Internet Knowledge

8/2/2019 Internet Knowledge

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The Internet is a global system of

interconnected computer networks that

use the standard Internet protocol suite(often called TCP/IP, although not all

protocols use TCP) to serve billions of

users worldwide. It is a network of

networks that consists of millions of

private, public, academic, business, andgovernment networks, of local to global

scope, that are linked by a broad array of

electronic, wireless and optical

networking technologies. The Internet

carries an extensive range ofinformation

resources and services, such as the inter-

linked hypertext documents of the World

Wide Web (WWW) and the

infrastructure to support email.Most traditional communications media

including telephone, music, film, and
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television are reshaped or redefined by

the Internet, giving birth to new services

such as Voice over Internet Protocol(VoIP) and Internet Protocol Television

(IPTV). Newspaper, book and other print

publishing are adapting to Web site

technology, or are reshaped into blogging

and web feeds. The Internet has enabledor accelerated new forms of human

interactions through instant messaging,

Internet forums, and social networking.

Online shopping has boomed both for

major retail outlets and small artisans and

traders. Business-to-business and

financial services on the Internet affect

supply chains across entire industries.

The origins of the Internet reach back toresearch of the 1960s, commissioned by

the United States government in
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collaboration with private commercial

interests to build robust, fault-tolerant,

and distributed computer networks. Thefunding of a new U.S. backbone by the

National Science Foundation in the

1980s, as well as private funding for

other commercial backbones, led to

worldwide participation in thedevelopment of new networking

technologies, and the merger of many

networks. The commercialization of what

was by the 1990s an international

network resulted in its popularization and

incorporation into virtually every aspect

of modern human life. As of 2011, more

than 2.2 billion peoplenearly a third

ofEarth's population

use the servicesof the Internet.[1]
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The Internet has no centralized

governance in either technological

implementation or policies for access andusage; each constituent network sets its

own standards. Only the overreaching

definitions of the two principal name

spaces in the Internet, the Internet

Protocol address space and the DomainName System, are directed by a

maintainer organization, the Internet

Corporation for Assigned Names and

Numbers (ICANN). The technical

underpinning and standardization of the

core protocols (IPv4 and IPv6) is an

activity of the Internet Engineering Task

Force (IETF), a non-profit organization

of loosely affiliated internationalparticipants that anyone may associate

with by contributing technical expertise
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Research into packet switching started in

the early 1960s and packet switched

networks such as ARPANET, Mark I atNPL in the UK,[6]CYCLADES,[7][8]

Merit Network,[9]Tymnet, and Telenet,

were developed in the late 1960s and

early 1970s using a variety ofprotocols.

The ARPANET in particular led to thedevelopment of protocols for

internetworking, where multiple separate

networks could be joined together into a

network of networks.

The first two nodes of what would

become the ARPANET were

interconnected between Leonard

Kleinrock's Network Measurement

Center at the UCLA's School ofEngineering and Applied Science and

Douglas Engelbart's NLS system at SRI
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International (SRI) in Menlo Park,

California, on 29 October 1969.[10] The

third site on the ARPANET was theCuller-Fried Interactive Mathematics

center at the University of California at

Santa Barbara, and the fourth was the

University of Utah Graphics Department.

In an early sign of future growth, therewere already fifteen sites connected to

the young ARPANET by the end of

1971.[11][12] These early years were

documented in the 1972 film Computer

Networks: The Heralds of Resource

Sharing.

Early international collaborations on

ARPANET were sparse. For various

political reasons, European developerswere concerned with developing the

X.25 networks.[13] Notable exceptions
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were theNorwegian Seismic Array

(NORSAR) in 1972, followed in 1973 by

Sweden with satellite links to the TanumEarth Station and Peter Kirstein's

research group in the UK, initially at the

Institute of Computer Science, London

University and later at University

College London.[14]

T3 NSFNET Backbone, c. 1992

In 1982, the Internet Protocol Suite

(TCP/IP) was standardized and the

concept of a world-wide network of fullyinterconnected TCP/IP networks called

the Internet was introduced. Access to

the ARPANET was expanded in 1981
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when the National Science Foundation

(NSF) developed the Computer Science

Network(CSNET). In December 1974,RFC 675Specification of Internet

Transmission Control Program, by

Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal, and Carl

Sunshine, used the term internet, as a

shorthand for internetworking; laterRFCs repeat this use, so the word started

out as an adjective rather than the noun it

is today.[15]

TCP/IP network access expanded againin 1986 when NSFNET provided access

to supercomputer sites in the United

States from research and education

organizations, first at 56 kbit/s and later

at 1.5 Mbit/s and 45 Mbit/s.[16]Commercial internet service providers

(ISPs) began to emerge in the late 1980s
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and 1990s. The ARPANET was

decommissioned in 1990. The Internet

was commercialized in 1995 whenNSFNET was decommissioned,

removing the last restrictions on the use

of the Internet to carry commercial

traffic.[17] The Internet started a rapid

expansion to Europe and Australia in themid to late 1980s[18][19] and to Asia in the

late 1980s and early 1990s.[20]

This NeXT Computer was used by Sir

Tim Berners-Lee at CERN and becamethe world's first Web server.
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Since the mid-1990s the Internet has had

a tremendous impact on culture and

commerce, including the rise of nearinstant communication by email, instant

messaging, Voice over Internet Protocol

(VoIP) "phone calls", two-way

interactive video calls, and the World

Wide Web[21] with its discussion forums,blogs, social networking, and online

shopping sites. Increasing amounts of

data are transmitted at higher and higher

speeds over fiber optic networks

operating at 1-Gbit/s, 10-Gbit/s, or more.

