INTRODUCTION

Labour is the backbone of industrial growth and economic development

of a country. It is the segment, which contributes most significantly to the

country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP). A happy labour force is the base for

industrial peace, which in turn results in higher production and greater economic

activity. Realising this, Government of India has enacted several laws giving

protection to labour against retrenchment, employment injury, occupational

diseases, and economical and social distresses. But the benefits of these laws

have reached only to a small section of workers in the organised sector.

In India, out of an estimated work force of about 397 million1, only

around 28 million workers enjoy the benefit of formal social security protection.

Rest of the workers is in the unorganised sector. In the initial years of

development planning, it was believed that with the process of development,

more and more workers would join the organised sector and eventually get

covered by formal social security arrangements. However, experience has belied

this hope. Further, under the regime of new economic reforms, there was almost

a stagnation of employment in the organised sector with the resultant increase in

the inflow of workers into the informal economy.

Social Security is increasingly seen as an integral part of the

development process. It helps to create a more positive attitude not just to

structural and technological change but also the challenge of globalisation and to

its potential benefits in terms of greater efficiency and higher productivity. Thus,

Social Security has been recognised as an instrument for social transformation

and progress and must be preserved, supported and developed as such.

India, being a welfare State, has taken upon itself the responsibilities of

1 Report of the Working Group on Social Security for the Tenth Five Year Plan Government Of India. Planning Commission- 2001.

extending various benefits of Social Security and Social Assistance to its

citizens. The social security legislations in India derive their strength and spirit

from the Directive Principles of the State Policy as contained in the Constitution

of India. Although the Constitution of India is yet to recognise Social Security as

a fundamental right it does require that the State should strive to promote the

welfare of the people by securing and protecting, as effectively as it may, a

social order in which justice social, economic and political shall inform all the

institutions of national life.

The well designed social security system for the workers in the

unorganised sector will help in improving productivity, contribute to the

harmonious labour relations and thus to socio - economic development. It will

encourage and propagate the social peace by reducing the frequency of industrial

conflicts, increase the willingness to work, make it easier to meet delivery

commitments and lead to improved quality product, a better investment climate

and thereby enhancing the competitiveness of the economy. Effective

enforcement of Social Security Acts through institutional mechanisms would

impact on the level of trust and confidence of the working class.

In the last five decades, considerable progress in extension of Social

Security cover at both State and Central levels has been made. State

Governments like Kerala, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal have introduced social

security schemes providing insurance and other benefits to certain occupational

groups in the unorganised sector.

However, there is considerable controversy about the social and economic

effects of Social Security. Social Security is said to discourage people from

working and saving; and encourage people to withdraw from the labour market

prematurely. On the other hand, Social Security can also be seen to have a

number of very positive economic effects Provision of social assistance will

enhance their ability to contribute to the nation as well as their emotional

security which leads to increase their efficiency and productivity and enable

them to tide over periods of unemployment, sickness, accident or death coupled

2

with the promise of an assured monthly income to them and their family in old

age.

Social Security in India was traditionally the responsibility of the family

or community in general. With the gradual process of industrialisation and

urbanisation, break up of the joint family set up and weakening of family

bondage, the need for institutionalised and State-cum-society regulated social

security arrangement to address the problem in a planned manner, has been felt

necessary.

Eradication of poverty incidence remains a major challenge for the

planned economic development and the experience of India shows that different

states followed varied policies and principles for poverty reduction and

economic growth. The states like Punjab and Haryana followed the path of

agricultural growth and succeeded in reducing poverty and Kerala focused on

human resource development2. Though the state lags behind many of the Indian

states in the matter of economic growth, Kerala has a leading position among

the development experience of other states in India which is reflected in high

Physical Quality Life Index (PQLI), long life expectancy, low-infant mortality

and low-birth-death rate, high literacy rate etc.

Experiences of Kerala

Kerala, the southwest end of the Indian sub-continent with a relatively

low Per Capita Income (PCI); but with high degree of social development was a

matter of great interest to social scientist and administrators for the last three

decades. It has the second highest density of population (819 persons per

sq.km) among all states in India; the state sustains about 3.1 per cent (Census

2001) of the country’s population, even though its share in the geographical area

2 Dr.V.R.Vidyarthi-“Glimpses of Poverty-Poverty Alleviation in the Third World”-ed Dr.Sita Ram Singh, APH Publishing Corporation, New Delhi –2005, p-3.

3

is comparatively less (1.2 per cent). The declining trend of the rate of population

growth since 1981, a high average age at marriage, high level of acceptance of

family planning practices, a relatively low and slowly declining mortality rate,

low death rate, a high degree of population mobility and steady improvement in

the health indices of the state are comparable with that of even developed

countries.

The state is gifted with three resources; as the then Honourable President

of India noted when he visited Kerala in connection with the celebration of 50 th

Anniversary of the State. The state is known for its vast reservoir of an educated

labour force; a sizeable number of work force working in the gulf countries

and other western countries; there by earning a substantial amount of foreign

exchange for the country by way of inward remittances.

Workers belonging to the unorganised sector also dominate labour market

in Kerala as elsewhere in India. The total workforce in Kerala as per 2001 census

is 10.3 million; out of these only 12.8 per cent work in the organised sector; the

remaining 87 per cent of labour force work in the unorganised sector. Further,

like other parts of the country, consequent upon the economic reforms initiated

by the Government in 1991, significant number of organised labour has been

transferred to the unorganised sector from the organised sector.

The State of Kerala is a pioneer in putting in place formal structures for

administering social security schemes that are relatively more comprehensive

and advanced than those in other states. The formal social security system in

Kerala was established with the founding of the Kerala Toddy Workers’ Welfare

Fund Board in 1969. Even before this, there have been informal systems in the

form of mutually beneficial collective care arrangements by trade unions and

workers to cover the contingency of risks and uncertainties.

Trade unions have been a dominant presence among the political

leadership and their struggle for providing income security, work place security

and social security to workers has largely been successful in Kerala. Over the

4

last 30 years, around 4.9 million workers have been covered by social security

systems. This is a significant number; given the total unorganised workforce is

around seven million. Kerala is implementing labour laws for workers’

protection, primarily through the Labour Department headed by the Labour

Commissioner

While the Labour Department undertakes the enforcement function for

ensuring compliance with these laws, there is also a very high degree of public

scrutiny through trade unions, the media and political parties as well as informed

public opinion.

Thus, the Kerala model of development accords a prominent position to

providing security to the working population in the informal sector. At present,

there are 24 Welfare Fund Boards run by Tripartite Boards consisting of

representatives of workers, employers and the government. In most Boards, the

Government has retained the powers to give directions on policy matters. While

successive state governments continued to earmark substantial resources and

efforts to strengthen the Welfare Fund system, the present crisis afflicting many

of the Boards needs to be seen as an opportunity to reform the system. Even

though the efforts made by Kerala in the field of social services sector is

laudable and appreciable; several questions arise now, such as approach,

coverage, real content of the scheme, financial aspects, future operational

efficiency and its impact on the workers. By following a development policy

entirely different from that of the other states in the country, the maintenance

and improvement of the quality of social services in Kerala have become

extremely difficult.

Though Kerala has been highlighted as the state with the most advanced

social security system in India, the system now is not satisfactory or completely

in good health. Often the welfare funds were set up hastily in a “reactive mode”

on the basis of keenly felt political pressures from trade unions. Consequently,

there has been little analysis of the long-term sustainability of the schemes on an

actuarial basis. Often, the government without adequate study of long-term

5

viability draws up the scale of contributions and benefits that some of the

welfare fund boards run into difficulties. The iniquitous scale of government

contributions, reluctance on the part of the employers to honour their statutory

payment obligations, burgeoning administrative cost, bureaucratic apparatus of

the Boards, lack of professional fund management expertise, wide variation in

the basic lifeline benefits provided by various welfare schemes, fraudulent

memberships by workers from other non-related sectors etc add problems in the

administration of these welfare schemes.

The Research Problem

As stated earlier, Kerala when compared to other states in India is in the

forefront with regard to the indicators of social development and quality of life.

It is a fact that the establishment of Welfare Fund Boards has been a major

landmark in the Labour welfare legislations in Kerala and the institutions

constituted under them seem to have had a major impact on the informal labour

markets of the State. They are also supposed to have added a new dimension to

the social security system of Kerala. Yet, several issues involved in providing

social security to workers in informal labour markets appear to have not received

the attention they deserve.

