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Interpretation of Urban Texture from the Perspective of Ecoaesthetics: Case Study in China Ying Wei1, Xinhao Wang2 1College of Architecture and Urban Planning, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092 P.R. China and

School of Planning, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221 USA 2 School of Planning, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221 USA wangxo@ucmail.uc.edu, weiying2062003@hotmail.com

Received 7 December, 2012; Revised 8 October, 2013; Accepted 18 April, 2014; Published 3 June, 2014 © 2014 Science and Engineering Publishing Company Abstract

This paper explores urban texture as a method of explaining and describing urban paractice through evaluating urban landscape from the perspective of ecoaesthetics; with respect to urban landscape characteristics and urban sustainable development. The recent phenomenon of rapid urbanization has changed the urban landscape dramatically in China. One consequence is that traditional urban space pattern are being replaced by redundant duplication of new urban space patterns across many cities in China. We attribute this to the lack of appreciation for unique urban landscape characteristics in current urban planning and development. Addressing this issue is both a challenge and an opportunity for urban planners and designers. Urban texture depicts and explicates urban landscape resulted from the agglomeration and overlap of various natural, social, and cultural factors during the urban evolution process. Ecoaesthetics studies human experience and engagement in the environment, while striving for both harmony and dynamic equilibrium for nature and human societies. In essence, studies of both urban texture and ecoaesthetics pay attention to the relationships of human and nature. We propose to expand urban texture studies that typically focus on “space morphology”, “space and visual”, and “space and human behavior” by integrating ecoaesthetics values in assessing the quality of urban landscape. After describing urban texture and ecoaesthetics, we explain how ecoaesthetics-based urban texture studies may help environment conservation and historic preservation, using the City of Chongqing, China as a case study The paper concludes that the incorporation of ecoaesthetics and urban texture represents a new approach, which promotes policies for developing sustainable, healthy, and livable cities with unique identity of urban landscape. Such cities will enhance people’s experiences and engagements in urban environment for the present and future.

Keywords

Urban Texture; Ecoaesthetics; Characteristic Urban Landscape; Sustainable Development; Urbanization.

Introduction

Urban landscape and urban environment are two major concerns in current urbanization in China. Most Chinese cities have seen urban landscape duplication, loss of historic heritage, and environmental deterioration. The common arguments about these phenomena seem around the dilemma that urbanization on the one hand, brings prosperity, and on the other hand, leads to undesirable side effects. However, economic development and environment quality are not competing with each other. They together define quality of life. This paper illustrates the concept by integrating ecoaesthetics and urban texture in assessing urban landscape, with respect to urban natural features and urban historical space patterns.

In the following sections the paper first addresses the problems of urban development. Then it defines what urban texture study focus on. Third, it discusses the philosophy of ecoaesthetics. Fourth, it illustrates and expands upon the traditional study of urban texture from the perspective of ecoaesthetics. Finally, the paper explains how ecoaesthetics-based urban texture studies may help environment conservation and historic preservation.

Problems of Urban Development

There are many historically and culturally famous cities stemming from thousands of years of China’s history.

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Each of them possesses distinctive cultural and architectural characteristics which to a great extent define a city’s landscape. However, the dilemma of current urban development in China poses a great challenge. On the one hand, urbanization brings economic gains that improve quality of life. On the other hand, urbanization modifies amenities of cities that deteriorate quality of life. The recent discordant phenomenon of urbanization in China is filled with urban construction and ecological environment destruction, which represents conflicts between traditional and modern urban space patterns; and between indigenous and foreign cultures. Along with massive urban redevelopment, many historical cities have lost their heritage. The original historical urban landscape has been dramatically altered by waves of redevelopment, which result in indistinguishable cities around the country. Even in cities where historical styles and features are recognized for their value and significance to the urban landscape, old and historical areas are undergoing utter demolition and replaced by imitations, which may look glorious and are decorated with modern commercial motifs; however, without true connection to the original cultural essence. The slavish devotion to “new international planning ideas”; including some of which are actually abandoned overseas; in addition to uniformly pursuing the “new”, “odd”, “large”, and “foreign” development styles to achieve the same “grand-plan” in cities of various sizes, has left the idea of building historically and culturally distinctive cities being reduced to only empty-talk.

Since the early times of the industrial revolution, the idea that “Man’s will can conquer nature” (stemming from a “human-centered doctrine”) has been rapidly escalating; making human less cognition and more self-centered, resulting in their negligence of any ecologically-moral responsibilities. Therefore, the real challenge today is to understand the nature of “destructive-construction” and “constructive-destruction” as demonstrated in modern urbanization. This is the focal point of urban texture, which is a branch of urban studies that analyzes changes within a complex urban physical form called urban landscape at the macro, meso, and micro scales.