The Internet continues to grow, driven by

ever greater amounts of online

information and knowledge, commerce,

entertainment and social networking.[22]

During the late 1990s, it was estimated

that traffic on the public Internet grew by
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100 percent per year, while the mean

annual growth in the number of Internet

users was thought to be between 20%and 50%.[23] This growth is often

attributed to the lack of central

administration, which allows organic

growth of the network, as well as the

non-proprietary open nature of theInternet protocols, which encourages

vendor interoperability and prevents any

one company from exerting too much

control over the network.[24] As of 31

March 2011, the estimated total number

ofInternet users was 2.095 billion

(30.2% of world population).[25] It is

estimated that in 1993 the Internet

carried only 1% of the informationflowing through two-way

telecommunication, by 2000 this figure

had grown to 51%, and by 2007 more
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than 97% of all telecommunicated

information was carried over the

Internet.[26]

Technology

Protocols

Main article:Internet protocol suiteThe communications infrastructure of the

Internet consists of its hardware

components and a system of software

layers that control various aspects of the

architecture. While the hardware canoften be used to support other software

systems, it is the design and the rigorous

standardization process of the software

architecture that characterizes the

Internet and provides the foundation for

its scalability and success. The

responsibility for the architectural design
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of the Internet software systems has been

delegated to the Internet Engineering

Task Force (IETF).[27] The IETFconducts standard-setting work groups,

open to any individual, about the various

aspects of Internet architecture. Resulting

discussions and final standards are

published in a series of publications, eachcalled a Request for Comments (RFC),

freely available on the IETF web site.

The principal methods of networking that

enable the Internet are contained in

specially designated RFCs that constitute

the Internet Standards. Other less

rigorous documents are simply

informative, experimental, or historical,

or document the best current practices(BCP) when implementing Internet

technologies.
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The Internet standards describe a

framework known as the Internet

protocol suite. This is a modelarchitecture that divides methods into a

layered system of protocols (RFC 1122,

RFC 1123). The layers correspond to the

environment or scope in which their

services operate. At the top is theapplication layer, the space for the

application-specific networking methods

used in software applications, e.g., a web

browser program. Below this top layer,

the transport layer connects applications

on different hosts via the network (e.g.,

clientserver model) with appropriate

data exchange methods. Underlying these

layers are the core networkingtechnologies, consisting of two layers.

The internet layer enables computers to

identify and locate each other via Internet
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Protocol (IP) addresses, and allows them

to connect to one-another via

intermediate (transit) networks. Last, atthe bottom of the architecture, is a

software layer, the link layer, that

provides connectivity between hosts on

the same local network link, such as a

local area network (LAN) or a dial-upconnection. The model, also known as

TCP/IP, is designed to be independent of

the underlying hardware, which the

model therefore does not concern itself

with in any detail. Other models have

been developed, such as the Open

Systems Interconnection (OSI) model,

but they are not compatible in the details

of description or implementation; manysimilarities exist and the TCP/IP

protocols are usually included in the

discussion of OSI networking.
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The most prominent component of the

Internet model is the Internet Protocol

(IP), which provides addressing systems(IP addresses) for computers on the

Internet. IP enables internetworking and

in essence establishes the Internet itself.

IP Version 4 (IPv4) is the initial version

used on the first generation of today'sInternet and is still in dominant use. It

was designed to address up to

~4.3 billion (109) Internet hosts.

However, the explosive growth of the

Internet has led to IPv4 address

exhaustion, which entered its final stage

in 2011,[28] when the global address

allocation pool was exhausted. A new

protocol version, IPv6, was developed inthe mid-1990s, which provides vastly

larger addressing capabilities and more

efficient routing of Internet traffic. IPv6
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is currently in growing deployment

around the world, since Internet address

registries (RIRs) began to urge allresource managers to plan rapid adoption

and conversion.[29]

IPv6 is not interoperable with IPv4. In

essence, it establishes a parallel versionof the Internet not directly accessible

with IPv4 software. This means software

upgrades or translator facilities are

necessary for networking devices that

need to communicate on both networks.Most modern computer operating

systems already support both versions of

the Internet Protocol. Network

infrastructures, however, are still lagging

in this development. Aside from thecomplex array of physical connections

that make up its infrastructure, the
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv6_deploymenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regional_Internet_registryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regional_Internet_registryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv6_deployment


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Internet is facilitated by bi- or multi-

lateral commercial contracts (e.g.,

peering agreements), and by technicalspecifications or protocols that describe

how to exchange data over the network.

Indeed, the Internet is defined by its

interconnections and routing policies
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peering_agreementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peering_agreement

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