International relations

Full Definition of LIBERALISM1

:  the quality or state of being liberal

2

a often capitalized :  a movement in modern Protestantism emphasizing intellectual liberty and the

spiritual and ethical content of Christianity

b :  a theory in economics emphasizing individual freedom from restraint and usually based on free

competition, the self-regulating market, and the gold standard

c :  a political philosophy based on belief in progress, the essential goodness of the human race,

and the autonomy of the individual and standing for the protection of political and

civil liberties;specifically :  such a philosophy that considers government as a crucial instrument for

amelioration of social inequities (as those involving race, gender, or class)

 Liberals typically believe thatgovernment is necessary to protect individuals from being harmed by others; but they also recognize that government itself can pose a threat to liberty.

a political or social philosophy advocating the freedom of the individual,parliamentary systems of government, nonviolent modification ofpolitical, social, or economic institutions to assure unrestricteddevelopment in all spheres of human endeavor, and governmentalguarantees of individual rights and civil liberties.

DEFINITION OF 'NEOLIBERALISM'An approach to economics and social studies in which control of economic factors is shifted from the public sector to the private sector.

neoliberalism

 (ˌniːəʊˈlɪbərəˌlɪzəm; -ˈlɪbrəˌlɪzəm)

n

1. (Government, Politics & Diplomacy) a modern politico-economic theory favouring free trade, privatizatio

n, minimal governmentintervention in business, reduced public expenditure on social services, etc

2. (Economics) a modern politico-economic theory favouring free trade, privatization, minimal government 

intervention in business,reduced public expenditure on social services, etc

Neoliberalism, in theory, is essentially about making trade between nations easier. It is about freer movement of goods, resources and enterprises in a bid to always find cheaper resources, to maximize profits and efficiency.

As in the case of socio-economic development, Pakistan has over the years developed an impressive body of environmental policy frameworks, action plans and enacted laws and established an elaborate

institutional structure, including judicial tribunals, aimed at addressing the two facets of environmental challenges: excessive, imprudent, unsustainable use of natural resources; and the growing dangers of air, water and land/soil pollution. However, the situation on the ground is alarming. The constraints impeding environmental protection include:

• Governance Governance issues such as poor organisation, incompetent personnel assigned to address complex challenges; insufficient coordination, lack of oversight, monitoring and evaluation of the performance of environmental institutions are a major impediment to environmental protection.

• Financial Resources The financial resources provided to the ever-growing plethora of environment-related institutions are inadequate and poorly managed.

• Technical The technical and technological capacities of the relevant institutions especially those dealing with climate change-related challenges would need to be significantly augmented through domestic efforts supported by the international community.

• Limited regional and global cooperation Pakistan has not been able to develop cooperation with neighbouring countries both bilaterally and through regional cooperation agreements such as the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). SAARC member states adopted a 3- year Action Plan (2009-11) on climate change in 2008. The SAARC Summit in Thimphu (Bhutan) in April 2010 adopted the SAARC Convention on Cooperation on Environment and the Thimphu Statement on climate change outlining an ambitious set of recommendations on cooperation for addressing the multifaceted challenges of climate change. These agreements need to be followed up.

Pakistan’s cooperation with the UN and other multilateral agencies, including the IFI’s, as well as friendly countries is significant but does not match either the enormity of environmental challenges facing Pakistan nor the potential of the partners.

Abstract:

     Historically Pakistan has been among the top recipients of the US aid and assistance. Within last

six decades, the US has sent more than 45 billion dollars in direct aid to the country. Nearly half of

this has been for military assistance. However, since Osama bin Laden was discovered and killed in

Abbottabad, the U.S. president Barack Obama has come under increasing pressure to justify the US

aid spending in the Pakistan. This report analyzes the history of United States aid, its main interests

in Pakistan as well as the challenges faced in the country. The focus will be the military aid by the

U.S. spent in Pakistan and why the U.S. continue its support to Pakistan, even though both the

countries have very complex relations

Introduction

     Pakistan is arguably one of the most important countries which is promoting the United States

interest in the region. But in order to accomplish their own objectives both the countries have their

own policies and approaches, while the people who truly deserve foreign aid and assistance are

suffering from such self-interested policies.

     This report analyzes the effectiveness of USAID to Pakistan as well as the challenges faced by

the United States. Moreover the report sheds light into the main interest for the United States for

providing assistance and aid to Pakistan, reviews the difficulties faced by both the U.S. and

Pakistan, and conflict of interest in this intricate relationship between the two countries. Thus the

main argument raised in this report is, 'If both the U.S. and Pakistan have complex relations and

trust issues, then why the United States of America continue its aid and support to Pakistan?'