Realising the need for Social Security Schemes for the unorganised sector

workers Kerala Government has initiated several progressive measures to

provide Social Security to workers in the unorganised sector such as agricultural

workers, toddy workers, cashew workers, construction workers etc. Among

these Kerala Building and Other Construction Workers Welfare Fund Board

(here in after called KBOCWWFB or the Board) is unique in nature and worth

emulating for other unorganised sector workers. Implemented in 1990, the Board

has so far covered 14 lakhs employees out of 16 lakhs working in the

construction sector. Even though the coverage is satisfactory to a certain extent,

there is conflicting views regarding the impact of the scheme on the employees

6

and the way the schemes are implemented. Hence an attempt to evaluate the

working of the scheme and its impact on the socio economic fabric of

construction workers in Kerala is in order. As the board has been functioning in

the state for the last 18 years, a performance study at this stage will help to

identify the inherent flaws of the scheme and inadequacies in its planning and

design.

Scope of the Study

The performance evaluation of any Welfare Fund Board has to consider

the services rendered by it to the ultimate beneficiaries. The sustainability of any

welfare scheme mainly depends on the state of its receipts and disbursements. In

this respect there is no need for fear in the case of KBOCWWFB if the cess

collection is effective and the fund management is efficient. But a closer look at

the data on disbursements, especially their trends, reveals certain disturbing

tendencies. Apparently disbursements are growing at a pace more rapid than that

of receipts. These trends call for a detailed examination of the source of income

as well as items of expenditure. It would be useful if we make projections of the

incomings as well as outgoings of the Board to examine how they would sustain

over the long run. Incidentally, there seem to have scope for improving the

proceeds from some of the sources including contributions from employers. The

scope for regulating the outflow of disbursements as well as of administrative

expenditures also appears to be not too insignificant. The study would make an

attempt to analyse the activities of the Board from the point of view of the

workers. A comparison of the living conditions of members of the

KBOCWWFB with those of non-members would help us understand the

attainments of the Board as well as its shortcomings

The success of a welfare fund board has to be evaluated not merely on the

basis of number of members enrolled to it but also on the basis of the impact it

has made on the socio economic conditions of its beneficiaries. Review of

7

literature on various aspects of the construction sector and the social security

schemes shows that a number of studies have been undertaken earlier. But no

serious efforts were ever made to study the functioning and effectiveness of the

Board and the impact of various welfare schemes adopted by it.

This study aims to fill this gap. It proposes to investigate the effectiveness

of the welfare measures implemented by KBOCWWFB and its impact on

the living and working conditions of construction workers in Kerala.

Objectives of the Study

Against this background, the following objectives are set for the purpose

of the study

1. To make an overview of the evolution and growth of social security

schemes in Kerala.

2. To expose the socio economic conditions of construction workers in

Kerala

3. To analyse the structure and functioning of Kerala Building and Other

construction Workers Welfare Fund Board (KBOCWWFB)

4. To analyse the consequences of the implementation of the scheme and

evaluate the role of the Board in uplifting the socio economic conditions

of its members.

5. To attempt an empirical investigation of the nature and trend of benefits

to the registered members of the Board.

6. To analyse whether the members are satisfied with the service of the

Board

7. To examine critically the role of trade unions and its leaders in enrolment

and disbursement of the benefits of the Board.

8. To identify aberrations, if, any, in the working of the Board and to make

8

suggestions in the light of findings to improve the work efficiency and

services of the Board.

Hypotheses Formulated

On the basis of the above objectives, the following hypothesis have been

formulated and tested: -

1. The Board has succeeded in bringing the majority of the workers under

the coverage of the scheme.

2. The growth of the resources of the Board is in tune with the increase in

the number of members enrolled and increase in liability

3. The Board has been successful in implementing its welfare schemes

among the members.

4. Trade union leaders have significant role in enrolling workers to the

Board.

5. Only workers in the construction sector are enrolled to the Board

6. The Board members are not at all satisfied with the services of the Board

Period of Study

The period of this study covers the whole life of the Board since its

inception in 1990. However, the fieldwork for the study was conducted during

2005-2007.

Methodology

This being an impact study, a comparison of various parameters on a

member-non-member basis was looked into. To analyse the regional differences,

a district wise comparison was also made. To pinpoint the impact of the Kerala

Building and Other Construction Workers Welfare Fund Board (KBOCWWFB)

9

on its members, a comparison of Tamil Nadu Construction Workers Welfare

Fund Board (TNCWWFB) and Kerala Board on selected parameters were also

tried.

Data Collection

Both primary and secondary data were used for the present study.

Primary data

The present study is mainly based on primary data. A well-drafted

interview schedule was used to collect data from the respondents. Pre-testing of

the schedule was conducted by administering it on a small sample in

Malappuram district. The interview schedule was modified in the light of the

suggestions received. The modified interview schedule is given in the Appendix

IX.

The first part of the interview schedule evaluates the socio–cultural,

educational and family background of the construction workers and the second

part is entirely devoted to questions, which indirectly measure the impact of the

Board on its members.

Primary data for the study were collected from the construction workers;

both members and non-members. The primary data were supplemented by

collecting information through interviews with trade union leaders, contractors,

architects and engineers who are associated with construction work. In addition,

information was also gathered by holding discussions with members and

Chairman of the Managing Committee of the Board and other Officials.

Secondary Data

This being a case study, the performance and functioning of the Board

was primarily analysed by collecting secondary data from the offices of Kerala

10

Building and Other Construction Workers Welfare Fund Board, Tamil Nadu

Construction Workers Welfare Fund Board, offices of other Welfare Fund

Boards in Kerala, Labour department; Government of Kerala, the publications

and records of various trade unions, Department of Economics and Statistics,

Kerala Planning Board and other related agencies.

Sampling Frame

Four districts were selected for the purpose of the study. The districts

selected were Thiruvananthapuram (Trivandrum) as the capital of the state,

Ernakulam as the district in which construction activities take place on a mass

scale, Malappuram as the district where the people spent a major portion of their

earnings from gulf countries on construction activities and Wayanad as the

district having least construction activities and lowest number of membership in

the Welfare Fund Board. Stratified random sampling technique was used for the

purpose of the sampling. The sample size is selected under proportional

allocation method. As the districts having construction activities on a large

scale, equal number of members and non members -300 members and 300 non

members were selected from the districts of Thiruvananthapuram, Ernakulam

and Malappuram, and as a district having the least construction activity, only

100 members and 100 non members were selected from Wayanad.

Even though the Board classified the workers in 26 categories, for the

purpose of this study, the sample workers, both members and non-members were

categorised into 7 - Masons, Carpenters, R.C.C. workers, Wiremen, Painters,

Helpers and Others.

Method of Analysis

The data collected from the sample workers were analysed on a member

-non member basis. To pin point the regional differences a district wise analysis

was also attempted. For the purpose of analysis of the collected data, simple

11

mathematical and statistical techniques like percentages, averages, ANOVA,

CAGR, Standard Deviations etc were used. For analytical purpose of primary

data Microsoft Excel and Statistica software programme have been used. The

statistical technique of Chi-square test was used to analyse the significant

difference of various parameters between the members and non-members as well

as among different districts. Charts, graphs, diagrams etc were also used for a

clear presentation of the report.

Definitions of the terms used

1. The Board: The Kerala Building and Other Construction Workers

Welfare Fund Board, constituted as per The Building and Other

Construction Workers (Regulations of Employment and Conditions of

Service) Kerala Rules3 1998.

2. Member: A construction worker who has enrolled to The Kerala Building

And Other Construction Workers Welfare Fund Board

3. Non-member: A construction worker who has not enrolled to The Kerala

Building and Other Construction Workers Welfare Fund Board.

4. Welfare Fund Schemes: Welfare Fund Schemes under the Kerala

Building and Other Construction Workers Welfare Fund Board for the

construction workers.

5. Construction Worker: Any person who is employed for wages to do any

work in connection with a construction work and who gets his wages

directly or indirectly from an employer or from a contractor including

supply of materials for construction works.

Presentation of the Study

3. Published in Kerala Gazette Ex No-1366 dt 17-8-1998, as SRO No 720/93 & G O (P)No.53/98/LBR dt 14-8-1998.

12

The whole study is presented in seven chapters. Chapter II contains a

theoretical framework of the construction workers and an overview of the

evolution of the Social Security Schemes. Since the study is about the

functioning and impact of the KBOCWWFB, an understanding of general

profile of the Board will be of immense use in analysing its effectiveness.

