmani Kingdom which represents the most

powerful of all the independent Muslim Kingdoms that arose on account

24

of the disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate. The scholar refers to the

observation made by eminent historian Sherwani which stated that

Muhammad’s reign is one of the tragedies in the history of the Deccan.

Chopra, Ravindran and Subrahmanian (2003) authored a book

entitled History of South India (Ancient, Medieval and Modern)41

which

presents the history of India to the South of the Vindhyas from pre-

history to contemporary times. The authors have fulfilled the need for a

complete history of South India by choosing not only the data but also the

methodology of communication and interpretation. The authors have also

covered the political events in South India including the Bahmani

Kingdom.

Holden Furber et.al. (2004) edited a book entitled Maritime India42

which deals with the economic transactions among Indian merchants,

European powers and the Persian Gulf. The book narrates that the trade

of Bengal to Surat and West Asia was largely initiated by Surat

merchants who faced the Dutch competition this resulted in the decline of

profits towards the end of the Seventeenth Century. The scholars have

underlined the fact that unlike the Chinese imperial state, Indian rulers

did not seek to impose regulations on the places to which merchants

could sail.

25

Dharma Kumar (2005) edited a book entitled The Cambridge

Economic History of India, Vol-II (1757-2003)43

which provides a

comprehensive account of South Indian history during the Eighteenth

Century, with special reference to Bahmani Kingdom. The author states

that Bahmani Kingdom flourished under the dynamic leadership of Ala-

ud-Din-Hasan, Muhammad Shah I, Muzahid Shah, Muhumad Shah II and

Firuz Shah.

Indian and foreign historians have also provided several translated

versions and independent works about the Delhi Sultanate and Bahmani

Kingdom over a period of time. Prominent among them include –

Ferishta’s History of Deccan44

, J.Brigg’s The History of the Rise of the

Mahommadan Power in India45

, Major King’s History of the Bahmani

Dynasty46

, Henry Miers Elliot’s The History of India47

, Peter Jackson’s

The Delhi Sultanate48

, T.N.Davare’s A Short History of Persian

Literature; at the Bahmani, the Adilshahi and Qutbshahi Courts49

,

P.Hardy’s Historians of Medieval India50

, A Nizami’s On History and

Historians of Medieval India51

, Ifthikar Aziz Ahmad’s Studies in Islamic

Culture in Indian Environment52

, Ifthikar Ahmad Ghauri’s Muslims in the

Deccan in the Middle Ages: A Historical Survey53

, P.M.Joshi’s History of

the Medieval Deccan Period54

, Sherwani and Joshi’s History of Medieval

Deccan55

, Radhey Shyam’s History of the Medieval Deccan Period56

,

26

Sherwani’s The Bahmanis of Deccan57

, The Bahmanis of the Deccan: An

Objective Study58

and Mahmud Gawan: the Great Bahmani Wazir59

,

Siddiqui’s Bahmanis of the Deccan60

, The Bahmani Sufis61

and A Note

on some legends of the Bahmani Coins62

,

Significance of the Study

The aim of the present work is to analyze the socio-economic life

of the people in the upper Deccan under Bahamanis since its formation in

1347 until the end of Bahamani kingdom. The main thrust of the study is

that there is a metamorphic change in the med ieval socio-economic

history of Deccan as a result of the advent of the Muslims. After the rise

of Islam, it spread rapidly towards the three continents of the then known

world, Asia, Africa, and Europe and came up with some of the highly

advanced and sophisticated socio – economic culture of the age.

Though Islam emerged among the Bedouin people who were

semetic people, very soon as it spead it absorbed Greeco – Roman and

Iranian culture in plenty and this eventually came to be recognized as

Islamic culture in the Orient. It also absorbed many features from Asian

people mainly the inner core of Buddhism. As it spread to India it was

further influenced by Indian culture and vice versa. When it came to India

it had already reached the peak of its glory in polity, society and

27

economic development. But the important fact is that, the political

pattern, the social order and the economic aspects it built elsewhere were

entirely different from what it achieved in India.

