Intestinal Parasites of Poultry

INTESTINAL PARASITES OF POULTRY

Jessica C. LargadoDVM5INTESTINAL PARASITES OF POULTRY

PROTOZOA

TURKEY INTESTINAL COCCIDIOSISEtiology- Eimeria meleagridis, E. meleagrimitis, E.adenoeide

Economic importance/DistributionOccurs world-wide Major cause of mortality and suboptimal growth and feed conversion efficiency The cost of anticoccidial feed additives and treatment is estimated to exceed $40 million annually in all poultry producing areas of the world.

Mode of TransmissionThe sporulated oocyst is the infective stage of the life-cycle. Infected, recovered chickens shed oocysts representing a problem in multi-age operations. Oocysts can be transmitted mechanically on the clothing and footwear of personnel, contaminated equipment, or in some cases, by wind spreading poultry-house dust and litter over short distances.

TURKEY INTESTINAL COCCIDIOSIS

Clinical SignsSeverity of the disease depends on the number of oocysts ingested. Little pathogenicity is attributed to E.meleagridis, whereas E. Meleagrimitis and E. Adenoeides may be quite harmful. Generally the disease is most often seen in young birds. Infected birds stop eatingHuddle together Pass fluid droppings which may be brown or blood tinged.


LesionsE. Meleagrimitis- lesions appear about 4 days after infectionjejunum becomes thickened and contains colorless fluid and mucus, small amounts of blood, and other cellular material. On the 5th or 6th day the duodenum becomes involved, the blood vessels are engorged, and a necrotic core may develop. The small intestine becomes congested and has petechial haemorrhages throughout.


Lesions


LesionsIn E. Adenoeides a severe enteritis with petechiae may occur about the 4th day postinfection. Feces may be fluid and blood-tinged, and contain mucous casts; occasionally caseous plugs are found in the ceca.

Other species such as E. gallopavonis parasitizes a similar region but primarily infects the rectum, with limited involvement of the caecum.


DiagnosisClinical signsResponse to treatmentPostmortem exam

Differential DiagnosisSalmonellaBlackhead (caecum)Necrotic enteritis (Clostridium perfringes)Hemorrhagic enteritis


Treatment (if possible)Sulphonamides Amprolium.

Control/PreventionGood management and sanitation Coccidiostatic medication in feed or waterYoung birds should be raised apart from older birds. If deep litter is used, it should be mixed well, and kept dry. Feeders and waterers should be thoroughly cleaned weekly and kept on wire platforms to prevent fecal contamination.


EtiologyEimeria necatrixE. acervulinaE. maximaE. mittsE. praecoxE. haganiE. mivatiE. brunette

E. Necatrix is usually located in the anterior or midportion of the gut. E.brunetti is found in the lower small intestine, rectum, cecum, or cloaca. E. acervulina, E. mivati, E. hagani, E. mitis, and E. praecox are all found in the upper half of the small intestine.

AVIAN COCCIDIOSIS

AVIAN COCCIDIOSISEimeria maxima, oocyst

Eimeria brunetti, oocysts

Economic importance/DistributionWorldwideEven low levels of infection causes ill thrift and loss of production.

Mode of TransmissionIngestion of contaminated food or water.

Clinical SignsDecreased feed intake Increased water consumptionweight loss fall in egg productionAVIAN COCCIDIOSIS

Lesions (Gross/Histopathology)Catarrhal enteritis Thickened intestinal wall The intestinal lumen maybe filled with clotted or unclotted bloodPetechial haemorrhagesIntestinal epithelium may slough and be replaced by connective tissue that interferes with intestinal absorption. Circumcumscribed white spots may be seen through the mucosaOn microscopic examination, these are seen to contain developing coccidial forms

AVIAN COCCIDIOSIS

AVIAN COCCIDIOSISGross lesions ofE necatrixwith frank hemorrhaging into the midgut in a chicken

AVIAN COCCIDIOSISGross lesions ofE acervulinawith white longitudinal plaques in the duodenal loop of a broiler chicken.

AVIAN COCCIDIOSISGross lesions ofE brunettiin small intestine of a broiler chicken.