Hence, Chapter III portraits the nature and characteristics of the Board.

A bird's eye view of the sample members and non-members is a pre-

requisite for analysing the impact of the Board on its beneficiaries. Hence

Chapter IV contains a macro picture of the respondents –both members and non-

members. To assess the impact of the Board on the socio economic development

of construction workers, an empirical investigation is undertaken in chapter V.

Chapter VI analyses the major welfare benefits given by the Board and the

extent of benefits received by the sample member- respondents.

Chapter VII, being the concluding chapter gives the major findings of the

study. It also gives valuable suggestions for further improvement of the

functioning of the Board.

Limitations of the Study

The present study was carried out by designing an exploratory method.

Excessive dependence was required on primary data collected from the workers.

There was no alternative available rather than relying up on their responses.

The primary data elicited from the respondents were based on recall

methods and are therefore, subject to normal recall errors. Since no other

systematic records were available to counter check the accuracy, the data

supplied by the respondents had to be solely depended up on for the purpose of

the analysis. However, the collected data have been cross checked with some sub

questions to establish the reliability.

13

The impact of the board on the socio economic conditions of construction

workers have been analysed and reported in the study. To that extent it suffers

from all the inherent limitations of a sociological survey. Some of the

respondents, especially the members were reluctant to part with information such

as nature of work, years for which premium paid, source of information relating

to the Board etc due to the fear of loss of membership.

The entire socio economic progress of the members cannot be attributed

to Welfare Fund alone. Due to non-availability of reliable data, the Tamil Nadu

Board and Kerala Board comparison could not be made in a proper way.

The study is also confined only to four sample districts. Hence unlimited

generalisation might lead to wrong inferences.

The books, accounts and records of the Board were not maintained

systematically and under double entry system, hence the numbers and amounts

may not be accurate.

However, within these limitations, sincere efforts have been made to

analyse the functioning of the Board and its impact on the members. It is hoped

that the study will bring light into the flaws of the functioning of the Board and

its attempts to uplift the other wise down trodden section of the society.

Review of Literature

A large volume of literature is available, both at national and international

levels, on the various aspects of social security schemes, welfare measures,

characteristic features of construction industry and problems of construction

workers, in the form of books, articles, newspapers, research papers, comments

and criticism. A brief review of the same is given under.

International Studies on Social Security Schemes

Many of the studies both in developed and developing countries relate to

the social security schemes in the formal sector. Hardly any concerted attempt

has so far been made to study the working of social security schemes in the

14

unorganised sector.

Studies on Social Security measures in western developed countries show

that Social Security measures are at a much-advanced stage in these countries.

However, some studies in these countries also revealed that the major issues

confronted by them center on relentless upsurge in the cost of social security

schemes and its negative economic impact on labour supply, saving and

investment.

James Midgley (1984) analysed the role of social security schemes in

developing countries from an egalitarian angle and found that the prevailing

Social Security Schemes in developing countries cover only a small portion of

the total labour force and majority of the workers working in the unorganised

sector are excluded. He argues that unless the Social Security Schemes are

extended to cover informal workers as well, it would accentuate the existing

inequalities.

Willenskey, H and C. Labeaux (1918) in their study on Industrial Society

and Social Welfare emphasised the need for social welfare in an industrial

society for or improve the economic conditions, health and interpersonal

competence of the workers.

Wadhavan, S. K. (1989) while studying the social security for informal

workers in India found that developing countries are too poor to replicate the

complex and expensive programme of social insurance and income maintenance

that now form the backbone of social security schemes in the rich countries

Osman.S.R. (1988) in a study on social security in south Asia attempted

to analyze the various poverty alleviation programmes implemented in

developing countries with the objective of offering social security.

Amartya Sen, and Jean Dreze (1989) have emphasized the role of public

action in Social Security Programme in developing countries as an alternative.

The contention of the study is that public action is “neither just a matter of state

15

activity, nor an issue of charity, nor even one of kindly redistribution”. The study

emphasized the protective and promotional role of social security schemes in

poor countries. The life of billions of people in poor countries are “nasty”,

‘brutish’ and ‘short’ but also full of uncertain horrors like epidemics, famine,

and unemployment, which can plague masses into extreme deprivation and

insecurity.

In another study Amartya Sen and Jean Dreze (1990) state that security of

needs like food, health care, housing and child care, is empowering for

vulnerable unorganised sector workers and helps them to alter their bargaining

positions in the market

Burges and Stern (1991) have identified that greater incidence and

severity of deprivation, low level of development of formal security systems,

limited or inappropriate coverage of public support, resource constraints, low

level of institutional development for social security practices and relative

powerlessness and vulnerable ness of the poor are the factors which continue to

make the problem of social security in developing countries both impracticable

and difficult. The study also emphasise the role of public action for social

security schemes in developing countries and postulated that it is neither feasible

nor desirable for the state to be the sole provider of Social Security. The other

agencies like family, community, financial and religious organisations and

groups also have a significant role to play.

Atkinson A.B and John Hills (1991) identified the measures emerged as

components of Social Security Schemes in developed countries and investigate

the relevance of experiences of developed countries to the strategy of social

security in developing countries. They bring out how Social Security Schemes

have evolved in developed countries, whether they are replicable in developing

countries or else what social security lessons can be drawn from them.

Ahmad, E. (1991) explains the major problems and difficulties in

implementing social security schemes in developing countries.

16

Hussain Athar (1991) made an effort to study the social security

programmes in China and revealed that the system suffers mainly from two

problems. Firstly, it largely takes the form of ‘occupational welfare’ based on

working units and not the welfare of the society and secondly, labour insurance

which is the main component of the system does not contain the whole labour

force; as self employed practically lack this protection.

Sankaran T. S, Subrahmanya R. K. A, and Wadhawan S. K. (1994), under

lined the protective measures through Social Security Programmes in developing

countries which consist of welfare schemes by which the State provides the

means of livelihood when a person is not able to work

Subrahmanya made an attempt (1994) to define the concept of social

security in its broadest sense and from the society’s point of view, as the support

provided by the society to the individual to enable him to attain a reasonable

standard of living and to protect the standard from falling due to any

contingency

Vander Linden and Marcel Vander (1996) made a historical review of the

evolution of various mutual social security schemes in Peter Lang, Berue and

found that mutual benefit societies played a dominant role in the formation of

social security schemes.

The World Development Report of 1997 holds the view that social

security is an essential ingredient in the protection, development and full

utilisation of human resources, and should, therefore, be looked upon as an

‘investment in the development of human resources.’ It further distinguishes

between the development of human resources and human development, and

argues that the expenditure that a society or state incurs to provide basic social

security is essential both for the development of human resources and ‘human

development.’

Johan Verstraeten (1997) , President of the International Social Security

17

Association (ISSA) , said that ultimate goal of social security should be to move

from basic minimal protection of some residents to a much more ambitious

promise of benefits, adequate and universal coverage for all residents; because

the objective of social protection is not only subsistence, but social inclusion and

the preservation of human dignity.

Ghai, D (1997) summarised the successful experience of social security

schemes and pin pointed its role in the transformation of the society into a

civilized one. Renée van Wirdum (1998) in a Netherland study reviews the

changes taking place in social security sector of Netherlands.

James Midgley (1999) asserted that social security has become irrelevant

under the contemporary economic and social realities and put a proposal for the

abolition of social security and its replacement with commercial provision. In

some countries, Social Security has already been extensively privatized. Instead

of dismissing the claim that social security has become irrelevant, this article

examines the views of social security's critics. It suggests that steps need to be

taken to address their challenge and ensure social security's long-term survival

The study by Johannes Jutting (1999) states that the western approach of

enlarging state -based social security schemes in developing countries in order to

achieve universal coverage has been a failure due to their inadequacy and

inefficient programmes in dealing with socio-economic realities in these

countries. The study identifies the major reasons for the failure of the state and

the market failure in providing social security in these countries. The study

recommends for a public-private partnership in these area. The study also

compares the development of social security schemes both in developed and

developing countries and reports that in industrialized nations more than 90 per

cent of the population is covered by various forms of state or market organised

social security schemes. However, in developing countries, despite considerable

effort on the part of development institutions and policy makers, over 50 per

cent of the population remain uncovered against basic risks

18

Colin Gillion (2000) makes a critical examination of the approach of the

ILO towards social security and values the reforms and the development of

pension schemes in the social security sector.

Deborah Kasentein (2000) points out the efficiency and equity costs of

ignoring gender and non-formal social security systems and proposes action for

policymakers in Africa.

