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hope that just Tamil aspirations could

rhe Nalional Question and the Tamiled Books. Retrieved September 18,nation.org/books/Eelam/satchie_National_Question_r building blocks of cognition InRandVilliam F. Brewer (Eds.), Theoreticalrslor. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.ryitimation of Power in Sri LankaoksBasil Blackwelltic Fratricide and the Dismantling ofr'ersity of Chicago Press.and ideology in newspaper reports

-rth Afrlcan press reports on the 1998in Lesotho. Dlscourse & Society,

ent State, Violent Society; Sri Lankaaz Khawar (Eds.), lnternal Conflictsublications.ourse analysis, Volume 4. London..

r Case studles of international andlsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.ress. London: Routledge)inions and ldeologies in Editoridsnternational Symposium of CriticalSocial Life and Critical Thought

rantics and ideology D/bcourse &

ws media ln D. Paletz (Ed ), Politicalp. 9 - 36) Cresskill, NJ: Hampton

,iscourse Analysis New Courant

alysis as ideology analysis. In C., Language and peace (pp 17-33)

London: Lawrence Erlbawn1. Retrieved lvay 18, 2007 fromorialtmil Nationalism: lts Origins andnth and the Twentieth CenturiesColombia press

The Goncretization of Sinhalese intothe Ethnic ldentity by Buddhist Pilgrimages:

A Historical Investigationl

R.G.D. JaYawardena*

Abstract

The Buddhist pilgrimages are a major factor that had an impact on

llre formation of the Sinhalese culture and the concretization of the people'

Uy looking at itfrom a soc anthropology point ofview, certain stories relating

lo the lives of the early i abitants have proved that it is a historical truth,

lhat concretization of the Ceylonese occurred was through pilgrimages The

slones of pilgrimages that occur in the Buddhist literature are related to the

sacred historical places and items that they visited Wth reference to these

tacts the study observes how the pilgrimages demonstrated the social norms

lhus developing a Sinhalese ethnic identity.

Keywords : Concretization - Ethnic ldentity - Pilgrimages - Rituals - SacredSites - Social Norms

The pilgrimages that are made by people belonging to all

religions have formed the social norms and identities of the culture to

which a particular group of the people belong ln the Buddhist society'

it has played an important role in formulating the Sinhalese ethnic

identity. To Buddhists, even today, a pilgrimage is a very important

religious practice which comes from the history of Buddhism With the

lJnivercfty of Peradeniya, Percdeniya, S Lanka, 2009

* Senior Lecturct, Depatlment of Pali and Buddhist Studies, Universily of Percdeniya,

Peradeniya, Sri Lanka e-mail : rgdiayaqg@yahao com

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distribution of people all over the island,it is noticeable that there haolleen a discrepancy ofthought among the Ceylonese in the early period.Even if there were any social norms in existence at that time, it wasnot sufficient enough to concretize the people When we consider theirsocial aspirations in such an infoftnal society, it is apparent that therehad been no strong cultural ties to unify them Before the arrival ofBuddhism, there had been no historical evidence of an effective forceto concretize the inhabitants in formina an ethnic identitv

lnhabitants in pre Buddhist Ceylon could not be identified withcommon characteristics rn socio-cultural, economic or in any religiouspractices which formed the nucleus of the identity of the SinhaleseFishermen, farrners.traders and the y;iddAs who inhabited the lslandshowed different characteristics of their own, which prevented theunification of them into congruity of ethnic group. lt may be acceptedthat people of different occupations and in different settlements couronot build this ethnic identity, because there was no social harmonyarnongst thern. Pre-Buddhist religious practices as recorded in theIMahavamsa are the beliefs of natives such as the yaksas. Deyas andthe Aiagas who had no ethnic identity at all

However, since the arrival of Buddhism, pilgrimages canbe considered as a factor which enabled the concretization of thepeople in the lsland into a Sinhalese ethnic identity Pilgrimage is aninhented religious practice that formed the culture and the behaviourof the inhabitants in the country Buddhism is a religion open to atlmankind,and it does not consider racism, caste or social partisanship.Buddhist pilgrimages created a comrnon attitude and a common goalfor ihe scattered inhabitants in the lsland Religion, language andthe customs are the basis on which the people were made to unite(Geertz,1 973.259) In order to determine some facts as cultural facts ofconcretization people in a society must use up the values and beliefsequally (Jayasingh a,2005.44\ The very popular account of pilgrimagesof Sinhalr:se as recorded in the old literature. contains their beliefs andvalues These are the factors that reflect the concretization of Sinhalesein common attitudes and consistent behavioural oatterns

Llnder the mrssron of Mahinda Thero, the Ceylonese wereunited together with Buddhism functioning in diverse ways on the livesoi all natives forming a common cultural trait. Since the embracinq of

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sland,it is noticeable that there hadng the Ceylonese in the early period.'ns in existence at that time, it wasthepeople. When we consider theirnal society, it is apparent that thereo unify them. Before the arrival of)rical evidence of an effective forceming an ethnic identity.

t Ceylon could not be identified withultural, economic or in any religiousJS of the identity of the Sinhalesee Vdddds who inhabited the lsland)f their own, which prevented therf ethnic group. lt may be accepteds and in different settlements couldruse there was no social harmony,ious practices as recorded in theres such as the Yaksas, Deyas andtity at all.

