Interpersonal Skills for Managers – Psychology in Business

Interpersonal Skills for Managers – Psychology in Business

Class 3

Karol Wolski

Motivation

• Motivation is the process used to allocate energy to maximize the satisfaction of needs (Pritchard i Ashwood, 2008).

Motivation

• We allocate time and energy to different actions by deciding direction, effort and persistence:– Direction: Which actions we will work on– Effort: How hard we will work on those actions– Persistence: How long we will work on those

actions

Motivation – general model

Energy PoolThe

Motivation Process

Needs

Motivation at work – 9 features

• Motivation Is Understandable – The components of motivation make sense. By

understanding how these components work together, you can see your group’s motivation as a logical process, that you can diagnose and influence


• Motivation Is a Process– Motivation is a process in the sense that

manufacturing is a process: a series of interconnected steps produces the end product. If one step goes awry, the whole process breaks down.


• Motivation Is a Fundamental Issue, Not a Fad– The history of management includes many fads

that have become popular and then died out. Focus on motivation is not a fad; motivation is basic. Understanding motivational principles can help you understand behavior and identify in advance what is going to work, no matter what changes in the work environment.


• Motivation Is a Long-Term Issue– So called "motivational speakers" may get people

excited about work, but the high is temporary. Managing motivation is less emotional and more long-lasting. A sustained effort to continually monitor, diagnose, and make improvements is needed.


• Motivation Is Logical– Motivation operates on logical, understandable

principles. With a good model of motivation, you can diagnose a situation and know what to do to improve it. Think about quality: there was a time when quality was seen as vague and difficult to manage, but now it can be defined, measured, and improved. You can understand and encourage motivation, just as you can understand and encourage quality.


• Motivation Is Manageable– Because motivation is understandable, you can manage it. You

can affect the amount of time and energy people spend on different tasks to increase their effectiveness.

– Think about a person whose motivation seems to be low, who exerts minimal effort with little apparent interest in how much gets done or how well it is done. On weekends, that same person spends hours diligently working as a volunteer in the community. This is the same person; the difference is the work environment. It's not that you're lucky to have motivated people working for you or unlucky to have unmotivated people. How you manage has a significant influence on motivation.


• Motivation Is Also Work Strategy– Motivation is more than the overall effort that

goes into a job; it is also work strategy. Work strategy is choosing what to work on, what not to work on, how much effort to put into each possible task, and how to sequence this effort over time.


• Motivation Is a Collaboration– Motivation is a collaboration between the organization and

its employees: staff members are asked to devote time and energy to the organization in exchange for pay and benefits. Thus, motivation is something the organization does with people not to people. Managing motivation is not manipulating people—in fact, it's just the opposite. Managing motivation means learning how to optimize staff contributions to the organization while at the same time improving how staff needs are satisfied. With knowledge and skill, you can work with the people you supervise to create a work environment that is highly motivating to them.


• With High Motivation, Everybody Wins– Maximizing motivation benefits people as well as

the organization. Think of jobs where you haven't felt strongly motivated. That kind of work is unpleasant, frustrating, boring, stressful, and fatiguing. In contrast, jobs that are highly motivating are more stimulating and more fun. When people can convert energy into satisfied needs efficiently, their energy actually increases. When they can't, energy decreases.

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

Maslow's Need – Hierarchy Theory

• A tension – reduction hypothesis– A T-R hypothesis is used to explain the process of

motivation. In this, an unsatisfied need creates an uncomfortable state of tension in the person. Tension spurs individual into action in an effort to reduce the uncomfortable state.

– Action in maintained until the need is satisfied and the tension is reduced.


• Criticism:– There is a little research evidence supporting

Maslow’s theory– This theory is difficult to test

• Popularity– Theory and its term were very well publicized to

an extend that the terms are incorporated in everyday language. Self-actualization is now a wor in the dicitionary.


• Popularity– The theory treats humans sympathetically and

shows that people work not only for money. – Is quite easy to apply in the workplace

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Hygiene Factors MotivatorsSalary,

Job Security,Working Conditions,Level and Quality of

Supervision,Company Policy and

Administration,Interpersonal

Relations

Nature of Work,Sense of

Achievement,Recognition,

Responsibility,Personal Growth and

Advancement

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

The motivator factor motivates toward satisfaction;the hygiene factor motivates away from dissatisfaction.

Achievement Theory – McClelland

• The central feature of this theory is need for achievement (nAch)

• People with high nAch wants to have high ability for certain activities. McClelland proposed that these activities are such that:– There is a standard of excellence– A person can succeed or fail

• The second important feature is a need to avoid failure• Individuals are thought to have varying amounts of

each need, with one being dominant.


Achievement Theory Predictions of the Individuals with a Need to Gain Success or to Avoid Failure


• McClelland suggested other characteristics and attitudes of achievement-motivated people:– achievement is more important than material or financial reward.– achieving the aim or task gives greater personal satisfaction than receiving

praise or recognition.– financial reward is regarded as a measurement of success, not an end in itself.– security is not prime motivator.– feedback is essential, because it enables measurement of success, not for

reasons of praise or recognition (the implication here is that feedback must be reliable, quantifiable and factual).

– achievement-motivated people constantly seek improvements and ways of doing things better.

– achievement-motivated people will logically favor jobs and responsibilities that naturally satisfy their needs, ie offer flexibility and opportunity to set and achieve goals, eg., sales and business management, and entrepreneurial roles.