John Dixon (2000) rank social security systems in 172 countries using a

comparative evaluation methodology that enables an assessment to be made of a

country's statutory social security intention. The study found that while seven of

the ten best-designed social security systems in the world can be found in

Western Europe, Australia has the best-designed one.

Warren McGillivray (2001) while studying the Implications of

Contribution Evasion of social security pension schemes looked into the nature

of contribution evasion and identified the reasons of contributions evasion. He

described the possible practical measures to promote compliance and also

outlined the dangers of contribution evasion to participants and to the State as

well.

Irudaya Rajan.S (2002) discusses the social security programmes for the

disadvantaged elderly population in the unorganised sector in three South Asian

countries, India, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh.

Roddy McKinnon (2004) in his study on the role of International Social

Security Association (ISSA) argues that the ISSA should assume a more active

and vocal position in promoting a central role for large-scale and compulsory

social security within an emerging international-organization.

Studies in India on Social Security Schemes

Social Welfare Scheme have a place of paramount importance in the

national economy in securing the financial security of their members. Social

19

security for workers in the unorganised sector is a subject that has received

growing research attention in India. The available studies mainly cover the

formal Social Security programmes. The concept of social security in the

informal sector is of recent origin. Very few studies have been made and that too

on a restricted basis the published literature on the subject is limited to a few

government reports and articles only.

It may be noted that though studies on social security in general are

numerous, studies on the impact of Welfare Fund Boards on the workers are

scanty.

Constitution of India

Article 12 – ‘The right to social security’ says the Contracting Parties will

undertake (1) to establish or maintain a system of social security (2) to maintain

the social security system at a satisfactory level at least equal to that required for

the ratification of the International Labour Convention (No. 102) concerning

Minimum Standards of Social Security and (3) to Endeavour to raise

progressively the system of social security to a higher level.

The right to social and medical assistance as defined in Article 13 also

requires the Contracting Parties to undertake, inter alia;

(i) To ensure that any person who is without adequate resources and who

is unable to secure such resources either by his own efforts or from other

sources, in particular by benefits under a social security scheme, be granted

adequate assistance, and, in case of sickness, the care necessitated by his

condition.

(ii) To ensure that persons receiving such assistance shall not, for that

reason, suffer from a diminution of their political or social rights;

(iii) To provide that everyone may receive, by appropriate public or

private services, such advice and personal help as may be required to prevent, to

20

remove, or to alleviate personal or family wants;

There are International and Inter-Governmental declarations like the

Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Covenant on Social Economic

and Cultural Rights, which define social security as a ‘human right’ or, a

fundamental right of the human being. The Government of India also accepted

this Covenant, which inter alia, recognises the right of everyone to social

security including social insurance.

Johri C.K and S.M. Pandey (1972) in a sample survey in Delhi found that

extension of social security to the unorganised sector was not merely a matter of

extension of existing organised sector schemes to new groups but it involved

development of a different and more diversified set of schemes. They came to

the conclusion that the entire structure of employment relationships in the

building industry is caught in a social framework of mutually reinforcing vicious

circles. Workers are exploited because they are illiterate, socially backward,

unskilled, unorganised, uninformed and poor. The industry functions at low

productivity because the technology it employs is among the “most backward in

the world”. However, they observe that although relationships are exploitive,

they work.

Studies by Nagarajan N (1978) and Sinha P.K (1980) expose inherent

flaws in the Social Security Schemes for the formal sector. This study also found

that formal Social Security Schemes cover only 12 per cent of the labour force

and remaining 88 per cent of workers in the informal sector are not getting the

benefits of these schemes. Social Security Schemes account for only 2 per cent

of the value of the products or 2.2 per cent of the cost of the products. In the cost

only 16 per cent is borne by the employer. They also point out other weak points

like mass scale evasion of providing benefits especially in the case of workmen

compensation schemes, inadequate and inefficient administration, ignorance of

the workers, clumsy and defective methods of settlements and providing

benefits.

21

Jayadevadas N (1980) in his study suggested that the model before the

trade unions in Kerala was that of modern industrial employment characterised

by high wage rates, stable employment, fair working conditions, non-wage

benefits (social security), and long-term economic security

Thakurtha, Guha. S. N. (1980) argued that under the given multiplicity of

sectors, and employment and socio-economic patterns in each State, as well as of

grassroots organisations and NGOs, it is undesirable to impose uniform patterns

on social security systems

Pandey, Amarkant (1987) studied the earnings and patterns of

employment of construction workers in Raipur City

Guhan .S (1988) observes that the prevailing Social Security Schemes

cover only the workers in the organised sector, who enjoy security of

employment and regular incomes. Self employed and informal workers who

constitute nearly 90 per cent of workers virtually remain outside the purview of

prevailing schemes. He also observed some defects of the Social security

schemes in India like limited coverage, administrative lapses, evasion, defects in

legislation, difficulties in enforcement, delay or denial of benefits to entitled

persons. The social assistance schemes like old age and destitute pension, which

are specifically designed to provide benefits to those below the poverty line, also

suffer from various shortcomings of limited coverage and wide variation across

the state.

Vanitha, B (1991) in her study underlined the necessity to extent various

social security provisions to the unorganised sector

Sankaran.T. S. (1993) attempts a critical review of the measures taken by

the Central and State Governments to provide social security cover to rural areas

and the informal and unorganised industrial sectors. In his study he holds the

view that in India social security legislation cover only 10 per cent of the labour

force and the rest 90 per cent is in the unorganised sector who are deprived of

22

the benefits of the labour legislation. The study finds that the state of Kerala has

a wide range of schemes and regulations for the benefit of labourers in the

unorganised sector. The study suggests the examining of the overlapping of the

functions of various welfare schemes and keeping the administration cost with in

the limit.

Guhan, S. (1993) gives some models for the feasibility of social security

schemes in India.

Unnithan K J (1998) in his article states that even though the Central and

State Governments have introduced a number of welfare schemes for the

upliftment of labour force in India, only few welfare funds benefited the workers

like Toddy, Motor, Abkari. The study suggests that systematic micro level

evaluation of the welfare funds are to be made by conducting performance

appraisal.

Mahendra Dev.S (1999) in his study observed that the poor in developing

countries suffer from various kinds of social insecurity. The study stressed the

need for both promotional and protective measures of social security. The study

also evaluated the social security policies in India and their financing pattern. It

was concluded that these social measures are not effectively filtered down to the

poor.

Irudaya Rajan.S (2001) in his study reveals that the social assistance

measures like National Social Assistance Scheme and its components such as

National Old Age Pension Scheme, National Family Benefit Scheme and the

National Maternal Benefit Scheme have given a long way towards improving the

lot of the elderly poor. He suggested that the unorganised workers can organize

themselves so that they themselves can plan for their future.

The study of Mahendra Dev.S, Piush Antony, V.Gayathri and

R.P.Mamgin (2001) covers a wide range of issues bearing on social and

economic security of the workforce. In another study (2001) Mahendra Dev.S,

23

makes a critical appraisal of different kinds of social security systems in India.

Harindra Ksihor Misra (2001) in his paper established that the social

security programmes in India had been a mixture of schemes covering only less

than 10 per cent of its working in the organised sector and thus the unorganised

sector remained totally unprotected.

Vipla Chopra (2001) stated that efforts should be made to bring the poor

and vulnerable sections of labour employed in the unorganised sector under the

protective umbrella of the state provisions of social security. Further, there was

a need to bring about integration amongst the various social security schemes.

Aswathi.P.K and Jogenthra Pathak (2001) in their article on social

security for workers in the unorganised sector stated that despite the working of

a number of promotional schemes such as distribution of surplus land under

Land Reforms Act, Poverty Alleviation Programmes, Group Insurance, Old Age

Provision, family Welfare Schemes etc their impact on the vulnerable section

could not be claimed to be successful in achieving the objectives for which these

schemes are meant. This was mainly due to lack of co-ordination and financial

constraints and also the untimely narrow outlook of workers. Improvement of

welfare measures and enhancement in skill to augment better productivity were

found to be the key factors for developing a coherent framework for social

security in the unorganised workers.

Madhavi.P (2001) in her study of Self Help Groups analysed the

usefulness of the SGSY (SwarnaJayanthi Grama Swarozgar Yojana) as a social

security measure to the poor people.

Thakur and Ratnam (2001) made a theoretical appraisal of the various

legislations relating to the social security in the organised sector. The essay on

financing Social Security by Prabhu and Iyer (2001) focus on financing of social

security measures.