al of Buddhism, pilgrimages canenabled the concretization of these ethnic identity Pilgrimage is anmed the culture and the behaviourBuddhism is a religion open to allacism, caste or social partisanship.mmon attitude and a common goalre lsland. Religion, language andoh the people were made to unite'mine some facts as culturalfacts ofnust use up the values and beliefsyery popular account of pilgrimagesliterature, cohtains their beliefs andflect the concretization of Sinhalesert behavioural patterns.

rinda Thero, the Ceylonese werertioning in diverse ways on the livesrltural trait. Since the embracing of

lln' oot)cretization of Sinhalese inlo lhe Ethnic ldentily by Buddhist Ptlgrimages: 71

lk(ldhism by the inhabitants, they also inherited an identity of their own,

r:rxrsisting of language, literature, art, ethics thoughts and social norms.

llrrrjdhism is the major factor that had an impact on the formation ofllro Sinhalese culture and the concretization ofthe people. This can be

0(luated to something more than a blood relationship. When we look

ot it from a socio-anthropology point of view, certain stories relating

b the lives of the early Ceylonese have proved lhat it is a historical

truth, that concreiization of the Ceylonese was through pilgrimages

Internalization of the accounts of pilgrimages in the minds of the

Ceylonese was a major factor in the process of concretization.

Origin of Aspect of the Buddhist Pilgrimage

Pilgrimages and rituals are the practices approved by Lord

Buddha Kaliiga-Bodhi Jatakaya mentions aboutihree shrines which

are meritorious to visit and pay homage to (Rouse,'1901:44) The

origin of Buddhist pilgrimages referred to tn lhe Mahaparinibbana

Sutfa records that when the exalted one was passing away, even

the Devas revered Him with heavenly flowers', sandalwood powder,

music and songs. (Davids,1 901 :150) According to the Suffa following

are the four places the men of the believing class should visit with afeeling of reverence.

The place at which the believing man can say:- "Here the

Tathagata was bornl" is a spot to be visited with a feeling of

reverence.

The place, at which the believing man can say :- "Here the

Tathagata attained the supreme and perfect insight! " is a

spot to be visited with a feeling of reverence.

The place at which the believing man can say:- "Here was

the kingdom of righteousness set on foot by the Tathagata "

is a spot to be visited with a feeling of reverence.

' The place at which the believing man can say:- "Here the

Tathagata passed finally away in ttlat utter passing awaywhich leaves nothing whatever to renrain behind" is a spot to

be visited with a feeding of reverence.

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Accordrng to a discourse, whoever who shall die whenjourneying on such pilgrimages with a believrng heart, shall be bornafter death, where the body shall dissolve. in the happy realms ofheaven

The Parinibbana Sulfa mentions that Lord Buddha advisedAnanda Thero to treat the remains of the Tathagata, by erecting aSttpa at the fourcross-road junction, and whoever, who shall be there,place garlands and perfumes and pay homage, they will become calm-hearted in its presenceand will bring never ending rewards and joy tothem (Davids,1901: 1 56 )

Lord Buddha appreciated the Vajjians' customs of worshippingthe Cetias of their ancestors. because it assisted much to the wellbeing of the socrety a long period As long as the Vajjians honour,revere and suppod the shrines in iheir towns and in the country, andmake proper offerings and observe religious rites as in the past. then,they can expect peace rn the country (Davids,1901:B0)

According tc the l\4ahavamsa the f rst slupa was burlt by kingDevanampiyatissa on hls own accord Ven Mahinda advised hirn howto find the relics to be enshrined (Geiger,1960.Chapter xvii;verse 4)Slnce he introduced this f rst sacred monument, sfrlpa has been thesubject of pilgrimages

Padavttiharaya is the rnerits earned by a person from eachstep, he or she takes while walking to a sacred place The earlyBuddhisis believed that a hundred eiephants, a hundred-horses, a

hundred women and a thousand ear-rings are not worth even a quarterof a twelve of tl.re merits one earns from one single step, one takes in

walking to a sacred place (Apadana Pali,1965:228) The old storiesthat are strll available to us, indicate rts influence on the lives of theinhabitants and the Bhlkkhrls in Ceylon

When [,4ahinda Thero brought Buddhism to the lsland,pilgrimages had been well established and very much advanced inIndia As reflected in th€] sculptures in the Asokan period there was inprogress a new religious behavior that was started with the paying ofvisits to the Bo-tree and the sttpas. Emperor Asoka erected a pillar atLumbin where prLnce Siddhartha was born (Thapar, 1961:261) and

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e, whoever who shall die whenith a believing heart, shall be bornI dissolve, in the happy realms of

-.ntions that Lord. Buddha advisedrs of the Tathagata, by erecting an, and whoever, who shall be there,ay homage, they will become calm-rg never ending rewards and joy to

1e Vajjians' customs of worshippinglause it assisted much lo the wellL As long as the Vajjians honour,heir towns and in the country, andI religious rites as in the past, then,try (Davids,1 901 :80)

rsa the first sfipa was built by kingrd. Ven. Mahinda advised him howGeiger, 1 960:Chapter xvii;verse 4i)d monument, sttpa has been the

ts earned by a person from eaching to a sacred place. The earlyj elephants, a hundred-horses, a.rings are not worth even a quarterfrom one single step, one takes inna Pali,1965:228) The old storieste its influence on the lives of theylon.