What is Urban Texture Studies

As the Webster’s Encyclopedic Dictionary defines it; “Texture” is the characteristic structure of substances and the characteristic physical structure by the size, shape, arrangement, and proportions of its parts. [1] Essentially, it is an expression of all the elements

within a substance and the way they are organized. It is usually used to describe the visual effects and psychological feelings that are caused by ways that “substances” are organized.

Urban texture usually refers to the urban space patterns which include the urban space structure and the arrangement of its related factors. The term also represents a research method, as used in this paper. Urban texture grew roughly out of urban spatial research in the 1960’s. At its beginning phase, urban texture was used as a method of analyzing space and its importance was subsequently realized in urban historic preservation, urban design, and urban landscape studies. In the late 20th century urban texture research was expanded to explore, from the perspectives of people’s aesthesia, psychology, the meaning of urban space caused by its geometrical morphologies consisted of streets, buildings, and public green spaces. This application is further elaborated by Keeble’s view of the texture of a city, influenced by three elements: the layout of the various land uses; building heights, especially the taller buildings; and the layout of open spaces [2]. Aldo Rossi described the forming progress of urban texture as “it is evolved from collective memories, which are made of people’s memories of physical space of cities. These memories have effects to the future image of cities…..because people are apt to make plans according to their own minds as well as obey and accept the limits of their physical situations.” [3]

Urban texture elucidates urban practice through analyzing complex urban landscape that is formed gradually by the development of urban processes and reflects the relationship between human societies and their physical environment. By illustrating the space where urban history and culture reside, urban texture studies reveal the order and regular patterns of human social practices. At the macroscale, urban texture examines the main urban landscape characteristics of a city. At the mesoscale, urban texture underlines the interrelations of land-use, block, and street layouts, which are the physical expressions of urban evolution. Finally, at the microscale, urban texture analyzes the relationships among space elements and their historic and cultural meaning in a certain time period. Together urban texture models all plausible factors related to the foundational conglomerate that form and shape the landscape of a city.

Therefore, as a method of analyzing the complex urban landscape, urban texture is related to social, cultural

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and environmental elements which are determinants of urban landscape. The urban natural environment features, such as geography, location, weather and rivers, are elements of the major spatial structure of a city, called the “form” of the city. Cultural and social characters contribute to the “spirit” of the city, which is determined by communities and their history, custom and life styles. Form and spirit together form the unique characteristics of a city.

There are several related theories in descriptions of and analysis in the status of urban space. Generally, those theories of urban texture are categorized into two groups: morphology-space theory and behavior- space theory. The former focuses on the static analysis of urban space modeling while the latter includes human factors in urban analysis and focuses more on human behavior and its consequences. The popular believe in urban texture research is the first group of theories. Urban cognition and visual analysis focus solely on the combination of different physical elements of space – buildings, streets, and squares.

Figure 1 is an example of analyzing urban space form based on the figure-ground theory. The top image is an example of a traditional urban space pattern – the block size is small and a regular pattern exists in building layout. Several courtyards are formed by buildings connected to each other from the straight direction of south to north with only some of these patterns changing slightly. The general scale of space formed by buildings and streets is at a pedestrian friendly and the urban texture is detailed and well-proportioned in order to produce a comfortable and enjoyably-visual landscape. The middle image shows an example of mixed urban space patterns. Traditional urban space form remains on the right and on the left side; a new urban space pattern reflects dramatic changes in building patterns, space sizes, space patterns after the urban transformation. Finally, the image at the bottom represents a completely new urban space pattern after urban redevelopment. The historic heritage in the city has been destroyed.

This type of urban texture research considers urban space pattern as a neutral substance resulted from conflict among differing views of urban development. Therefore, the research focuses are limited to analyzing patterns of urban space factors from the perspectives of history, culture, and spatial-use as shown in Figure 1. Such analysis of changes to urban space and visual effects helps to explore historical and cultural reasons for why these changes occurred.

FIGURE 1. DIFFERENT URBAN SPACE PATTERNS

Since 1960s, urban texture studies have paid more attention to human’s activities and their demands and needs. People’s aesthesia, visual felling and place spirits are concerns of organizing urban space. These studies treat urban space as a subjective and emotional substance and consider it as the result of people’s behavior. However, historical and cultural meanings of urban space are ignored. These studies are limited to determining the pleasant urban visual images and the social space meaning.