There is a basic unity, harmony and a common pattern in the social

and economic structure of Islam wherever it prevailed in other parts of

the world. In reality the Deccan region under the Bahmani rule witnessed

sea changes socially, economically, politically and culturally. The factors

which made Bahmani Kingdom unique in the history of Deccan need to

be systematically assessed on the basis of authentic archeological

documents and other relevant evidences.

The first Muslim political base that emerged in the Deccan was the

Bahmani kingdom, a rebel state against Delhi Sultan Muhamad-bin-

Tughluq. They exploited the mistakes of the Tughluqs to their advantage

by positing themselves as fighting against tyranny and oppression. In this

task, greater advantage to them in this regard was the support extended by

the Muslim Sufis who for the first time came out of their mantle

championing the cause of the Bahmanis. The Sufi saints also brought

about commendable social reformation in the Bahmani Kingdom on the

basis of humanism.

28

Through out the Bahmanian rule, the Sufis associated themselves

with the state in so for as they acted as a link in bringing about

rapprochement between the people and Bahamani state. From the

beginning of the Bahmani rule in the middle of the 14th

century till the

end of the 16th

century, the policy of Bahmanis was liberal and tolerant to

the needs of different communities, observes Akram and Kosar (1990)63

.

Moreover, the complete absence of popular revolt shows the

acquiescence of the people to their rule. Of course, there were many wars

and confrontations between Bahmanis and Vijayanagara, but the causes

of the wars were more political than religious or social or communal.

But slanted interpretation of the history of Bahmanis as initiated by

Robert Sewell and other Indian Scholars have perpetuated the fallacy that

Muslims were demons, and their business was destruction. This study

intends also to investigate the slanted interpretation of Bahamani society,

by different scholars. The original materials to be examined would throw

light on the reality of social and economic conditions of those times and

draw the conclusion that neither Bahamani rulers were motivated by

religious factors nor were the Hindus opposed to them on religious

grounds.

“The Bahmanis were more interested in preserving their power

than in propagating Islamic faith. They fought against the Vijayanagara

29

rulers mainly on the basis of political, territorial, economic and other

considerations rather than religious consideration”, writes Ahmad

(1953)64

. It should be realized that no empire could be sustained for any

length of time with out the consent of the people and pro-people

administration. Therefore, the present study investigates how the

Bahamani rulers protected the peasants, artisans, merchants and other

general publics through value-based and development - friendly

administration which enjoyed the patronage of saints, scholars and

people.

There are couple of works on the medieval Deccan history -

ancient as well as medieval - most of them deal with political history. The

social and economic history of upper Deccan has not been systematically

and comprehensively examined by the past researchers according to the

review of literature till today. Eminent scholars like Sherwani, Ahmad,

Yazadani, Joshi, Azam, Chopra and others have documented the history

of South India, medieval Deccan, Bahmanis of Deccan, Sufi movement in

the Deccan and other features of Bahmani rule in Deccan. The scholars

have not focused the attention of readers on the social, economic,

political and cultural development of Deccan during Bahmani rule.

The present study assumes great significance because the Bahmani

Kingdom of the Deccan was the most powerful of all the independent

30

Muslim Kingdoms that arose on account of the disintegration of Delhi

Sultanate. In particular Ala-ud-din Hasan (1347-1358 A.D), Muhammad

Shah I (1358-1375 A.D), Muhammad II (1378-1397 A.D), Ahmad Shah

(1422-1436 A.D), Ala-ud-din II (1436-1458 A.D) and Muhammad

Gawan have remained in the history of Deccan as the foremost rulers and

administrators who made lasting contributions for the progress of the

Deccan region through their progressive, secular and humanitarian

administrative approaches.

A few highly valuable researches both by Indian and foreign

scholars are available with respect to the historical significance, trends

and developments in the Bahmani Kingdom which have attracted the

attention of scholars in India. Hitherto, not even a single systematic

historical study has been conducted, duly focusing the historical

contributions of Bahmani rulers toward enriching the culture, polity and

economy of Deccan. However, the past studies did not seem to

appreciate in the right perspective the attempts of Bahmani rulers in

making the Bahmani Kingdom a model Kingdom.