     In order to clarify these issues several articles and research papers have been reviewed and

different approaches and perceptions from both the American and Pakistani sides have been

considered.

Background

The History of U.S. AID to Pakistan

     U.S. aid to Pakistan has a long history and within different time span U.S. flowed aid into

Pakistan for several projects, ranging from economic development and humanitarian aid to military

and defense support. Soon after it’s' independence in 1947, Pakistan faced severe threats from India

and was suffering from terrible economic conditions, thus had no other choice but to seek the U.S.

help, and to ensure its survival. In the 1950s and 1960s, by joining two regional defense pacts, the

Southeast Asia Treaty Organization and the Central Treaty Organization and signing military and

other pacts of cooperation with the United States, Pakistan started receiving huge amount of aid

from the West. Afterwards, through the United States Agency for International Development

(USAID), USA started the flow of aid to Pakistan, which not only helped Pakistan develop its military

but also played a vital role in development projects, food support and humanitarian assistance. By

1964, overall aid and assistance to Pakistan was around 5 percent of its GDP and with GDP growth

rates rising to as much as 7 percent per annum Pakistan began its industrialization and development

course.(1)

     After the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, the U.S. increased its aid and military assistance to

Pakistan. Large amount of money and arms were channeled to the mujahedeen fighting the Soviet

Army in Afghanistan through Pakistan's military and its clandestine agencies. Despite the U.S.

continuous claims that the aid given to Pakistan during the Cold War period was not meant directly

for Pakistan's military, there are plenty of evidence that those funds for the Afghan mujahedeen were

pocketed by Pakistani officers.(2)

     Consequently, during the Cold War period, United States considered Pakistan as an important

ally and a hedge against the Soviet expansionism in the region; while on the other hand, Pakistan

hoped to benefit itself from the U.S. geopolitical support, as well as financial and military assistance.

(3)

     After the end of Cold War, the U.S. aid to Pakistan was cut down to low levels, this significant

reduction in aid was due to disengagement from Pakistan and Afghanistan after the defeat of the

Soviet Union. And despite Pakistan's continuous request, United States neglected the problems in

Afghanistan and totally abandoned the region and this action of the U.S. left many Pakistanis with

the sense that they had been used and ditched.(4) Consequently, the abandonment of the region by

USA set the stage for the era of terrorism.

Post 9/11 Scenario

     The events of September 11 dramatically complete the change in the nature of U.S. aid to

Pakistan from developmental aid, to purchasing Pakistan's cooperation in counterterrorism. While

aid in the earlier decades - during the 1950s and 1960s - focused on helping the people of Pakistan

and in supporting economic growth, aid in the 1980s in particular began to strengthen the military

and its clandestine institutions, and soon after 9/11 it turned into mainly gaining Pakistan's support

for defeating terrorists and fight against terrorism. Twenty-five percent of total aid between 2001 and

2008 was allocated for economic and development assistance, including food aid. And some $5.8

billion of U.S. aid was spent on counter-terrorism and counter-insurgency activities in Pakistan.

U.S. Aid to Pakistan

     USAID mission statement, states that the main purpose of the U.S. foreign aid towards Pakistan,

as well as civilian-assistance program, is to develop a stable, secure and tolerant Pakistan with a

vibrant economy. USAID has focused its program over the last year on five areas essential to

Pakistan's stability and long-term development and reflective of Pakistani priorities: energy,

economic growth, stabilization, education and health. USAID has streamlined the number of projects

and has chosen to implement over half of all funding through local organizations in Pakistan (both

government and non-government). Supporting the civilian government's capacity to meet the needs

of its citizens is a vital element of USAID's program, as is working with non-governmental

organizations and the private sector.(5)

     However, Mr. S. Akbar Zaidi argues that both the U.S. and Pakistan has very different

expectations from each other. Washington has accused the Pakistani government and military of

duplicity, and of protecting key militant leaders living within Pakistan. The United States continues to

ask the government of Pakistan to “do more.” While the Islamabad accused the United States for

having dual-standards and involving in clandestine activities in its territory.(6)

    Chart 1 show that the U.S. economic assistance to Pakistan was peaked in 1962, at over $2.3bn,

and reached its lowest level in the 1990s, after President George H.W. Bush suspended aid flows

over Pakistan's emerging nuclear programme. The U.S. military assistance also dropped

dramatically during and immediately after the Indo-Pakistani wars of 1965 and 1971. The U.S.

economic and military assistance to Pakistan has fluctuated considerably over the past 60 years, but

it has risen steadily since 2001. In the year 2010 alone, the military assistance to Pakistan totaled

$2.5bn.(7)

Therefore the only effective way to prevent future Al Qaeda attacks would be for the United States to

take all its forces out of the Middle East. As far as the U.S. interest and security is concerned, the

U.S. does not need to deploy ground forces in Afghanistan. The U.S. should form effective alliances

with the regional countries, and in case of any serious crises it can rely on its’ military bases, and

naval and air power in the region.