ought Buddhism to the Island,ihed and very much advanced inin the Asokan period there was inhat was started with the paying ofEmperorAsoka erected a pillar at

r'as born (Thapar, 1961:261) and

ftia Ct ncrelization of sinhalese into the Ethhic ldentity by Buddhisl Pilgtimages: 73

tt Seraneth where Buddha preached his first sermon. The Strpa at

alreneth was built to commemorate this event. lt is remarkable that

durlng tne period of Asoka the Buddhist pilgrims practised paying

homage at the sacred places such as those at Lumbini, Bodhgaya,

tlrenath and Kusinagar.

ftories of Pilgrimages in Ancient Ceylon

The stories of pilgrimages occur in the Buddhist literature,

which depict the religious behavior of the early Sinhalese, and these

confirm the congruity of the ancient Ceylonese. Hislorical records,

Slhala Attkathd and tales that have come down to us from tradition arevsry important evidence to establish a hypothesis for the revelation ofconcretization. ln view of anthropology, folk tales are the stories based

on the acts of the human being representing the form of society. They

are lhe records which present the ethnographic characteristics suchas the memory and beliefs ofthe early Ceylonese which cannot be put

aside as mere nonsense, myth or legends. lt is possible lo demonstratethe social norms of early Buddhists by such stories, which report thisphenomenon of pilgrimages and can be considered as facts in the

history which are indeed believable. According to the Sihala Altakathaand tales people from different types of early settlements and differentcasts met at the Buddhist sacred places. With the gradual increasein the number of people at the sacred places, the people in variouspositions had an equal chance in the Buddhist society as Buddhists.On the other hand, stories relating to material culture created by theSinhalese, are important evidence that reflect the collective aspirationsand religious wishes of the early Buddhists. lt is accepted that the

creative work of people in any culture indicates their aspirations,instantaneous thoughts, and spiritual identities (Wijesuriya,.2006:15).In view of this work of the Sinhalese, pilgrimages have been referredto as symbols representing their common experiences, their mode ofthinking and the way they functioned.

Concretization of People in the Early Settlements

' There is no doubt in determining that the social classes, or themen and women of different positions who occupied the settlementswere heterogeneous inhabitants who were not concretized at all. Manyhistorians agree that the society in pre-Buddhist Ceylon, before the

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71 Sn Lanka Journal af Advanced Social Studies Val 1 No. 2

advent of Mahinda Thero,was divided into four major divisions, theBrahmanas, Ksatriyas, Gahapatls and the Stdras (Ellawala. I 969: 11 ).There is no doubt thal BrAhmanAshad separate dwellings and villagesof their own There was a viilage of lhe BrAhman1 called Tivakka.(Geiger,1960:Chapter xix;verse 61) The Pandulagama village wasanother place where the Brahmanas lived (Geiger,1960 Chapter x vesre20) We have sufficient testimonies to determine thatlhe Brahmanaslivrng In those viilages embraced the Buddhrsm Inscriptions show thatthey even dedicated caves to the bhlkkus

Ksatriyas, the kings and offlcers of royal families andtheir followers, were of noble class According to the [,4ahevamsa(Geiger,1960.Chapter xix verse 62) they had separate settlementsin Anuradhapura, KAjaragAma, Kailaniya and Candanagamafceiger,' 960:Cha pter xix;54) There was a Ksatriya village nearMahiyahgana toa

Many Gahapatis, or VaiSyas who belonged to the category ofmerchants and resided in many regions in the lsland were Buddhists.They too have dedicated caves to the bhikkhu (ArchaeologicalSurvey of Ceylon,1936:Vol 111.437). A few of their settlements canbe noticed in villages such as Khandakavtthi, Hundartvapi al Rohana(Geiger,1 960;Chapter xxfli verse 45) and In the city of Mahela nea(Anuradhapura (Geiger '1960:chailter xxv verse 48).

N,4ahavamsa and lhe Sthalavatthuppakarana mention some ofthe names of low castes, weavers, goldsmiths, blacksmiths, potters,ur: r'ella-bearers, washer men, barbers, leather workers, craftsmen,piillters and fishermen Sihalavatthuppakarana also contains somestories referring to the slaves, servants and labourers The carpentershad also separate villages named Vaddakigama (Ellawala,1 969:1'1 3)Villages of Smiths were the other sett{ements. Several inscriptions haveon record the donations rnade by them to the monasteries (EpigraphiaZeylanica, Vol iv:1 35) lt has been suggested that Kh umbasela Viharaal Rohana. Kulalitissa Vihara. Kumubalatissa Pabbata and KubaVehera vterc founded by potters at their villages. Weavers, potters(Ellawala,1969.58) and cowherds (Ellawala,1969:58) have alsodedicated caves to the bhkkus (Ellawala,1 969:58)

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ided into four major divisions, thernd the Srdras (Ellawata, l 969:1 1 ).lad separate dwellings and villagesof lhe Brahmana called Tivakka.