Mirai Chatterjee (2001) pointed out some defects of the social security

24

system in India. According to him, there are numerous schemes for social

security and social protection in India with rather uneven or limited

implementation. Even after all these years of experience, we have not been able

to develop appropriate mechanisms to ensure implementation of social security

services and proper outreach and coverage for our poorest citizens, especially in

the rural areas

Bharathjun Junwala (2004) argued that the welfare schemes, which are

difficult to implement especially in the unorganised sector and benefit only to

bureaucratic officers, shall be abandoned. In case of urgency workers may

approach their family or community.

The 2nd Asian Pacific seminar on Construction Workers Problems and

Future Tasks (2004) made an attempt to bring out many information covering

the entire Asia-Pacific Regional problems of construction industry, workers,

activities of trade unions and published a booklet on the problems of

construction workers covering various aspects like attack of liberal policies on

organised sector and unorganised sector, occupational health and safety

problems and problems and solutions of migrant labour. The globalisation in all

its manifestations continues to have a dramatic impact in the Asia-Pacific region,

and construction industry like other finds itself under external pressures and

subject to changes. The seminar also discussed the impact of new technologies in

the construction sector and found that rapid technological change, which

occurred in our country, has been uneven creating some socio-employment

consequences.

Debi S.Saini (2005) analysed some of the key issues in the working of the

social security laws in India and the extent to which they address the question of

social protection in the country

A study by D.Rajasekhar and S.Madheswaran (2005) shows that most of

the workers in Karnataka could not access the statutory benefits provided under

Beedi Workers Welfare Fund.

25

Studies on Construction Workers

Rosenthal, B.G. (1990) made a qualitative study of the construction

industry and observed the perception and attitude of unemployed young people

about this industry.

Assaad Ragon.A. (1991) states that demand instability compels large

construction firms to limit their employment to a small core of stable workers

and depend on sub contractors for the bulk of their labour needs. Sub

contractors make use of their social networks and personal ties to ensure reliable

access to a flexible work force

Devenco (1993) makes a survey to assess the training needs and

manpower requirements in the construction industry of Sri Lanka. Federle,

M.O., Rowings, J.E. and DeVany, T.S. (1993) in their study give a draft model

of career choice for the craft workers in the construction sector.

Blackmon R.B.; Gramopadhye A.K (1995) recommend the need to

provide positive feedback on back up to improve safety in construction sector.

Agapiou, A., Price, A. and McCaffer, R. (1995) in their study see a good

future for the construction sector in U.K and advice the authorities to plan the

future construction skill requirements, understanding labour resource issues, and

forecasting the supply of construction skills.

Michael Coffey 1 and David Langford (1998) examine the propensity of

employee participation in electrical and mechanical trades in the construction

industry and this report explored whether a propensity for participation exists in

the construction industry, and if so, how significant is it. The conclusion is that

there are no inherent reasons that prevent participation being successfully

applied in the construction industry.

Jayawardane A.K.W. and N.D. Gunawardena (1998) address human

resource development (HRD) issues in the Sri Lankan construction industry.It

26

reports an analysis of the occupational structure and characteristics of the

construction work force as an aid to meeting the challenges of maintaining a

skilled craft work force.

Guang-Xiang Chen and David E. Fosbroke (1998) assess the cause- and

occupation-specific risks of work-related fatal injuries among United States

construction workers. This study is the first to provide a comprehensive national

profile of work-related fatal-injury risks among United States construction

workers by occupation and cause of death. The results were useful in focusing

research and prevention efforts on specific hazards in high-risk construction

occupations.

Richard Neitzel, Noah S. Seixas, Janice Camp and Michael Yost (1999)

make an assessment of occupational noise exposures in four construction trades.

These data provide substantial documentation that construction workers in

several key trades are frequently exposed to noise levels that have been

associated with hearing loss, and demonstrate the need for targeted noise

reduction efforts and comprehensive hearing conservation programs in the

industry.

John M. Dement and Hester Lipscomb (1999) analyzed the workers’

compensation claim incidence density rates in North Carolina residential area

during 1986-1994

Hester J. Lipscomb, John M. Dement, and Rosa Rodriguez-Acosta (2000)

document a number of studies, conducted on the basis of analyses of death

certificate, found excess accidental and violent deaths among construction

workers.

CristoÂbal Mendoza (2000) in his article explored the issues for the

construction sectors in Portugal and Spain. Construction is a key industry for

both economies and one that employs substantial numbers of African workers.

Yet its structure varies considerably depending on national economic

27

circumstances. The cross-border comparison reveals the different role played by

immigrants in the construction industry on either sides of the border

Linda A. Merlino, John C. Rosecrance, Dan Anton, and Thomas M. Cook

(2003) in their study found that musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) are a major

cause of work-related disability and lost-time illnesses for many occupational

groups. This study determined the prevalence of musculoskeletal symptoms

among young construction workers.

Mark Erlich and Jeff Grabelsky (2005) in their study found the decline in

union density, the drop in construction wages, the growth of anti-union forces

and the changes in labour force demographics. This study proposes strategies for

building trade unions to reassert their presence and power.

Rabindra Nath Roy (2004) describes the experiences of construction

workers in Bangladhesh. The conditions of construction workers are not

different in Bangladhesh. A huge number of workers are finding work in this

sector, but they are the most destitute. It is firstly because they have no strong

nationwide organisation. Secondly, under the existing labour laws they cannot

enjoy any right. They are not even recognised as workers by that law.

Mick Buchan, CFMEU, Australia, (2004) studies the effects of migrant

construction workers in the Australian construction industry and the difficulty of

organising construction workers to the trade unions.

Aaron Cartledge, CFMEU, Australia (2004) analyse the major changes

that have effected the Australian construction industry and the response of trade

unions towards the introduction of new technology.

The Government as well as the Builders Association of India, the

institutions like NICMAR, HUDCO, Engineering and Technical colleges etc

have undertaken research and development activities in all spheres of

construction activities. However, the bulk of construction workers remain

unaffected by these developments.

28

Rao G. N. and K. P. Deo (1979) based on their study on building

industry, observed that self-help organisations constitute the sole agencies,

which guarantee the minimum standards of social and economic security to

workers in non-traditional and informal sectors of the society

Hema Nair (1988) provides useful information on construction labour in

Delhi and Bombay and observed that provisions of Contract Control Rule (1971)

are flouted everywhere .She goes through a day in the life of Nagamma; a

migrant construction worker. Being a temporary worker, Nagamma receives no

benefits such as paid leave or compensation for childbirth or injuries sustained

on the site and works long hours. But she prefers this to agricultural labour, as

wages are better in construction sector.

Joshi M.V. (1988) analyses the problems and prospects of labour in

construction industry in private sector in his study of Saurashtra region.

Chitra Ghosh (1990) gives a picture of the construction working

community-their recruitment, wages, working and living conditions etc. He

asserts that the laws are not adequately enforced. According to him women

workers are special targets for wage discrimination in this sector.

Panduranga Reddy, (1990) narrates the plight of construction workers in

India. They lack experience as they oscillate between agriculture and

construction. They are not keen to work on the project during the entire

construction season.

Pandey A.K and Manisha Dubey (1991) in their study made an attempt

to find out the housing conditions of the building construction labourers in urban

informal sector.

Usha Kumari K (1991) studied the effectiveness in the implementation of

laws applicable to construction labourers such as Minimum Wages Act

1948,The Contract Labour Act 1970,The Equal Remuneration Act, Inter State

Migrant Workmen Act etc. She came to the conclusion that the personal

29

characteristics of the personnel and systematic features in the labour office affect

the proper implementation of laws and recommended to start a separate

department in the labour office dealing with the implementation of labour laws

pertaining to construction sector.

National Commission On Rural Labour Report, (1987- 91) recommended

that the recruitment of workers through middlemen should be checked to enable

construction workers to get their wages in full.

Jesudas.M.L. in his Study (1992) argued that wage fixation is a one sided

affair in the construction sector due to surplus labour market

In 1995 Ritu Priya made an analyses of the health problems of migrant

construction workers. Bhanu Murthy S showed the human resource

management of construction firms and the role of Management Accountants in

construction firms.

Vaid and Gurdial Singh (1999) studied the wages and working

conditions of the construction workers under the organised sector. The study

found that the social quality of the workforce and the technology used in the

industry were inter linked, the former set the limitations to the choice and use of

technology and the latter determined the levels of income, education, skill and

productivity of workers likely to be employed.