Expectancy Theory - Vroom

• Force = Expectancy * Instrumentality * Valence• Expectancy– Expectancy is the belief that one's effort (E) will result

in attainment of desired performance (P) goals. Usually based on an individual's past experience, self confidence (self efficacy), and the perceived difficulty of the performance standard or goal. Factors associated with the individual's Expectancy perception are self efficacy, goal difficulty, and control.

– Expectancy: Effort → Performance (E→P)


• Instrumentality– Instrumentality is the belief that a person will

receive a reward if the performance expectation is met. This reward may come in the form of a pay increase, promotion, recognition or sense of accomplishment. Instrumentality is low when the reward is given for all performances given.

– Instrumentality: Performance → Outcome (P→O)


• Valence– Valence refers to our emotional response to an

anticipated outcome. Some outcomes are more attractive than others. These varied positive, neutral or negative feelings about the outcomes of performance are what is meant by valence.


• Force = Expectancy * Instrumentality * Valence

• For motivational force to be greater than zero, all components also must have a value greater than zero.

• Person will be motivated only if– Expectancy > 0– Instrumentality > 0– Valence > 0

Equity Theory - Adams

• Background:– Cognitive Dissonance – coined by Festinger – is an

inconsistency in the cognitive structure that produces tension, which in turn motivates actions to restore consistency and reduce the tension.

– Example: I thought I’m best runner. I lost the competition. I have dissonace. Am I the best runner?


• Adams called personal efforts and rewards and other similar 'give and take' issues at work respectively 'inputs' and 'outputs'.

• Inputs are logically what we give or put into our work. Outputs are everything we take out in return.

• Adams used the term 'referent' others to describe the reference points or people with whom we compare our own situation, which is the pivotal part of the theory

Equity Theory - AdamsInputs Outputs

Time Effort Loyalty Hard Work Commitment Ability Adaptability Flexibility Tolerance Determination Enthusiasm Personal sacrifice Trust in superiors Support from co-workers and colleagues Skill

Job security Salary Employee benefit Expenses Recognition Reputation Responsibility Sense of achievement Praise Thanks Stimuli


• People compare their inputs with outputs• People need to feel that there is a fair balance

between inputs and outputs. • Crucially fairness is measured by comparing

one's own balance or ratio between inputs and outputs, with the ratio enjoyed or endured by relevant ('referent') others.


• If we feel that our inputs are fairly rewarded by outputs (the fairness benchmark being subjectively perceived from market norms and other comparable references) then generally we are happier in our work and more motivated to continue inputting at the same level.

• If we feel that our ratio of inputs to outputs is less beneficial than the ratio enjoyed by referent others, then we become demotivated in relation to our job and employer.


• People respond to a feeling of inequity in different ways.• Generally the extent of demotivation is proportional to the

perceived disparity with other people or inequity, but for some people just the smallest indication of negative disparity between their situation and other people's is enough to cause massive disappointment and a feeling of considerable injustice, resulting in demotivation, or worse, open hostility.

• Some people reduce effort and application and become inwardly disgruntled, or outwardly difficult, recalcitrant or even disruptive. Other people seek to improve the outputs by making claims or demands for more reward, or seeking an alternative job.

Self-determination theory – Deci and Ryan


• Need of Competence – Refers to being effective in dealing with the environment in

which a person finds oneself• Need of Relatedness – Is the universal want to interact, be connected to, and

experience caring for others• Need of Autonomy– Is the universal urge to be causal agents of one's own life

and act in harmony with one's integrated self; however, Deci and Vansteenkiste note this does not mean to be independent of others


• Main assumptions:– Humans are inherently proactive with their

potential and mastering their inner forces (such as drives and emotions)

– Humans have inherent tendency toward growth development and integrated functioning

– Optimal development and actions are inherent in humans but they don’t happen automatically


• Intrinsic motivation is the natural, inherent drive to seek out challenges and new possibilities that SDT associated with cognitive and social development.

• Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation that is driven by an interest or enjoyment in the task itself, and exists within the individual rather than relying on any external pressure.


• Students are likely to be intrinsically motivated if they:– attribute their educational results to factors under

their own control (e.g., the effort expended),– believe they can be effective agents in reaching

desired goals (i.e. the results are not determined by luck),

– are interested in mastering a topic, rather than just rote-learning to achieve good grades.


• Extrinsic motivation comes from outside of the individual. Common extrinsic motivations are rewards like money and grades, coercion and threat of punishment. Competition is in general extrinsic because it encourages the performer to win and beat others, not to enjoy the intrinsic rewards of the activity.


• Rewards (Money) undermine intrinsic motivation

• undermining effect - When people received rewards for working on an interesting activity, they tended to display less interest in and willingness to work on that activity after termination of the rewards than did people who had worked on the activity without receiving a reward.


• Task-contingent rewards—those made contingent on doing the activity—have been consistently and reliably shown to undermine intrinsic motivation, presumably because their controlling function is salient (need of autonomy is not satisfied).

• Rewards can enhance intrinsic motivation when the controlling aspect is minimized and competence cues are emphasized (reward is treated as a feedback of competence level)

Interpersonal Skills for Managers – Psychology in Business

Education

Transcript of Interpersonal Skills for Managers – Psychology in Business