DiagnosisDemonstration of coccidial forms from characteristic lesions in specific locations in the intestine.

Differential DiagnosisBlackhead (caecum)Salmonella (caecum)Necrotic enteritis (Clostridium perfringens) (small intestine/ileum)Capillarisis (small intestine)Salt poisoning (small intestine)Mycotoxicoses (small intestine)Cannibalism (blood in feces)

AVIAN COCCIDIOSIS

Treatment (if possible)SulfonamideAmproliumPyrimidine

Control/PreventionSimilar to the procedures suggested for E. TenellaVaccinationContinuous use of anticoccidials in feed and water.sulfonamides, nitrofurazones, nicarbazin, pyrimidine derivatives, and others. AVIAN COCCIDIOSIS

Synonyms/Abbreviations- Intestinal coccidiosis

Etiology Eimeria tenella

Economic importance/DistributionWorldwideEven low levels of infection causes ill thrift and loss of production.

CECAL COCCIDIOSIS

Mode of TransmissionIngestion of sporulated oocysts with food or water

Clinical SignsFrequently seen in younger birds of 4-6 weeks old. Frequently an acute disease with diarrhea and massive cecal hemorrhage. Blood is seen in the droppings 4 days after the initial infection. The birds become listless, eat little, and are notably thirsty. If the bird remains alive until the 8th or 9th day after infection, it usually recovers.

CECAL COCCIDIOSIS

Lesions (Gross/Histopathology) Extensive epithelial sloughing of the cecaCecum filled with partially clotted blood that ultimately consolidate s to form cecal cores. The wall of the cecum becomes markedly thickened and enlarged

CECAL COCCIDIOSIS

CECAL COCCIDIOSISGross lesions ofE tenellawith frank hemorrhaging into cecal pouches in a broiler chicken.

DiagnosisDemontration of oocysts from feces or mucosal scrapings at necropsy . Clinical signs

Differential DiagnosisBlackhead (caecum)Salmonella (caecum)Cannibalism (blood in feces)

CECAL COCCIDIOSIS

Treatment (if possible)SulfonamideAmprolium

Control/PreventionGood management and sanitation Coccidiostatic medication in feed or waterYoung birds should be raised apart from older birdsFeeders and waterers should be thoroughly cleaned weekly and kept on wire platformsCoccidiosis vaccine

CECAL COCCIDIOSIS

Synonyms/Abbreviations- Infectious catarrhal enteritis

Etiology- Hexamita meleagridis

Economic importance/Distribution Problem in every commercial turkey-producing areaMajor problem in localized areas during a particular year

HEXAMITIASIS

Mode of TransmissionIngestion of freshly contaminated food or water.

Clinical SignsAdult birds are frequently asymptomatic carriersDisease of turkey poults less than 10 weeks old. NervousStilted gait Ruffled feathers Lose weight rapidly, become weak and listless, and die.

HEXAMITIASIS

Lesions (Gross/Histopathology)Severe catarrhal inflammation of the intestineIntestinal contents are thin and watery; a white foamy diarrhea is often present

HEXAMITIASIS

DiagnosisDemonstration of the organism in fresh scrapings from the mucosa of the small intestine, particularly the duodenum and jejunum. Clinical signs

HEXAMITIASIS

Differential DiagnosisTreatment (if possible)No effective treatment

Control/PreventionGood managementStrict sanitationPoults should be separated from adultsFeeders and waterers should be on wire platforms to prevent contamination.

HEXAMITIASIS

Synonyms/Abbreviations-Blackhead Infectious enterohepatitis

Etiology- Histomonas meleagridis

HISTOMONIASIS

Mode of TransmissionIngestion of infected egg of H. gallinarum. Ingestion of large numbers of infective trophozoites in very fresh droppings.

Clinical SignsTurkeys of any age may be affected Most often seen in birds 3-12 weeks oldThe first signs of disease are weakness and drowsiness; birds stand with heads lowered, droopy wings, and closed eyes. They do not eat and lose weight, and the droppings may be sulfur-colored .