A study conducted on building workers by the National Institute of

Construction Management and Research (NICMAR) in Delhi observed that

working hours of the construction workers are not being regulated according to

the law.

Pravin Sinha (2002) looked into the changing nature of Indian

construction industry and practical difficulties in organising construction

workers. He observed that Indian construction industry shows certain basic

characteristics that are identical to the ones existing in other parts of the world.

His survey on the socio economic characteristics of the construction workers

30

indicate that practically all live below the poverty line and a great majority of

them belong to backward classes in the minority group. Most of them are in the

age group of 14 to 30 years and have migrated individually, even if married.

Practically all have come to the cities in search of better and brighter future and

intend to return after amassing some wealth.

Chintamani, in Deccan Herald (2004) alleged that the government had

neglected the construction workers while framing policies and urged the

government to formulate policies to uplift the conditions of the workers.

Indo-Asian News Service (2004) reported the demand of various trade union

leaders for hike in pension and other benefits given by the Tamil Nadu

Construction Workers Welfare Board (TNCWWB).

Indo-Asian News Service (2004) also reported the major demands

placed by the Tamil Nadu State Construction Workers' Union before the welfare

board which include crèche facilities for children of women construction

workers, preventing accidents and curbing the growth of child labour in this

sector.

Studies in Kerala

As the state has implemented more than 20 welfare schemes for the

unorganised sector, and also the state, which spent huge amount on various

social security schemes, certain attempts have been made to study the

characteristic features of construction industry and the effectiveness of Social

Security Schemes for the workers in the unorganised sector in Kerala.

Vijaya Sankar, P. S (1986) in a Study on Head Load workers states that

the basic objective of all Welfare Funds is to provide a measure of social

security and insurance for workers who are vulnerable to risks and uncertainties

and do not have any other institutional protection arising from their employment

status

31

Vijaya Kumar.S (1986) in his case study found that trade unionism

emerged as an insurance against job security and wage bargaining, but

subsequently it accentuated the process of segmentation in the labour market. In

the process, workers belonging to the powerful union established their working

right in dominant sector; while the weak was pursued to the less dominant

segment.

Harilal.K.N. (1986) studied the organisation of production and labour

process in building industry. His study found that construction workers are

overwhelmingly rural landless migrants compelled to seek employment in the

construction sector due to indebtedness, inadequate employment and insufficient

income. He also found that the state-assisted social security programmes in

Kerala have imparted a sense of dignity and self-esteem to the workers in the

informal sector.

Anand S. (1986) pinpointed the difficulties in providing welfare facility to

the migrant construction workers in Kerala due to the mobility of construction

workplaces. George Zacharia (1986) in his analysis argued that construction

workers are the least paid in India; their wages are lower than that in

manufacturing sector.

Shobha B Nair (1987) by making a sociological analysis of the problems

and needs of old women agricultural workers found out the extent of social

support and social security available to them. The study finds that erosion of

traditional values consequent on the modernisation and broken down joint family

system increased the miserable conditions of old workers working in the

unorganised sector, especially in agriculture. But the appreciable step taken by

the Government of Kerala, instituting a series of pension schemes, for the rescue

of these old people is remarkable

Ravindran.A.M. (1987) found that inward remittance into Kerala have

been considerably rising since construction boom started in the gulf countries.

Most of the emigrant house holds lavished a major portion of their remittance on

32

“palacial buildings”

Gulati.I.S (1990) made a study about the working of Agricultural

workers pension scheme and its impact on agricultural workers .The study shows

that due to increased life expectancy of the people, the state has to support to a

sizeable portion of old population. The study also found that the scheme covers

only 9 per cent of the eligible agricultural workers.

Gopikuttan.G. (1990) examined the trend in the field of house building

and the consequent cause and effects on Kerala economy-its impact on economy

and society. In his study he pinpoints the impact of this boom on factor and

material markets, employment, skill mix and technology.

Pillai S.Mohanan (1992) has made an attempt to study the effectiveness

of welfare fund for the unorganised Head Load workers in Kerala. The study

reveals that the workers are not getting the full benefits from the entire resource

transfer as a portion of the fund collected is diverted to meet the administrative

expense of the board. He argues that there is an urgent need to extend the Social

Security programmes to the unorganised workers and setting up of welfare fund

as an alternative form of financial social security is a new experiment especially

in the context of a resource constraint economy.

The Committee constituted by the Social Security Department of Kerala

State Planning Board, Government of Kerala (1993) for an overall study of the

perspective on the long term financial and operational implications of the social

security measures reported that there are 30 social security and welfare schemes

working in the state. Out of this 14 are entirely financed by state exchequer. The

reports revealed that even though the physical coverage of the programmes in

the state is very impressive, there exist a lot of wastage and overlapping in case

of the major pension schemes and recommends the need for improving the

operational efficiency of the Boards, which are administering these schemes.

Surendran Nair.V (1994) in his M.Phil theses on social security

33

movement in Kerala evaluated the role of KBOCWWFB in improving the

welfare fund schemes to the construction workers. The study states that the

resource mobilisation of the fund is not effective and administration cost has

been steadily rising. But this study was made with in a short period of

constituting the Board and failed to consider the socio economic impact of the

Board on the construction workers.

Jayasree S (1994) examined the socio economic and health status of

women construction workers in the unorganised sector and found the impact of

the welfare measures implemented by the government and the extent of union

participation among them. Women in this sector suffer more due to their

powerlessness, immobility and lack of bargaining power.

Mahendra Dev.S (1994) in his study makes a comparative evaluation of

the social security schemes in the unorganised sector of the states of Kerala and

Tamilnadu. Subrahmanya, R. K. A. (1995) made an historical evaluation of

social security schemes in India.

Charlyulu, U. V. N. (1996) in his Report also gives the leading role of

Kerala in taking initiatives for the protection of unorganised workers through

social security schemes. Subesh Kumar Das (1996) also evaluated the

performance of the Social Security Schemes for the unorganised poor workers in

the informal sector in India.

State Planning Board, Government of Kerala in its reports on Social

Security Initiatives in Kerala (1996) and the Report of the Task Force on Social

Security and Welfare (1997) also underline the significance of Social Security as

a measure to alleviate the poverty of weaker sections. These reports document

social security initiatives in Kerala and the `particulars of the various social

security schemes in the state such as its coverage, extent of benefit and expenses

on various benefits. It has observed that the state has been very ahead of others

in the country in implementing social security and social welfare measures. The

committee also reported that the various welfare funds suffer from a variety of

34

problems such as wide variations in eligibility criteria and low percentage of

coverage in collection of dues from employees. The study also found that the

need for social security is increasing rapidly due to the growing number of

disadvantaged persons like the unemployed, under employed, elderly destitute

widows, mentally and physically challenged and street children. Besides, a large

number of workers in the organised sector require some sort of social security

when they cannot work and earn.

Aboobacker Sidheeque (1993) in his study shows the increasing demand

of construction industry and the marked difference in the wages that have

resulted in the mass migration of Tamil workers to Kerala. It was found that

involvement of Tamil workers in different construction sites of the

Malappuram district was as high as 38 per cent.

Duvvury, Nata and Sabu. M George (1997) made an evaluation of the

welfare funds in Kerala. But the study makes only an overall evaluation of all

welfare schemes and not any specific one

A study on unemployment by Dolly Sunny (2000) found that in Kerala

high priority was given for expansion of social and general services while

production and employment-oriented projects were either neglected or ignored.

Padmajan.K (2001) wrote a series in ‘Mathrubhumi’ daily narrating the

problems in the construction sector in Kerala; especially in the context of

restrictions and regulations in the sand taking from the riverside.

Kurien, John and Paul, Antonyoto (2001) attempt to explain the provision

of social security in the fisheries sector of Kerala. It enumerates the salient

achievements and the problems faced by the state in providing concrete social

security measures for fish workers.