1) The Pandulagama village wasr lived (Geiger,1960:Chapter x vesre; to determine thallhe Brahmanas

-^ Buddhism lnscriptions show thatthikkus

J officers of royal families and;s. According to the MahavamsaZ) they had separate settlements

Kiilaniya and Candanagamaere was a Ksatriya village near

s who belonged to the category ofions in the lsland were Buddhists.lo Ihe bhikkhu (Archaeologica I

Z). A few of their settlements cantdakavlthi, Hundartvapi al Rohana5) and in the city of Mahela nea(:r xxv verse 48).

vatthuppakarana mention some ofgoldsmiths. blacksmiths, pottersbers. leather workers. craftsmen\uppakara4a also contains soments and labourers. The carpenters'addakt-gama (Ellawala, 1 969: 1 1 3)lements Several inscriptions have)m to the monasteries (Epigraphiaiggested that Khumbasela Viharamubalatissa Pabbata and Kubat their villages. Weavers, potterss (Ellawala,1969:58) have alsorwala,l 969:58).

lhtt Ourcrelization of Sinhalese inlo the Elhnic ldentity by Buddhist Pilgrimages: 75

Candalas and the yenas, the untouchables, lived in

nr4rarate villages. The Caldelas' villages were called Candalagdmas(Geiger,1960:Chapter x verse 93) The Rasavehint mentionsrlrout a Ca7dalas village called Helloligema near Anuradhapura./lnsavahin/ also mentions that seven Candela sons became upesakas(Vanarathna,l 988:1 1 7-1 1 9).According to the Sahassavafthuppakarana,riavages lived in the hill country (Vanarathna,198B:7-8). Hunters as

lrentioned in lhe Shalavatthuppakarana lived in separate villages.

lhey had a place in the Buddhist society. According to a report,

uuddhism was open to all these castes ,for instance, Sona who became

it bhikkhu was the son of a huntet and also a wife of a hunter became

a nun. Hunters, the uncivilized people,were also upasakes who took

refuge in the Buddha (Buddhadatta,1959:78).

These various groups of people met at the sacred places

and the men were called as upasakas, and the women as upas/kas,

who took refuge in the Tissarana. They were also the donors of the

bhikkhus. In concretizing these people of unequal social classes,pilgrimages played a historical role, molding them into a regular pattern

of behaviour.

The oldest Buddhist monuments located in many regions

in the lsland are prominent factors of concretization of people

through pilgrimages. For example, the yard of the great Sfrpa, the

great Bo{ree, Negadipa, Tissamaherema and Kelaniya were the

centres at which the different crowds and lhe bhikkhus who came

from all corners of the lsland met. The Sinhalese who were resident

in different regions in the country met at these sacred places via

pilgrimages. Buddhist events recorded in historical documents

and in inscriptions found in many villages, cities and sea ports, are

sufflcient evidence for the concretization of the people in various

settlements. Going through the records we can name a few villages

such as Bh u ma hgana Village at Anuradhapura (Buddhadatta, 1 959:4),

Harite\a village at Nagadlpa (Buddhadatta,l959.6) Kamboia village

at Rohana (Buddhadatta,1959:8), Dighavdpi (Buddhadatta,1959:86),

Giivajaya Janapadaya (Buddhadatta,1959:159) and Uturelu village(Gopalugama) (Vanarathana,'1988:194) which came under Buddhist

acu ltu ralization.

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centurles

People Get to Garher at the Sacred Places

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the ancient sea port, was a placeg the ship to Jambudyipa. This washants. Jambukolapflana located Inplace where both local and foreigniuddhist historical sacred site, sincecdhi tree to this place.

Buddha arrived at during his thirdrd place. According to Yalahassaknown place to the sailors. Seruyilal which enshrined the frontal bonemuch crowded place too for many

ed Places

ount Samanala.became a sacred-.ginning of Buddhism in the tsland.C his foot print there. Groups ofmenfrom various regions in the lslandKrfa. Providing accommodationsngs were encouraged them to visithe donation of Village cilimalayaf pilgrims who pay visit the mountjship who go the along the difficuttfoot-print of the Chief of Sages ontillage of Gilimalaya that aboundedranted, wherewith to supply themdalagama highway and Htya patheiger,1992:64-65). Even today, were country gathering at the sacredr Phillipus Balaeus identified ther pilgrimages which met at Mountiinhalese made pilgrimages as ancred foot print. People come frommous shrine (Balaeus,l 958:352).ice for the Buddhists to establishcenturyA.D.

)eruma Sfrpa and the planting ofrges were undertaken with a lot ofe image of Lord Buddha locatec

lho Concretization of Sinhalese into the Ethnic ldenlily by Buddhist Pilgrimages: 77

In the villages have given a cultural value to the pilgrimages. As wepointed out earlier, it is the un-degenerating Dhamma, that the old

Cetlyas in the Vajjian kingdom have been honoured and worshipped.

Naturally customs such as conducting worships at Cetlyas have

helped to concretize the people building their identity. The Buddha's

recommending the erection of St pas enshrining his remains at thejunction of the four cross roads assisted in concretizing the people

because that is a place where many crowds meet ceaselessly.