Integrating ecoaesthetics to urban texture research will lead to a comprehensive research approach that considers aesthetics and ecology, along with history, sociology, and visual experience. The integration enlightens people on new perspectives for the humane treatment of the natural environment and human societies [11] [12]. It helps to understand the formation of cities and guide practice to form the future of cities, as well as calls for the rethinking of those problems

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pertaining to urban environment deterioration, urban landscape duplication, and the urban historic preservation dilemmas that are prominent in China’s urbanization.

What is Ecoaesthetics

After observing environmental degradation problems of earlier industrial revolution and more recent urban sprawl researchers started to pay attention to the conflicts and compromise between people’s desire for prosperity and environmental quality. Ecoaesthetics represents a philosophical idea that promotes aesthetic appreciation and experiences for humans with their natural environment based on a human’s understanding of ecology. Following an idea proposed by a well-known philosopher, Martin Heidegger, who said “Full of merit, yet poetically, man dwells on this earth,” ecoaesthetics reflects on the concept of an aesthetic realm of existence by humanity with nature being symbiotically harmonious one to another. [4]

Ecology is a scientific discipline to study organisms and their habitat. Ecological knowledge is recognized as essential to understanding the long term environmental quality. Traditionally, aesthetic studies are largely concerned with the philosophy of art, which takes mainly artwork (fine art or performing art) as aesthetic object. The nineteenth century brought further advances and changes to the philosophy of aesthetic appreciation [8]. Various environmental issues have prompted an effort to study conflicts between aesthetics and ecological values [9] [10]. In 1960’s, aesthetics research began to focus on environmental concerns represented by ‘aesthetics of engagement’ which advocated that the study of human experiences of the environment include human engagements with and perceptions of environment.[5][6] Then Koh introduced ecological aesthetics as “a holistic, evolutionary aesthetics of the environment.”[7] Ecoaesthetics was also promoted as a new idea by Chinese scholars in the late 20th century, from the perspective of integration of aesthetics and ecology in studying human societies and their natural environments. In early 21st century, four national conferences (2001, 2003, 2004, and 2007) and two international conferences (2005, 2009) on ecoaesthetics were held in China [8] to advance ecoaesthetics.

In the context of urban studies, an aesthetical study may only study human experience in a city and an ecological study may primarily focus on the ecological integrity of the city and the ecological impact of

urbanization.[8] Ecoaesthetics promotes the believe that human’s city experience must reflect ecologically based aesthetic values. By considering human as a part of the natural environment, aesthetic experiences are no longer static, neutral, unemotional visual enjoyments. Rather, aesthetic engagements are an important determinant to appreciating and enjoying the natural environment. Ecoaesthetics requires a merging of knowledge in ecology and aesthetics in order to better evaluate our life-style choices.

What Difference Ecoaesthectis Can Make to Urban Texture Study

Ecoaesthetics advocates that human experience should reflect on ecological knowledge. In addition to the traditional urban texture studies that focus on analyzing the physical space in urban practice, ecoaesthetics provides the theoretical foundation that physical space reflects the relationships among ecological, social and cultural aspects that affect people’s experience. Therefore, urban texture study, from the perspective of ecoaesthetics, will aim at improving the human experience while simultaneously adhering to sustainable urban development practices (Figure2). Urban landscape is harmonious, healthy, and livable when ecological conscious human experience is satisfied.

FIGURE 2. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN URBAN TEXTURE AND

HUMAN EXPERIENCE FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF ECOAESTHETICS

To illustrate how the integration of ecoaesthetics in urban texture studies can lead to better planning we consider two factors that affect urban landscape in the urban texture research framework – natural features and historic culture. We use the City of Chongqing as a

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case to illustrate how to coordinate the relationship of urban development and the natural environment using ecoaesthetics principles.

Conserving Natural Features

The macroscale urban morphological space structure of a city represents the interrelationships of the natural environment inside and surrounding the city, and the city built morphology. The natural characteristics of a city, which summarize the overall features of the a city and all progress that affect the development of city, represent a complex, dynamically adaptive and interactive system and contain abundant information of evolving experiences, nature, and human culture.[13][14][15]

Recently, researchers have proposed some ecological- based urban development concepts.[16] “Morphology for Low-carbon City” suggests an innovative idea for building “green infrastructure” as a strategy for the space construction of a low-carbon emission city.[17] “Backward planning” suggests reversing the current planning practice that guides what to build and instead, provides guidelines to protect critical environmental and resource areas. Both of these strategies pay attention to the significance of the natural features as limiting factors in urban planning and urban design. However, what happened has happened in Chongqing shows that ecological planning along has limitations.