HISTOMONIASIS

Lesions (Gross/Histopathology)Concave liver lesions are pathognomic saucer-shaped, depressed, yellow-green areas of necrosis and degeneration.

Cecal lesions are first seen as pin point ulcers that enlarge and appear as yellow patches on the serosal surface. The lumen of the cecum may contain a hard caseous core to which the cecal epithelium adheres .

HISTOMONIASIS

HISTOMONIASIS

DiagnosisGross post-mortem lesionsStained sections from the periphery of liver lesions Identification of living organisms in wet preparations from caecal lesions

Differential DiagnosisPseudoblackhead

Treatment (if possible)No drugs are currently approved for use as treatments

HISTOMONIASIS

Control/PreventionGood management. The cardinal rule is to keep chickens completely separate from turkeys. Turkeys should be placed in clean runs that have not been used for at least 10 months and preferably for 2 years. Turkeys must not be placed on ground that has been fertilized with chicken or turkey manure. Continuous feeding of a ration containing enheptin or hepzide has proved satisfactory in prevention of the disease. Feeders and waterers should be kept off the ground and on wire platforms .

HISTOMONIASIS

NEMATODES

Synonyms/Abbreviations- Intestinal roundworm

EtiologyAscaridia galliA. columbaeA. dissimilis

Economic importance/Distributionheavy economic losses in form of retarded growth, reduce weight gain, decreased egg production, diarrhea, morbidity and high mortality rate

ASCARIDIASIS

Mode of TransmissionIngestion of egg containing infective 2nd-stage larva

Clinical SignsBirds are unthriftyWeakEmaciatedEgg production dropsDiarrhea may be accompanied by anemia Intestinal obstruction in very heavy infections

ASCARIDIASIS

Lesions (Gross/Histopathology)Ascarids may migrate up the oviduct (via the cloaca) to become enshelled later within the egg.A dissimilis(turkey roundworm) may also migrate out of the intestine, through the portal system, and into the liver, causing hepatic granulomas.

DiagnosisDemonstration of eggs in feces or worms in the intestine on necropsy.

ASCARIDIASIS

ASCARIDIASISAscaridia eggAscaridia galli

ASCARIDIASISAscaridia galli

Treatment (if possible)Piperazine citrateTetramisole

Control/PreventionGood management Young birds should be separated from oldYards and pens should be rotated and well drainedDeep litter in pens must be kept dry. Droppings should be removed frequently.

ASCARIDIASIS

Etiology- C. obsignata

Mode of TransmissionIngestion of capillaria egg

CAPILLARIASIS

Clinical SignsBirds lose weight steadilyMay become severely emaciatedFrequently die

Lesions (Gross/Histopathology)Severe catarrhal enteritisScattered hemorrhages

CAPILLARIASIS

DiagnosisDemonstration of worms on necropsy Identification of eggs in feces

CAPILLARIASIS

Treatment (if possible)HaloxonTetramisole

Control/PreventionRemoval and destruction of contaminated beddings

CAPILLARIASIS

HETERAKIASISSynonyms/Abbreviations- Cecal worm

Etiology- Heterakis gallinarum

Mode of TransmissionIngestion of an infective Heterakis egg or an earthworm

Clinical SignsIn domestic fowl the adult worm is not generally considered a pathogen. Effects of the worm are slight

Lesions (Gross/Histopathology)Only in heavy infections may there be thickening of the cecal mucosa. In some species of wild birds, a nodular typhlitis may occur

HETERAKIASIS

DiagnosisDemonstration of eggs from feces Identification of adult worms on necropsy

Differential DiagnosisAscaridiasis

HETERAKIASIS

Treatment (if possible)PhenothiazineTetramisole

Control/PreventionIf birds are penned, routine removal of feces and litter is important. In game farms, rotation of lots and pens should be practiced.

HETERAKIASIS

CESTODES

DAVAINEIASISSynonyms/Abbreviations- Minute tapeworm

EtiologyDavainea proglottina

Mode of TransmissionIngestion of slugs (Limax, Arion, or Agriolimax) containing the cysticercoids.

DAVAINEIASISClinical SignsMarked emaciationGeneral debilityLoss of weight.