When we read through old records, we can picture in our minds

the pilgrims straying from one Buddhist shrine to another along thd roads

and streets which have spread from main centres to the remotest areasin the lsland. The highway from Anuradhapura to Jambukolapa.tlanacreated a connection among the pilgrims. The Jambukolavihara wasa very populdr centre even among the foreign pilgrims (Geiger,1960:

Chapter xix verse 60). One of the Bo-saplings, a sprout from theseeds of the Maha Bodhi tree, was planted at this place. The highwayrunning from the sacred city of Anuradhapva lo Jambukolapaltanawas a useful road for the pilgrims.Anuradhapura-Gokanpa highway,

Anu rad hapura-Uru we I a patta n a highway, Anuradhapura- P a | | awawa n ka

highway, An:nedhapua-Magama highway and the highway joining

lhe Mihintale-Kasatota-Mahiyangana are the roads that connectedthe sacred places in the early period, and they were mosl useful inconcretizing the people. The other roads that were useful to them werethe road from Rajarata to Srlpeda, the road from Kadambha NaditoCetiyagiri, the road from Anuradhapura lo Mihintale, the road up tohe Dakkhina Vihara, and the road up to Sudassana Padhanaghara(Munasingha,l 998:27-29)

Frorn its early times, the Buddhist city ofAnuradhapurawas rich in many sacred sites. After the establishment of the great

Stupas, many visitors from all over the country were able to meet

together. Ceremonies and festivals held at the places of Stupasand Bo-trees in the sacred city, brought the people together with acommon objective. Kings, officers, high class men, traders and the poorparticipated together in religious events. According to the old storiesthere were very attractive ceremonies performed continuously. King

Saddhdtissa conducled a ritual with greal festivals for the Maha Stipathat lasted seven weeks (Buddhadatta,1951 :1 51 ). The greatest Sfrpaslocated in various regions wercl sacred place where large number

of devotees gathered to perform the ritual very often. For example

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once hundred thousand bhikkhus and ninety thousand bhikkhunispariicipated in a ritual offering to the Mirisawdtiya lVahdviharaya(Buddhadatta.1951:151) The Sttpa, the sacred monument thatinspired the people, not only became an object of worshrp for thepilgrims, but also a symbol where people gathered for their ritualsWhen we consider all this. pilgrimages can be defined as a religiousbehavior that is made up of multifaceted rituals of different peopleThese different partners of various rituals show their togetherness,by collectively wishing the blessings and enjoyment Therefore, thepilgrims who become shareholders of these traditional practicesand duties reach a common and an equal state whrch facilitaies theconcretization of the oeoDle

Through regular and continuous pilgrimages to sacred placesfor rituals, they followed the characteristics of the devotees rn the pasi,rnentioned in the Buddhist storieslike Vimanavattuppakarana a-|d lhisbrought a new light to concretizatron ofthe Ceylonese. In participatingin these ritual performances at these sacred places, caste was of noconsideration. lf she or he had done any meritorious deeds, then thatshe or he is worthy of achieving a heavenly state irrespective of hisor her caste For instance, among the four goddesses aI Thavatimsaheaven, was a potter girl who offered flowers to Lord Buddha, anothere was an old woman worshiping at the llagadpa Strtpa withlily flowers There was also a girl in Ihe Kinihiriya village offeringtiinihiriya f)owers to the Sfrpa, and a woman al Thammdnna offeringLunuwila They were all reborn in heaven Thavatimsa as qoddesses(Buddhadatta.l 951 r1 0 )

The religious awareness, gathered by the practices and theduties at pilgrimages led them to build a relationship amongst eachother It is recorded that elder bhlkkhus guided the lay Buddhists andboth local and foreign novtce bhikkhus during pilgrimages Greatupasakas aiso did their duty as guides on these prlgrimages. A wetll..no!vn name 'nadeguru upasaka', familiar to Buddhists even today istne organizer of a Buddhist pilgr mage

Planting of Bo-trees at different places in the lsland hadi:) many ways a big etfect on the concretization of the people Hsmentioned earlier during Lord Buddha's time, AnandaThero planteda Bo-Tree al Jetavana Vihara wilh the aooroval of Lord Buddha rr

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and ninety thousand bhikkhunisthe Mirisawdtiya lvaheviharaya/pa, the sacred monument thatme an object of worship for thepeople gathered for their rituals.;es can be defined as a religiousrceted rituals of different people.rituals show their togetherness,

s and enjoyment Therefore, thes of these traditional practicesequal state which facjlitates the

ous pilgrimages to sacred placesristics ofthe devotees in the past,I Vimanavattuppakarana and thisofthe Ceylonese. In participating) sacred places, caste was of noany meritorious deeds, then thateaventy state irrespective of hisr four goddesses at Thavatmsa)d flowers to Lord Buddha, andlg at the Nagadlpa Strpa withn lhe Kinihiriya village offeringwoman at Thammdnna atfedngaven Thavatimsa as goddesses

thered by the practices and theld a relationship amongst each/s guided the lay Buddhists and/,us during pilgrimages. Great)s on these pilgrimages. A wellriliar to Buddhists even today is

rent places in the lsland hadlncretization of the people. Asa s time, AnandaThero plantedre approval of Lord Buddha. lt

lltt) Concrctization of Sinhalese into lhe Elhnic ldenlily by Buddhisl Pilgnmages: 79

was expected that this tree was there, as a mark of salutation to LordLluddha, especially when he was not present in the Vihdra premises.Lay people have exhibited their faith in the Bo{ree by visiting theJctavana Vihara.By the 3" Century 8.C., the custom of Bo-tree worshipbecame a popular praclice among the Buddhists Lay people from SriLanka also undertake pilgrimages by ship to India to worship the GreatBo-tree with spreading of sands, offering of flowers, and sprinkling ofperfume water (Beal,1 884:1 36). For the pilgrimages Bhikkhus' guidancewas essential. Tripitaka Culabhaya has guided five hundred bhikkhusduring a pilgrimage (Vanarathna,l 988:208). The accommodationsprovided by faithful kings were reserved for these pilgrims arrivingFrom faraway places. Hiuen-Tsang mentions, Siri l\4eghavanna issaid to have sent two bhikkhus to India to the king Samudra Gupta,requesting him to provide shelter for the Sinhalese monks who wereon a pilgrimage to the sacred tree at Bodgaye (8ea1,1884:35).