Chongqing, located in the southwest of China, is an economic center at the head of the Changjiang River. The confluence of Jialing River and Changjiang River is the original settlement of the city (Figure 3). The city is famous for its terrain, winding streets, water front, and indistinct mountains, which form the foundation for developing the unique urban landscape of the city.

The four mountain ranges almost arranged parallel from west to east are important ecological corridors. Although protection of the mountains was stated in the past several versions of Chongqing master plan, these protected areas have been gradually nibbled away by the constantly expanding urban construction areas. The municipal government regularly includes those areas in urban construction projects rather than taking remedies to prevent further deterioration. This represents a trend in Chinese cities, including Chongqing. Expanding developed land is considered as the main approach for urbanization; even if it means the reduction of areas that should be protected, such as these ecologically sensitive areas in Chongqing.

FIGURE3. CHONGQING MAP TODAY (BASED ON CHONGQING

MASTER PLAN)

TABLE 1 CENSUS OF LAND USE IN MAIN DISTRICT IN CHONGQING SINCE 2000 (BASED ON CHONGQING MASTER PLANNING)

Year 2000 2002 2003 2005 2006 2007 2008 m2 240 279.8 300.9 363.6 397 422.39 443.6

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FIGURE 4. LAND USE CHANGES IN MAIN DISTRICTS IN CHONGQING (BASED ON CHONGQING MASTER PLAN)

Table 1 shows the urban sprawl in Chonqing since it was designated as a municipality under direct control of China’s Central Government in 1997. The 1996-2020 Master Plan of Chongqing set the target of 240 square kilometers developed land in 2010. However, this target was reached 10 years earlier in 2000. In the eight years following 2000, the developed land in the city’s main district had increased by 85%, to 444 square kilometers in 2008, as shown in the middle image of Figure 4. The bottom image of Figure 4 is the 2007-2020 Master Plan of Chongqing. The developed land was planned to be expanded to 1188km2. Although there is no official statistics of the land developed in the protected mountains areas records show that some residential buildings were built at the bottom and top of the mountains.

The Chongqing case demonstrates that the separation of urban development from the natural environment protection leads to the attitude that there is an unavoidable conflict between them. This is the main reason for urban sprawl, resource depletion, and environmental deterioration. Accordingly, ecoaesthetics- based urban planning and design encourages people’s

understanding and appreciation for an ‘ecological aesthetic experience’ in everyday life. Allocating land for urban development and ecological preservation is no longer an act of balancing two competing needs. Rather, they serve the same goal that is to enhance the human experience. Humans have the desire to enjoy urban life; however, urban development should not come at the price of deteriorating the natural environment, which in essence, damages human urban experience.

The fundamental of ecoaesthetics is that people are capable of assessing their experience with knowledge of factors that are not limited to those immediately tangible human needs. Ecological values of all urban natural features and resources are examples of such factors. People who appreciate those ecological values will be more willing to consider them as the bottom-ground-floor or ground-floor level (from the perspective of figure-ground theory) of the urban space frame, along with short term benefits in assessing urban form. These natural features, which are the foundation for unique urban landscape, are a part of the basic elements that enable the sustainability of the ecological systems and distinctive urban landscape. They are also extraordinarily significant to sustainable development practices and harmonization between humanity and the natural environment. Natural elements and landforms such as mountains, forests, rivers, marshland, farmland, etc. should be paid particular attention to in urban planning and urban design in order to protect the natural ecosystems, landscape textures, and indigenous habitats. A long term management mechanism can provide further guarantees to maintaining these natural features, as the most importance, during any progressive urban planning practices. Therefore, on this basis, we build the urban development space frame and ecological environment frame which they support and effect each other. Furthermore, the following urban development

FIGURE5. PLANNING PRACTICE FRAMEWORK FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF ECOAESTHETICS

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projects will follow this frame so as to keep urban environment system in a good condition. Ecological and visual assessment (especially to the natural feature factors) of urban development projects will be the next importance step to conserving the natural features. It is important to take steps to make remedies for those urban areas where deteriorating situations are consequences of arbitrary designs. When redesigns are called upon, requiring an environmental evaluation should be a first step. Thus, we step towards a healthy and livable urban environment and also characteristic urban landscape. (Figure 5).