An authentic and systematic evaluation of the forces and factors

which made Bahmani Kingdom the most powerful and progressive of all

the independent Muslim Kingdoms in the Deccan assumes great

historical significance. Besides this, the social, economic, political and

31

cultural contributions of Bahmani rulers during the medieval India also

warrant scientific assessment and meaningful documentation in the

present times. Thus, the present study forms a significant original

contribution to the historical and scholarly understanding of the

contributions of Bahmani rulers for the progress of upper Deccan.

SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The present thesis is divided into six chapters. Besides,it contains

abbreviations, glossary, photographs and bibliography.

The first chapter namely – introduction presents the geographical

setting of Deccan, historical perspective of Deccan, writers of Bahmani

history, survey of relevant literature, sources of information, significance

of the study, research methodology, objectives of the study and

hypothesis of the study.

The second chapter namely – Political Life provides necessary

details about the rise and fall of Bahmani kingdom and administration of

the Bahmani sultans which are directly associated with the social and

economic life in the upper Deccan under the Bahmanis.

The third chapter discusses – Economic development contains the

economic policy agriculture, industries, trade and commerce, transport

and communication system, and coinage under Bahmani sultans. These

32

discussions put the search light on the economic life in the upper Deccan

under the Bahmanis.

The fourth chapter on _Socio-Religous life deals with the impact

of Sufism and social structure.

The fifth chapter is – cultural Changes draw the attention of

scholars on various aspects of cultural life. It also discusses the influence

of Persian literature and culture on Bahmani kingdom.

The sixth chapter is – Conclusion, is devoted to the general

summary of the study, and results.

METHODOLOGY

The present study is based on both archaeology and archival

materials which were available from different libraries and archives.

Relevant primary and secondary data on the unique contributions of

Bahmani rulers toward the socio-economic development of upper Deccan

during 1347-1527 A.D. were collected from Library, and archives. These

primary and secondary sources furnish vivid accounts about the

contributions of Bahmani rulers for the socio – economic progress of

upper Deccan. The records in the English, Persian, Arabic and Kannada

33

languages and the reports of the archeological departments were highly

useful to learn about the unique contributions made by Bahmani rulers

which were based on human values and spiritual considerations. Basing

on a wide range of primary and secondary sources this thesis makes a

critical assessment of the factors and forces which constituted the history

and progress of Deccan under the Bahmani rulers, adopting the

methodology of historical materialism.

SOURCES OF THE STUDY

Primary Sources

For rebuilding the Bahmani history the primary sources available

are quite authentic and satisfactory. Much of the history of Bahmani

Kingdom has been written with the help of inscriptions. Several

historians of medieval India have documented the origin, growth and

development of Bahmani Kingdom authoritatively. For the lives of

various rulers of Bahmani Kingdom namely Muhammad Shah I. (1358-

1377 A.D.), Firoz Shah (1397-1422 A.D.), Ahmad Shah (1422-1435

A.D.), Ala-ud-din II (1435-1457 A.D.), Humayun (1457-1461 A.D.),

Nizam Shah (1461-1463 A.D.) and the offshoots of Bahmani Kingdom

namely – Bijapur, Golkunda, Bidar, Berar and Ahmadnagar the available

34

primary sources of information can be viewed as quite authentic but not

adequate.

The prominent primary sources of information relating to the topic

includeAdari Tusi’s Bahman-nama, Ali Bin Aziz Ullah Tabataba’s

Burhan-I Ma,asir.