A pilgrim visiting a Bo-tree for worship, created a new culture,a change in social pattern, customs, streams of new thoughts andoccupations. A considerable change in the culture of Ceylon wasbrought about by planting Bo-trees at different places in the lsland.The Bo-lree was considered as the living Buddha. N4ost Buddhists liketo go on pilgrimage b Nagadlpa travelling long distances, becausethis is the place Lord Buddha visited when he made his first visit toSri Lanka. According to folk tales nine hundred bhrkkhus went onpilgrimage to Nagadapa with the intention of worshiping at this sacredCefia (Budd hadatta,1951 :86) and sixty bhikkhus visited NagadapaRAjayatana (Budd hadatta,1959:35). According lo the Mahavaggavpali, Rajayatana, a memorial site to the Buddhists was one of theseven places where Lord Buddha spent seven whole weeks after hisenlightenment. While bhlkkhus on pilgrimage were able to meet menand women of different classes, they in turn, got an opportunity toattend on the bhikkhus and supply alms, etc. The people organizedpilgrimages in the country for worship in such a manner that theymet the other pilgrims on their way to these sacred places. AriyagalaTissa story mentions about a five hLrndred bhlkkhus on a pilgrimagefrom Anuradhapura to Magama, wotshipped every sacred, place theyencbuntered on their way (Buddhadatta,1959:18-20)

To Buddhists, Dlghavapi is a historical sacred place whereLord Buddha spent time in concentration. This place was a famous

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centre of Buddhist culture for the devotees to gather In the earlyperiod thousands of devotees made pilgrimages to Bo{ree at Digavapi(Buddhadatta,l 959:204). Seven bhrkkh us from G irivajanaJ anapadayamade a pilgrimage to Cetiya Vandana al Kirivehera walking sixty fourGarywas (A Sinhala measure of length roughty equal to three miles)(Buddhadatta.l 959:37) and a further eighty four Gawwa sto Magama,and from there ancther twenty eioht Gawwas to worship aI lhe MahaBodhi, ca(rying with them gold flowers, incense, perfumes. vermilionand lamp oil. Thirty seven bhkkhus were shipped from Ko randa patunato worshtp at the Bo{ree (Buddhadatta, 1959:48)

The manual of Buddhist Dhammapacla was very popularamong the early Buddhists and is rich in stories of pilgrimages Thenarrative of Cunda, the pork butcher has been etched in the minds ofthe Ceylonese even today According to the narrative, although theBuddha was in residence at a neighboring manastery nat a single daydid Cunda do him honour by offering him, so much as a handful offlowers or a spoonful of rice Besides, nor dicj he do a single work ofmerit (Weragoda,1993:31 ) Such narratives encourage the people inSri Lanka to pay homage to the Buddha. In the post Buddha period,the image of the Buddha in the shnnes of monasteries compensatedfor the absence of the living Buddha and was an object of worsip.Mahavehera of Missaka pawwa where there were many complexesof shrines and,rlyukana, SAsseruwa, polonnaruwa Galviharayawherecolossai images ofthe Buddha stood were historical sacred sttes thatdevotees always gathered to pay homage to the Buddha

Dhammacarika and the Religious Festivals

As part of the pilgrimages DhammacArika and the reliqiousfestivals were historical event which lormed rhe eLhnic ioentiry ot rheInhabitants.People in the city ofAnuradhapura who assernbled to listento the Buddha's discourses, preached by lvlahinda Thero became one-minded nation When the number of devotees that gathered to lisrento the Dhamma increased, according to l\4ahavamsa, there was notenough space for all. To hear the Devadda Sulla, thousands of peoplegathered (Geiger, 1 960:Chapter xi verse 64) By hearing the discourseof Bdlapandita,Sufia, thousands of women attained the flrst stage ofsalvat,on (Geiger,1960 Chapter xv verse 5) This group entered djfferentpositions in society Attakatha, Sthalavattuprakaranna, Rasavahini

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''Ao\. -aSa /-/.). di , \,-

d,.vo,.es ro qalher In lhe ear.rr pilgrimages to Bo tree at Djgavepii kkh u s trom G i ri v aj a n a J a n a p a cJ ay atna al Kirivehcra walking sixty fourrglh rouqnly eoL.l o .hree n iles/)r eighty four Gawwasla Magama,I Ca"v,lds Lo worship a .\e Maha'ers, incense, perfurnes, vermilionvere shipped from Ko randa patLtnaatta, 1959:48)

than,m,,pada ^

ds va y tropular'ir h :n 5Lor ip\ L,l ptrgr rrag^5 , hcr nas been etched in the minds ofng to the narrative, although thebor,10 Don.tsl( t\ nal a st,tqte dd)ng ntm, so much as a handful of)s, nor drd h,o do a single work ofld'i\e5 6n, oLrdge l e people nldha In the post Buddha periodres of monas teries compensatedra and was an object of worsipere there were many complexesPol o n n a ruwa G a I vi h a ra y a whercI were historical sacred s tes that)rnage to the Buddha