Conserving Historical Urban Texture

New urban construction and historic preservation are two highly frictional and strictly oppositional urban development techniques in China. Historic preservation is facing an austere challenge as a result of prevailing attitudes in favor of development and economic gains. Traditional urban landscape has been changed tremendously as a result of large-scale redevelopment in old urban areas – demolition of existing buildings is followed by construction of high-rise buildings. The practice erodes and brakes up the urban space pattern. The newly constructed urban areas are now filled with skyscrapers, with street blocks arranged in orderly-fashion, broad grid roads, magnificent public buildings, huge urban squares, and highway overpasses. It is difficult for visitors, and at times even local residents, to tell which city they are in. Cities are indistinguishable from one another, and

somewhat strange to some people.

Moreover, according to the principles of ecoaesthetics, preserving traditional urban forms and constructing new urban areas have the same purpose of enhancing human experience. Both are important to urban development and, in certain ways, preserving old cities areas is more preferable. Cities that have good forms of human scales and local identities are shaped through long and gradual evolving history. Urban space pattern in these cities represents their urban history and culture. The cultural heritage carried by distinct local identities from a city’s history is filled with vital information that is valuable for people’s sense of belonging.

Diversity is significant to maintain the integrity of the ecological system and furthermore the stability of the ecological system. Oneness of an ecological system will damage its stability, which also threatens all living beings in that system. Therefore, any redevelopments of an old urban system must rest heavily on a devout and cautious attitude towards what is to be considered appropriate. Integrated conservation is a strategy to maintain traditional urban space patterns and the diversity of the city, including layout of buildings, public spaces, and street patterns. It is a way of conserving the integral informational parts of a city’s history while recording the culture that is an invaluable treasure to that city. For example, since they were listed as world cultural heritage sites, Pingyao and Lijiang cities in China have become well known

FIGURE 6. TRADITIONAL URBAN TEXTURE ERODED BY THE MODERN HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS FOR JIEFANG EAST ROAD

HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL AREA IN CHONGQING

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and have received many more development opportunities. Their experiences show that the life-style, including residents’ traditional cultural/life activities, associated with the traditional urban space pattern should be conserved along with their physical elements in order to maintain their historical heritage and culture for posterity. Figure 6 is a picture of existing urban space pattern for Chongqing’s Jiefang east road historical district, where traditional urban space pattern has dramatically changed, when new high-rise buildings were built. In contrast, Figure 7 shows more than 200 years of historical evolution of urban space pattern between 1738 and 1969 in the Le Marais historical district in Paris, France. The area still maintains a traditional general pattern and new streets and buildings spaces are built, in a harmonious way, with the old existing urban texture. [18] Integrating ecoaesthetics in urban texture requires urban planning and urban design pay more attention to the needs for harmonious relationships between human and environment. Furthermore, the diversity and sustainability of urban systems must be considered. Therefore, preserving the continuity of urban space pattern is preserving the history and culture of cities. Urban space manifests itself in developing relationship of people and their settlements which plays a role in maintaining stable societal affection. It is an important part of sustainable development that maintains cultural diversity and vitality of cities.

Conclusions

This paper argues that some of the issues related to environmental deterioration and historical heritage in China’s urbanization process is the perceived disconnection between satisfying economic gains and preserving the characteristics of urban areas. The

current studies in urban texture are able to identify the problems. Urban texture has been considered as a method to describe and evaluate the urban landscape which remains a comprehensive expression of urban aesthetic, history, and culture from a certain perspective. In the context of globalization and China’s urbanization, the study of urban texture is especially important for historic preservation and development that reflect local characteristics. In addition to holding its value, from the perspective of historical evolution, urban space pattern maintains its relationship to urban ecology.

We propose to integrate ecoaesthetics with urban texture studies in order to provide guidance to current urbanization in china. In the context of ecoaesthetics, urban texture also holds a significant place for improving human experience. Merging ecoaesthetics with urban texture contributes to a sustainable urban developmental practice. The urbanized human settlements are the most important places for maintaining healthy ecological systems. Exploration of the interrelationships of humans and the natural environment, along with the analysis of urban space, can contribute to understanding the meaning of sustainable urban development; resulting in having practical implications in guiding planning and design.

Urban texture analyzes the urban phenomenon related to nature, human societies, history, and cultural heritages. Ecoaesthetics advocates for the organic integration and comprehensiveness of the human- nature system. Thus, including ecoaesthetics in urban texture studies represents a new perspective to understand the meaning of urban textures and to assess the present urbanization practices.

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FIGURE 7. EVOLUTION MAPS OF MARAIS CONSERVATION AREA IN FRANCE (ADAPTED FROM ZHAOUJIAN, 2003, PP.115-117)

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