Mahmud Gavan’s Emad-al-Din and Riaz al-ensa, Abd-Allah Cagatay’s

Bani-e saltanat-e Bahmaniya, Belgrami’s Tarik-e-Dakkan, Siddiqi’s

Bahmani Saltanat, and Mukhdamai Tarikhi-Deccan, Allah Cagatay

Abd’s Bani-e Saltanat-e Bahmaniya Mahmud Gawan’s Riaz-al-ensa,

Farzam’s Solan Ahmad Bahmani wa Sah Nemat-Allah Wali and other

works primarily deals with the accomplishments of Bahmani rulers. Apart

from these, certain prominent documents pertaining to Bahmani dynasty

such as – Iqrarnama Bahmani period (1st Shawwal, 840H.), Iqrarnama

Bahmani period (1st Shawwal, 840H.), Iqrarnama Bahmani period (22

nd

Shawwal, 846H.), Farman Bahmani period (9th

Jamadi I, 883 H.),

Farman Bahmani period (7th Shawwal, 893 H.), Hukm Bahmani period

(4th

Rajab), Hukm Bahmani period (7th

Shaban 920H.), Qubuliyatnama

Qutbshahi (1 Rajab, 986 H.), Farman Qutb shahi (26th

Jamadi II, 989 H.),

Farman Qutb shahi (2nd

Ziqada, 991 H.), Farman Qutb shahi (7th

Ramzan,

992 H.), Farman Qutb shahi (16th

Ramzan, 994 H.), Farman Qutb shahi

(16th

Zilhijjja 1001 H.) and Farman Qutb shahi (6th

Zilhijja, 1002 H.)

35

were also perused by the research scholar who knows both Persian and

Arabic languages which revealed significant historical developments

pertaining to Bahmani dynasty.

Secondary Sources

Several secondary sources which were available in the form of

published books, theses, articles, media writings etc. were also utilized

for the purpose of gathering relevant information about the subject of

research. Prominent among them include – Alexander Dew’s History of

Hindustan (1812), Gribble’s A History of the Deccan (1896), King’s The

History of the Bahmani Dynasty (1900), Sir Woolselry Haig’s Historical

Landmarks of the Deccan (1907), Gairola’s Hyderabad Archaeological

Department Report (1915) and The Religion of Ahmad Shah Bahmani

(1924), Hardy’s Historians of Medieval India (1939), Yazdani’s Bidar:

Its History and Monuments (1947), Gairola’s Bidri Ware (1956),

Moreland’s The Agrarian System of Moslem India (1961), Alexander

Tchitcherov’s India: Changing Economic Structure in the 16-18th

Centuries (1965), Brigg’s History of the Rise of the Mahomedan Power in

India (1966), Richard Maxwell Eaton’s Sufis of Bijapur (1300-1700)

(1978), Marshal’s Bidar and Parenda (1987), ), Euginia Vanina’s The

Inscriptions of Bidar (1987), Loch’s Dakhan History: Musalman and

Maratha:1300-1818, (1989), Euginia Vanina’s Antiquities of Bidar

36

(1992), Michell and Zebrowski’s Architecture and Art of the Deccan

Sultanates (1999), Euginia Vanina’s Reforms and Modernisation in the

18th Century Deccan States (2002), Stanley Lane Poole’s Medieval India

under Mohammedan Rule (2003) and Mary Frere Old Deccan Days or

Hindoo Fairy Legends (2006) were further utilized to assess the impact of

Bahmani Kingdom on the social, economic, political and cultural

progress of Deccan region.

SUMMERY AND CONCLUSION

The social, economic, political and cultural contributions of

Bahmani rulers were not scientific assessment and meaningful

documentation in the present times. Basing on a wide range of primary

and secondary sources this thesis makes a critical assessment of the

factors and forces which constituted the history and progress of Deccan

under the Bahmani rulers, adopting the methodology of historical

materialism.

Modern historians do not subscribe to the theory of Ferishta in

regard to the origin of Bahmani Kingdom which was the most powerful

of all the independent Muslim Kingdoms in the Deccan. The

correspondence between the Deccani Sultanates and Mir Jumla with the

37

Court of Persia also provide relevant information about Bahmani

Kingdom of Deccan.

The Bahmani dynasty consisted of about 18 Sultans who shared

different perceptions about governance. There were very few honorable

exceptions which are found in the history of Bahmani Kingdom. The

founder of the dynasty was indeed a non entity who rose from obscurity

to aristocracy and provided a new dimension to the governance of

Bahmani Kingdom on the basis of his past political experience at Delhi

Sultanate.

There was always a conflict of interest between the localities and

foreigners who shared an altogether different ideologies and cultures. The

Muslims enjoyed the major positions while the Hindus were given

miscellaneous responsibilities. The temples and other holy places were

reduced to that of ashes while the Muslim monuments cropped up on the

strength of royal patronage. Muhammad Gawan was mainly responsible

for the consolidation and enrichment of Bahmani Kingdom on the

strength of vision and missionary zeal. The Bahmani Kingdom enjoyed

all the basic infrastructural facilities and civic amenities.