Kurien P.H (2001) outlined the salient features of welfare schemes for

different sections of the working classes in Kerala and lists the problems of the

schemes especially the disproportionate distribution of benefits under various

35

schemes. There is no rationale for having different types of benefits to different

professionals in the informal sector and also it is unfair to underestimate a

particular worker group, which contribute equally to the national economy. This

class difference can create social conflict. He suggested the government to

consider unified comprehensive social security coverage

Report Of The Working Group On Social Security For The Tenth Five

Year Plan (2002-2007), Government of India; Planning Commission- 2001 took

a stock of the existing frame work of social security schemes and the constraints

both in the organised sector and unorganised sector

Kannan K. P. (2002) in his working paper on the Welfare fund model of

social security for informal workers examined the evolution of the institution of

‘Welfare Funds’ for informal sector workers in Kerala and viewed that the ever-

increasing demand for Welfare Funds for each and every sub-sector of the

informal sector may be viewed as a desperate reaction of the workers for a

measure of social security in an unprotected labour market

Ignatius Pereira (2003) discussed reports about the seriousness of the

role of labour mafia with the backing of powerful trade unions. He observed

that trade unions are compelling to give employment to the workers given in the

list supplied by them in some parts of the state of Kerala.

John C.P (2004) through a Socio-psychological analysis of the

pensioners of the KBOCWWFB showed that the breakdown of the joint family

system and the emergence of the nuclear family system create socio-

psychological tensions in the lives of the elderly population. Personal and family

liabilities compel a good proposition of the elderly construction workers to

engage in some kind of economic activities. Programmes will have to be

developed to promote family values and invigilate the young generation on the

necessity and desirability of inter-generational bonding and continuity. He offers

some comments and suggestions to improve the welfare of the construction

workers and the activities of KBOCWWFB.

36

Rosa K.D in her study (2004) found that Wage rates in the construction

sector are very high in Kerala ranging from Rs 100 to Rs 150 per day for women

and Rs 150 to Rs 200 for men. For Skilled Workers it is as high as Rs 275 per

day.

Review of literature on construction industry shows that only few studies

have been undertaken in India. These studies highlight the general socio

economic background of the construction workers and the nature and

functioning of construction labour markets. In Kerala, despite the burgeoning

construction and related activities, surprisingly very few studies have been made

to analyse the different dimensions of the construction industry as a major form

of economic activity.

There are number of laws to protect the interest of workers in the

construction sector. But little study has been done in the field of effectiveness

and implementation of these laws. The present study is an attempt to examine

the implementation of various social security schemes of KBOCWWFB and its

impact on the construction workers in Kerala.

37

REFERENCES

2nd Asian Pacific seminar on Construction Workers Problems and Future Tasks

held in Haldia, West Bengal 2004 abstracts.

Aaron Cartledge Technological Change and the Construction Industry, CFMEU,

Australia- 2004.

Aboobacker Sidheeque K.T. Impact of Gulf Migration on the Socio Economic

Life of Malappuram District. Unpublished PhD Theses. Department of

Commerce and Management Studies, University of Calicut, Kerala, 1993.

Agapiou, A., Price, A. and McCaffer, R. (1995). Planning Future Construction

Skill Requirements: Understanding Labour Resource Issues and

Forecasting the Supply of Construction Skills in UK.

Ahmad, E. (1991). Social Security in Developing Countries, Ahmad, E. et al

(eds) Social Security in Developing Countries. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Anand, S. Migrant Construction Workers: A Case Study of Tamil Nadu Workers

in Kerala. M.Phil Thesis, Centre for Development Studies,

Thiruvananthapuram, 1986.

Assaad Ragon, A. Structural Labour Market: The Case of the Construction

Sector in Egypt. PhD Theses, Cornell University, Egypt, 1991.

Atkinson, A.B. (1987). Income Maintenance and Social Insurance in

A.J.Anerbach and Martin Feld Starn (ed). Hand Book of Public

Economics, vol. III.

Bhanu Murthy, S. (1995) H.R. Management and Accounting in Construction

Industry. Management Accountant, 30(10), 731-732.

Bhanu Murthy, S. (1995). Role of Management Accountant in Construction and

Contract Management. Management Accountant, 30(3), 177-178.

Burgess, Rubin and Stern, Nicholas. (1991). Social Security in Developing

Countries: What, Why, Who And How?. Edited by Ehtisham, Ahmad.

Social Security and the poor – Choices for Developing Countries. World

Bank Research Observer, 16.

Charlyulu, U. V. N. (1996). Social Security Initiatives in Kerala.

Thiruvananthapuram: State Planning Board, Government of Kerala.

38

Chen, Guang-Xiang and David E. Fosbroke. (1998). Work-Related Fatal-Injury

Risk of Construction Workers by Occupation and Cause of Death

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West

Virginia. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, 4(6), 1371-1390.

Chintamani. (2004). Government has neglected construction workers.

Bangalore: Deccan Herald News Service.

Chopra, Vipla. (2001). Social Security For Rural Labour In India. Indian

Journal of Labour Economics, 44(4).

Construction workers march for their rights. (2004). Indo Arab News Service,

March 8.

Devenco. Training Need Assessment and Manpower Survey in the Construction

Industry, Sri Lanka, 1993.

Duvvury, Nata and Sabu. M George. (1997). Social Security in the Informal

Sector - A Study of Labour Welfare Funds in Kerala. Trivandrum: Centre

for Development of Imaging Technology.

Ghai, D. (1997). Social Development and Public Policy: Some Lessons from

Successful Experiences. Geneva: Macmillan.

Ghosh, Chitra. (1990). Construction Workers. Calcutta: Lady Bradboune

College.

Gillion, Colin. (2000). The Development and Reform Of Social Security

Pensions. Geneva: The Approach of the International Labour Office, ILO.

Gopikuttan, G. (1990). House Construction Boom in Kerala-Impact on Economy

and Society. Economic and Political Weekly, 25(37), 2083-2088.

Government of India: Report of the Working Group on Social Security for the

Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-2007), Planning Commission- New Delhi

2001.

Guha, Thakurtha, S. N. (1980). Contract Labour in Construction Industries –

An Empirical study with Reference to Tripura. Culcutta: Firma KLM Pvt.

Ltd.

Guhan .S. (1988). Social Security in India; Looking One Step Ahead, Working

paper 11817, Madras: Madras Institute of Development Studies.

Guhan, S. (1994). Social Security option for developed countries, International

39

Labour Review, Vol 133.

Gulati.I.S. (1990). Agricultural Workers Pension Scheme in Kerala-An

experience in Social Assistance. Economic and Political Weekly, 339-

343.

Harilal.K.N. ‘Kerala Building Industry in Transition-A study on the

organisation of production and labour process’ Mphil Thesis, Centre for

Development Studies. Thiruvananthapuram, 1986.

Hema Nair. (1988). A day in the life of Nagamma: Migrant construction worker,

Manushi ,48, 26-29.

Hester J. Lipscomb, John M. Dement, and Rosa Rodriguez-Acosta

(2000).Deaths from External Causes of Injury among Construction

Workers in North Carolina, 1988-1994. Applied Occupational and

Environmental Hygiene, 15(7), 569–580.

Hussain Athar. (1991). Social Security in China- A Historical Perspective. In

Ahmad, E. et al. (eds.), op. cit.

Irudaya Rajan.S.(2001).Social Assistance For Poor Elderly; How Effective,

Economic And Political Weekly ,36(8)

James Midgley. (1999). Has Social Security Become Irrelevant? New York:

John Wiley and Sons Limited.

James Midgley.(1984).Social Security-Inequality and Third World.New York:

John Wiley and Sons Limited.

Jayadevadas N. Working Class Politics in Kerala: A Study of Coir Workers.

Centre for Development Studies, Thiruvananthapuram. 1980.

Jayasree. S. Women in the Unorganised Sector – A Case Study Of Women

Unorganised Workers in Kerala ,PhD Theses ,University of Kerala, 1994.

Jayawardane A.K.W.and N.D. Gunawardena.(1998).Construction Workers In

Developing Countries: A Case Study Of Sri Lanka, Construction

Management and Economics, 16, 521- 530.

Jesudas.M.L. The Wages and working conditions of construction workers in

Madurai City. PhD Theses, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai-1992.

Johan Verstraeten, President of the ISSA (1997): 27th General Assembly of the

International Social Security Association (ISSA) International Section for

40

the Construction Industry, Paris, abstracts,24- 26.

Johannes Jutting. (1999). Social Security Schemes In Low Income Countries: An

Overview from an International Perspective Indian Journal of Labour

Economics, 42(3).

John C. P. Social Security and Labour Welfare with Special Reference to

Construction Workers in Kerala. Discussion paper 65, Kerala Research

Programme on Local Level development, Centre for Development

Studies, Thiruvananthapuram. 2004.

John Hills.(1991) ‘Social security in developing countries’ I991 In Ahmad, E.

et al. (eds.), op. cit.

John Kurien and Antony Paul. Social Security Nets For Marine Fisheries,

Working paper No.318, Centre for Development Studies,

Thiruvananthapuram.2001.