Fest iva ls

)hammacarika and the relig jousforrned the ethnic tdenttty of the

r0napura who assembled to listeni by Mahinda Thero became oneclevotees that gathered to listen

g to l\4ahavamsa. there was not?dAta Sutta. thousaIds of people'se 64) By hearjng the discourser'ornen attained the first stage of.e 5) This groUp entered ditferent)l av a ttLt prakatann a R asavah in i

| | t, LtTatnn of Shhalese tnto th€ Ethnic ldentlly b'/ Buddhist Pilg,ttagesr 87

lll ti ri rirssavafluprakarana present a comprehensive picture howt r , rrrrrcArikd heiped in concretizing the people

At evenings, residents in the proximtty of the monasteriesr , rrbled in groups to isten to the Dhammaa d splaying disciplinedrrril ,r collective behavior. Popular stories used by Arahanls for

l, , tUros encoLrTagcd the people io undertake pilgrimages regularlyr r, | (r)nt nuously The many stories of \rJeLl disciplined and vlrtuous

/,1,i'11irls attracted the people s minds People started pilgrimages tor , lr nronastefies where these bhikkhus resLded to pay homage and

t,,r rliving a n'rs Pussadova Therc aI Kalakahdara Viharaya was a, rV liopu ar bhikkhu who practsicd meditalion and was worshipped

v Ll L.r.ld hists (Buddhadatta,'1959:160)

The narratives belong ng to the early period in the hislory of, , y on, present a conrprehensrve picture of evening discourses held

rt ronasteries. lvlen and women arrived at monasteties to listen totlrr Dhamma Sounding boards at monasteries were rung, indicating1l11r time for the sermon There was such a sounding board at thelltldalolaka Viharaya for the devotees to assemble and listen to thel)lramnra (BLrddhadatta,1959 17'l) Devotees from far away pacesrtirlhered here One householder accompanied his wfe and children!./ th luggage in a chariot to isten to the yessarfara Jataka story

1 rrcached by Mahasuntnta Theio (Vanarathna 1 988 140)

A tremendous number of people from far away placesassembled to listen to lhe Ariyavatnsa Desana, a very interestingdeliverance A monastery at f/lahawewa where a hundred bhkkusdwelt had an annual ceremony of Aflyavanrsa (Buddhadatta,l 959:1 69)

People in lhe Mahakaranda village of Serutv/a went on pilgrirnage

1o lJdurnbara Viharaya la istea lo Ariyavamsa Desana, taking withthem rice, cu rries and sweets etc (Vanarathna 'l 988:1 73) There werealways Dhamma talks in the hall al Manikvehera After the foundingof the rnonasteries at village level, there is no doubt that the villagers

were converled Buddhisrn Faithful villagers assembled to lisien to theDhamma regularly As we hear lrurrah (Sadhul) at temples today, ln the

past at N4agama, men and the v/omen were wandering around io hear

the Dhamma, chanting Sadu! Sadul (Giles,1923:71) Theyadopted the

righteous way of life through the Dha tnmacarika Fa-Hsten repods that

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at all points where four roads meet there are chapels for preaching thefaith; and on the eight, fourteenth and fifteenth day of each monrn alofty dais is arranged, where ecclesiastics and lavmen come toqetherfrom all quarters to hear the faith expounded (Buddhadatta, T 951 :54)Attended by kings and devotees, well mannered bhikkhus werepraised. King Khuddatissa on hearing about a well disciplined bhki(nuof Mangana Viharawent on pilgrimage to his monastery with a crowdcovering about five yojanas (Giles,1923.71)

In pilgrimages, the organized behavior representing the alluresand attractive forms associated with the vaflous rituals are the otherfactors that had an impact on concretization. Men and wofiren, althoughengaged in diverse duties formed a common social behavior throughthese allures and attractive forms of the rituals such as purifvinq anddecorating the sacred places There were the othe|. pre-req uisites'suchas seeking refuge in the Triple Gem, celebrating, reciting the Buddha,svirtues, singing devotional songs, offering flowers, oil lamps, foods andperforming in processions etc These components being the commonfeatures of the rituals, shaped the rdentity of Sinhalese from the verylreginning forming into a culturaltie.

At the beginning a lot of people participated In the ceremonralcustom of exhibiting the tooth relic at Abahayagiri Vihara Fa_Hsienmentions that there was a tooth relic exhibjtion lasting ninety days atIhat Vihara (Balaeus, 1958:382) Such rituals that were performed ona regular basis continuously, assisted the concretization of the peopleforming common characteristics as the today rituals functioninq in theTemple of the looth at Kandy ano such like. We see sinilar rituali beingcontinued by Buddhists even during the dark period ofthe 171h centuryIt was a common thing to see processions, being conducted through thestreets in the country, playing horns, blowing trumpets, beatinq Torn_Toms and soundtng bells and symbois followed by many men, womenand children They lay prostrate on the ground, and on rising theyclasped their hands over their heads and pray (paulusz,19B9:29)

Reports of Robert Knox disclose that even in the colonialperiods, pilgrimages have played a big role in forming the ethnjc identityof the Sinhalese. His reports ilresent the organizational behaviour ofthe Sinhalese which tied thern to each other In his words, there weremany ofthese Bo-trees which they planted all overthe land and people

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there are chapels for preaching theand fifteenth day of each month asiastics and laymen come togetherxpounded (Buddhadatta,l 951 :54).j, well mannered bhikkhus wereing about a welldisciplined bhikkhuage to his monastery with a crowd,1923:71).