The Bahmani rulers also plundered the resources of their

adversaries and every victorious march brought large trousers into the

38

Kingdom. Most of the rulers and nobles were pleasure seekers which

resulted in the economic marginalization of the people. The architectura l

excellence of monuments represents Middle Eastern values and

aspirations rather than the Indian values and aspirations. The annals of the

Bahmani dynasty are replete with instances of organized and inhuman

violations of human rights which were carried out right under the nose of

the rulers.

Sufism is a way of life which facilitates the attainment of union

with God and that people must actualize these divine qualities in

themselves by surrendering before His Almighty. Sufism is considered as

an important way of life which was practiced in Iraq particularly in Basra.

The Sufi saints were persuaded by the Bahmani rulers to establish

institutions and eradicate social evils which impeded the progress of the

people of Deccan.

The Bahmani Rule predominantly institutionalized Islamic culture

in Deccan which was reflected in literature, art, architecture and other

spheres of life. The rulers attached great significance to the advancement

of culture in Deccan and contributed notably for the cultural promotion of

the region. They invited scholars, saints, artists and other cultural

personalities from the West Asia and enabled them to institutionalize the

39

salient features of Persian culture which enhanced the status of Deccan in

several ways.

The travelogues of Ibn Batuta, Nicolo Conti, Barbosa and a

score of other foreign travelers revealed that Deccan during medieval

ages under Bahmani rulers was rich and prosperous. The rulers conquered

several provinces and brought huge resources while the traders generated

plenty of income and brought to Deccan gold, silver and precious metals

which they exchanged for spices, cloth and ivory goods. The economy of

the Deccan under Bahmani Sultans rose to the high position in terms of

agricultural productivity, industrial profit, income generation through

trade, promotion of handicrafts and participation in international trade.

The economy was primarily based on agrarian culture which was

dominated by feudal lords who controlled the land. The rulers were

concerned with the welfare of peasants who were mostly landless tenants.

The Sultans also developed many industries which fetched economic

benefits considerably. The development of transportation and

communication facilities also boosted the economy of Bahmani kingdom.

There were international trade and commerce activities between Bahmani

kingdom and other provinces of Indian sub-continent and overseas

nations in Turki, Persia, Iran, Portuguese, China and so on. The Bahmani

Sultans also promoted the artisans who produced the handicrafts which

40

earned international sales and marketing benefits. The Bahmani rulers

concentrated on the enhancement of the economic status of the Deccan

despite several wars, internal conflicts and other adverse circumstances.

The Bahmani kingdom produced several scholars, saints,

philosophers, statesmen, architects and other nation builders who created

a parallel history in Deccan during the medieval period. In particular,

Firuz Shah, Mahmud Gawan and Gesu Daraz became the towering

personalities of medieval India who command the esteem and high

regards of historians. The whole historical fraternity reverentially salutes

them and gratefully acknowledges what they have done for the Deccan,

its people and more importantly to the cause of social and economic

transformation of Deccan in medieval India. In particular, Mahmud

Gawan will continue to be the fragrant flower, success story, milestone

and role model in the history of medieval India. The immense

contributions made available by the Bahmani rulers are available for

researchers for study and judgment. To the scholars Firuz Shah and

Mahmud Gawan appeared as great rulers, to the fraternity of historians

they are great role models and to lovers of philosophy, they were great

philosophers. The main thing, the present study reveals is that Firuz Shah

and Mahmud Gawan lived like statesmen and the contributions they made

are marvelous for the progress of Deccan. In conclusion, it could be

41

stated with great pride that Sultan Ala-ud-din Hasan (1347-1358 A.D),

Sultan Muhammad Shah I (1358-1375 A.D), Sultan Muhammad II (1378-

1397 A.D), Sultan Firuz Shah Bahmani (1397-1422 A.D.), Sultan Ahmad

Shah (1422-1436 A.D), Sultan Ala-ud-din II (1436-1458 A.D) and Prime

Minister Muhammad Gawan occupy an honored place for their historical

contributions which enriched the Bahmani kingdom in several ways.

42

NOTES AND REFRENCES

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2. Encyclopedia of Britannica (1768) Ibid, pp.151-153.

3. Sherwani, H.K. (1985) The Bahmanis of Deccan, Munshiram

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