Lesions (Gross/Histopathology)Intestinal mucosa appears thickened and may be hemorrhagic because hold-fast organs are heavily armed

DiagnosisDemonstration of the cestodes on necropsy by examining mucosal scrapings or by opening the duodenum under water and observing the activity of the papillaelike, minute tapeworms.

DAVAINEIASISTreatment (if possible)Di-n-butyl tin dilaurateAlbendazole FebantelFenbendazoleMebendazoleOxfendazole

Control/PreventionSoil may be treated with metaldehyde to destroy slugs. Pens and range should be well drained. A sandy soil is preferable.

HYMENOLEPIASISSynonyms/Abbreviations- Thread tapeworm

EtiologyHymenolepis spp.

Mode of TransmissionIngestion of the infective cysticercoids in suitable intermediate host.

HYMENOLEPIASIS

HYMENOLEPIASISClinical SignsGrowth retardation

DiagnosisNecropsy. If the fresh intestine is opened in a small amount of warm water, the worms may be seen actively moving in the water above the mucosal surface. Intestinal scrapings should be examined under the binocular dissecting microscope.

HYMENOLEPIASISTreatment (if possible)Butynorate

Control/PreventionProper disposal of droppings. Houses should be cleaned regularly and the manure spread thinly on arable land where sunlight and desiccation will soon destroy the parasitic forms. Numbers of intermediate hosts maybe reduced by using insecticides, molluscicides, and other appropriate control measures.

RAILLIETINIASISSynonyms/Abbreviations- Broad-headed tapeworm

EtiologyRaillietina cesticellus R. TetragonaR. Echinobothridia

RAILLIETINIASISMode of TransmissionIngestion of the intermediate host containing the cysticercoid

Clinical SignsEmaciation Stunted growth In laying birds, egg production may be decreased or may stop altogether.

Lesions (Gross/Histopathology)Conspicuous intestinalnodulesin chicken, with characteristichyperplastic enteritis associated with the formation ofgranuloma. Intestinal nodules often result in degeneration and necrosisofintestina villi, accompanied byanaemia

RAILLIETINIASISDiagnosisPresence of large numbers of segments or eggs in the feces Demonstration of worms on necropsy

Treatment (if possible)Di-n-butyltindilaurate (Butynorate ) or Yomesan in the food

Control/PreventionControl of intermediate hosts with insecticides Removal and disposal of droppings

tremaTODES

ECHINOSTOMIASISEtiology- Echinostoma revolutum

Mode of TransmissionIngestion of an infected 2nd intermediate host

Clinical SignsIn light infections these flukes cause little injury.If large numbers are present, it is claimed they may cause severe enteritis, hemorrhagic diarrhea, and progressive emaciation.

ECHINOSTOMIASISLesions (Gross/Histopathology)Mild hyperaemia Severe catarrhal enteritis.

DiagnosisIdentification of eggs in the feces or adult worms in the intestine on necropsy examination.

ECHINOSTOMIASISTreatment (if possible)AlbendazolePraxiquanntel

Control/PreventionAvoid wet marsh areas Snail control should be considered

REFERENCE:Alcorn M.J. et al., 2008. Poultry Diseases. 7th Edition. W.B. Saunders Publishing Inc, New York, USA. Pp. 445-449Griffiths H.J. 1978. A Handbook of Veterinary Parasitology. University of Minnesota Press, United States of AmericaPuttalakshmamma G.C., et al. 2008. Prevalence of Gastrointestinal parasites of Poultry in and around Banglore. Available at http://www.veterinaryworld.org/2008/July/Prevalence%20of%20Gastrointestinal%20parasites%20of%20Poultry%20in%20and%20a.pdf [Accessed last 29th January 2015]THE MERCK MANUAL, PET HEALTH EDITION (2011). Overview of Coccidiosis in Poultry. Available from http://www.merckmanuals.com/vet/poultry/coccidiosis/overview_of_coccidiosis_in_poultry.html [Accessed 29th January 2015]http://www.nadis.org.uk/bulletins/diseases-of-farmyard-poultry/part-3-control-of-coccidiosis.aspx

Intestinal Parasites of Poultry

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