)d behavior representing the alluresth the various rituals are the other)tization. N4en and women, althougha common social behavior through3f the rituals such as purifying and) were the other pre-requisites such, celebratjng, reciting the Buddha'sFfering flowers, oil lamps, foods andse components being the commonidentity of Sinhalese from the very

ople participated in the ceremonialr at Abahayagiri Vihara Fa-Hsienic exhibition lasting ninety days atuch rituals that were performed oned the concretization ofthe peoplethe today rituals functioning in thech like. We see similar rituals beingIthe dark period ofthe 176 century.sions, being conducted through thes, blowing trumpets, beating Tom-ols followed by many men, womenn the ground, and on rising theyls and pray (Paulusz, l989:29)

iisclose that even in the colonial)ig role in forming the ethnic identilynt the organizational behaviour ofrch other. ln his words, there were

'lanted all over the land and people

llto Concretization of Sinhalese inlo lhe Ethnic ldentily by Buddhist Pilgrimages: 83

oared for these trees more than they cared for any other thing. They

l)lay around under these trees, sweep under them often to keep themclean. They light lamps and set up their images under them, and astone table is placed under some of the trees to lay their sacrificeson They set them everywhere in convenient places in towns andhighways, where these trees also serve as shades to lhe travelers(Paulusz,1 989:29). According to him, the Sinhalese considered it asa meritorious deed to plant these trees and he who does this, shallgo to heaven within a short while after his death (Paulusz,1989:29).His report further states that the Sinhalese had a clear understandingabout the other world and they were not any different from the earlyBuddhists who showed the same characteristics of a pilgrim. As thereflection of stories in the Vimanavattuppakara1a, the internalizationof Buddhist concepts of pilgrimage in the minds of the people of theearly period, and in the colonial period are the same.

Remains in the traditional villages which present us acomprehensive picture of a pilgrimage culture prove that is was ahistorical fact that concretized the oeople in the lsland For the benefitof the pilgrims rest rooms close to sacred places, and ambalams(wayside rests) near main roads and fruit bearing trees and treesfor shade planted at the traditional villages are praise worthy servicefitting to the accommodation of Buddhist pilgrims. In view of culturalanthropoloy (Phillip,2004:350; ihe traditional rituals which perform atthe Buddhist temples today are the results of pilgrimages in ancientCeylonese._

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Apadana Pali (1965) Colombo: Ceylon Government Press.Beai Samuel (1884) Buddhist Records of the Western World Edinburgh:

Ballantyne Press

BudChadatta,A P (1959). Sahassavafhth uprakarana. Colom'o: Anuta PressBuddhadatta, A P(1951). Atuwe Parikshanaya ha Atuwa Kathavasthu :

Examination of commentaries and commentary stories Peliyagcda:Vidyalankara press.

David, TW Rhys (1901) Sacred boaks of the Buddhists. Vol.ltl. LondonOxford University press

Department of Archeology (1936) Archaeological Survey of Ceylon Vol.lll.Colombo Ceylon Government Press

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Ellawala, H. (1969). Socia/ History of Earty Ceylon. Colombo:Government press.

Paranavithana, S. (1943). Epigraphia Zeytanica yoi.ty London: OxfoldUniversity press.

Geertz, C. ('1973). The Intepreration of Cultures. New york: A member of mePreseus Books Group.

Geiger, W (1960). The Mahavamsa. Colombo: Ceylon Government press.

Geiger, W (1992). C1la Vamsa Parl L New Dethi; Nice publisher.

Giles, H A. ('1923\. Travels of Fa-Hsien. London: Cambridge Universltyoress.

Jayasingha, A. K. G. (2005). Sameja Manawa Vidy1 MDta Dharma. Cotombo:codage Publisher.

Knox, Robert (1989). An Histoical Relation of the lsland Ceylon Vol.t!. tnJ.H.O. Paulusz (ed.) Dehiwala: Tisara publisher.

lvunasingha, lndrani (1980). Sri Lankawe Marga pravahanaya. Dehiwala:Sri Devi Drinters

Philipus, Balaeus (1958). A True and Exact Description of the Great lstandof Ceylon Vol. l l l. l\.4aharagama: Saman publisher

Phillip, C.K. (2004) Cutturct Anthropotogy. New york; Random housePublisher

Rouse, W.H.D. (1901). The Jebka or Stoies of the Buddha's former biftns.London: Cambridge University press.

Thapar, Romilar. (1961). ASoka and the Decline of the Mouryas. London.Oxford University press.

Vanarathana, Ranjith (1988). Rasavahini. Colomboj SamayawardenaPublishers.

Weragoda, Sarada (1993). lllustrated Dhammapada. Singapore: n.p.Wtesuriya, Sarath (2006). Jatika Anannyatawa Saha Sarskrutia. Colombo

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