John M. Dement and Hester Lipscomb. (1999) .Workers’ Compensation

Experience of North Carolina Residential Construction Workers, 1986-

1994. Applied Occupational and Environmental Hygiene, 14, 97-106.

Johri C.K and S.M. Pandey. (1972).Employment Relationship in the Building

Industry: A study in Delhi. New Delhi: Shri Ram Centre for Industrial

Relations and Human Resources.

Kannan K. P. The Welfare Fund Model Of Social Security For Informal Sector

Workers The Kerala Experience. Centre for Development studies,

Thiruvanathapuram: Working paper,332, April 2002.

Kannan, K.P.(2001). State-assisted Social Security for Poverty Alleviation and

Human Development: Kerala’s Record and its Lessons. In Dev,

Mahendra, et.al. (eds.). Social and Economic Security in India. New

Delhi :Institute for Human Development.

Kumar Das, Subesh. (1996). Social Security Schemes For The Unorganised

Poor. Journal of Rural Development, 15 (3), 339-355.

Law to curb ‘Labour mafia soon. (2003). Hindu Daily, May 26, 1.

Linda, A. Merlino; John C. Rosecrance; Dan Anton, and Thomas, M. Cook.

(2003). Symptoms of Musculoskeletal Disorders among Apprentice

Construction Workers. Applied Occupational and Environmental

41

Hygiene, 18(1), 57–64.

Linden, Vander and ; Marcel, Vander. (1996). Social Security Mutualism: The

Comparative History of Mutual Benefit Societies. Berue: Peter Lang.

Mahendra, Dev S. (2001). Social Security in India: Performance, Issues and

Policies. New Delhi: Institute for Human Development.

Mahendra, Dev. S. (1994).Social Security in the Unorganised Sector: Lessons

From The Experiences of Kerala And Tamilnadu States. Indian Journal

of Labour Economics, 37(4),667-672.

Mahendra, Dev. S; Piush Antony; V.Gayathri and R.P.Mamgin.(2001). Social

and Economic Security in India. New Delhi : Institute for Human

Development.

Mahendra, Dev.S. (1999). An overview of social security in India. Indian

Journal of Labour Economics, 42(3).

Mark, Erlich and Jeff, Grabelsky.(2005).Standing at a Crossroads: The Building

Trades in the Twenty-First Century. Labour History, 46(4), 421–445.

McKinnon, Roddy. (2004). Promoting Social Security Worldwide: The Role of

the ISSA.

Mendoza , Cristo Âbal. (2000). African Employment in Iberian Construction: A

Cross-Border Analysis. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 26(4),

609-634.

Michael, Coffey and David, Langford. (1998). The propensity for employee

participation by electrical and mechanical trades in the construction

industry. Construction Management and Economics, 16, 543- 552.

Mick, Buchan. (2004). Migrant Labour in the Australian Construction Industry.

Australia : CFMEU.

Nagarajan N. (1978). Social security and economic development-a theoretical

and empirical study-A theoretical and Empirical Study. Unpublished PhD

Theses, Bombay.

National Commission on Rural Labour Report (Ministry of Labour),

Government of India, 1987- 91.

Neitzel, Richard; Noah S. Seixas; Janice Camp and Michael Yost. (1999). An

Assessment of Occupational Noise Exposures in Four Construction

42

Trades. Department of Environmental Health. Washington: University of

Washington, Seattle, 1-10.

Nilam Pothunna Nirmana Mekhala , Mathrubhumi Daily, Kozhikode 28th Sept

2001.

Osman.S.R. (1988). Social security in South Asia. In Ahmed, E. et al (ed) op- cit

Panduranga, Reddy. (1990). Construction Workers In India. Yojana, December

16-31, 28-29.

Pillai, S.Mohanan. (1992). Social Security Schemes for Workers in Unorganised

Sector: A Case Study of Head Load Workers Welfare Schemes in Kerala,

studies. M.Phil Thesis. Thiruvananthapuram.: Centre For Development

Studies.

Rajan, S. Irudaya (2002). Social security for the unorganised sector

in South Asia. International Social Security Review , 55 (4),

143-156.

Rajasekhar, D and Madheswaran, S. (2005). Statutory Benefits to Beedi

Workers in Karnataka. Indian Journal of Labour Economics, 48(4).

Rao, G .N. and Deo, K.P. (1979). Labour conditions and Industrial Relations in

the Building Industry-A study in Poona. Poona : Gokhale Institute of

Politics And Economics.

Ravindran, A.M. Impact of Gulf money with particular reference to Chowghat,

Trichur Dist –Kerala. Ph. D Thesis. Cochin University of Science and

Technology, Cochin, Kerala, 1987.

Report of the Task Force on Social Security and Welfare. State Planning Board,

Government of Kerala. Trivandrum, 1997.

Rosa, K.D. (2004). Empowerment of women through Employment. Ph.D Thesis,

Department of Commerce and Management Studies, University of

Calicut.

Saini, Debi S. (2005). Social Issues in the Working of Social Security Laws in

India. Indian Journal of Labour Economics, 48(4).

Sankaran, T. S. (1993). Social Security in the Unorganised Sector in India,

Project on Strategies and Financing for Human Development.

Thiruvananthapuram: Centre for Development Studies.

Sankaran, T. S.; Subrahmanya, R. K. A. and Wadhawan, S. K. (1994).

43

Development of Social Security Programmes in Developing Countries.

New Delhi: Har Anand Publications.

Sen, Amartya and Dreze, Jean. (1989). Public Action for Social security:

Foundation and Strategy. The Development Economic Research

Programme. UK: London School of Economics.

Sen, Amartya and Dreze, Jean. (1991). Social Security in Developing Countries.

in Ahmad, E, et al. Social Security in Developing Countries. Oxford:

Clarendon Press.

Shobha, B. Nair. Social Security And The Weaker Sections. Ph.D Thesis,

University of Kerala,Thiruvanathapuram,1987.

Sinha, P. K. (1980). Social Security Measures in India. New Delhi:Classical

Publication.

Sinha, Pravin. (2002).Organising Construction Workers: A Myth or Reality.

Hamburg : Institute of Asian Studies, University of Hamburg.

State Planning Board. (1996). Social Security Initiatives in Kerala.

Thiruvananthapuram: Government of Kerala.

State Planning Board.(1993). Major social security initiatives in Kerala.

Thiruvananthapuram: Government of Kerala.

Subrahmanya, R. K. (1994). A Social Security in Developing Countries. New

Delhi: Har Anand Publications.

Subrahmanya, R. K. A. (1995). Evolution and State of Social Security Systems

in India, NewDelhi: Social Security Association of India and Friedrich

Ebert Stiftung.

Sunny, Dolly. (2000). Unemployment and Employment of Educated Youth in

Kerala. Indian Journal of Labour Economics, 43(4).

Surendran Nair.V Social Security Movement In Kerala –A Case Study Of

Construction Workers. M.phil Thesis, Department of Future Studies

University of Kerala 1994.

Unnithan, K J (1998).What Is Wrong With Labour Welfare Funds In Kerala.

Industrial Harmony, 23(4).

Usha Kumari. K. (1991). The role of labour office vis-à-vis construction

industry. Perspective in Social Work, 6(2).

Vaid, K. N. and Singh, Gurdial. (1999). The Contract Labour at Kota. ,Mumbai:

44

-NICMAR Publications.

Vanitha, B. (1991). Workers in the Construction Industry: Need for Social

Security. Indian Journal of Labour Economics , 44(4), 670.

Vijaya Kumar, S. Working Conditions and wage rates of Head load workers -A

case study. M.Phil Thesis, University of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram,

1986.

Vijaya Sankar, P. S. The Urban Casual Labour Market in Kerala – A Study of

the Head-Load Workers of Trichur, M.Phil Thesis, Centre for

Development Studies, Thiruvananthapuram.1986.

Wadhavan, S. K. (1989). Social Security for Workers in Informal Sector in

India. Geneva: ILO.

Willenskey, H and C. Labeaux. (1918). Industrial Society and Social Welfare.

New York: Sage Foundation.

World Development Report. (1997).Geneva: International Labour Organisation.

Zacharia, George. (1986). Construction sector An Analysis. Productivity, 26 (4),

376-377.

http://alpha.tn.nic.in/stathandbook/title5.htm

http://labour.nic.in/main/policy.htm

http://alfa.nic.in/const/schedule.html

http://nceuis.nic.in.

45