    Therefore, to say that suicide terrorism is rational is to say that terrorists, like everyone else, have

specific, “reasonable” goals that they wish to achieve through their actions; terroristic violence is, in

this regard, an instrument or means to an end. They weigh the costs and benefits of many options

and choose the “best” alternative. Indeed, for any terrorists organizations the suicide attacks can be

one of the most effective “tools”. Many of the terrorists are made through political process, some

organizations or actors turn to terrorism when they have exhausted by the non-violent means to

achieve their goals.

Military Aid to Pakistan

     After the 9/11 and the U.S. initiated war on terror in Afghanistan, President George W. Bush

formally designated Pakistan as a major non-NATO U.S. ally and Washington started the major flow

of security assistance to Islamabad for supporting the US-led anti-terrorism campaign, as well as its

security and political interests in the region.

     In 2002, the United States began allowing commercial sales that enabled Pakistan to refurbish at

least part of its fleet of American-made F-16 fighter aircraft and, three years later, Washington

announced that it would resume sales of new F-16 fighters to Pakistan after a 16-year hiatus. During

the Bush Administration, a revived U.S.-Pakistan Defense Consultative Group sat for high-level

discussions on military cooperation, security assistance, and anti-terrorism.(8)

     But despite Pakistan's continues support to the United States and its operations in Afghanistan,

the U.S. failed to fulfill its promises and did not deliver the latest modern electronic warfare systems,

which was badly needed by the Pakistani army in war against Taliban.

     Moreover, many Pakistani officials have continued to complain that U.S.-supplied defense

equipment especially that most needed for counterinsurgency operations such as attack and utility

helicopters has been too slow in coming. The Pakistani Ambassador to the United States has been

quoted as claiming that, in his first two years in Washington, Pakistan received only eight used Mi-17

transport helicopters and that Pakistan’s military operations have been hindered by a lack of

equipment.(9)

     Chart 2 indicates that, although Pakistan has received military assistance from the U.S. during

the early years, but after 9/11 there has been a significant increase in security and military

assistance, which is in fact rising gradually.

The U.S. Strategic Interests and Challenges

United States Strategic Interests in the Region

     The United States changing and blurred strategic interests in the region also create

misconceptions and complexity in the U.S.-Pakistan bilateral relations, which further bring chaos and

instability in the whole region. After reviewing several articles, the U.S. strategic interests in the

region seems to be linked with the United States objectives in the Gulf region as well as in the whole

Middle East.

     The United States' aspiration to maintain its influence in the region, and achieve success in

counter-terrorism war, as well as to counter emerging nuclear power Iran, the U.S. security and

political measures can further justify the links with the Pakistan. Furthermore the road to Arabian

Sea to Central Asia passes through Pakistan, so the U.S. in order to execute their long-term

interests continues the flow of its aid and support to Pakistan.

     At the same time, the U.S. has had close ties with Pakistan's arch-rival India. United States

military agreements and increasingly close ties with India, as well as its continuous support for

Indian nuclear program, have created apprehensions and doubts in Islamabad regarding the U.S.

commitments and pledges to Pakistan. In fact, the United States have always allowed India to have

an upper hand in the region and in order to gain that objective U.S. has always worked to pacify

Pakistan rather than establish sincere relationship.

Challenges faced by the U.S.

     The public opinion in the region is adversely against the U.S. policies, which include

Washington's unipolar policy, approach towards Muslims and Arab world, and last but not the least,

its continuous support to aggressive policies of Israel in Palestine and New Delhi's in Indian part of

Kashmir.

     With regard to the regional challenges, the U.S. is also facing a severe challenge in a fix

balancing act to win the support of both the India and Pakistan, which often create questions in both

Islamabad and New Delhi regarding the U.S. stance, its changing position and loyalty.

     Moreover, after the Islamic Revolution in Iran and then occupation of Afghanistan, the U.S. is

further faced by both the internal and external pressures. Internally, the U.S. government is facing

challenges by their own population, who does not regard these problems as a major concern or

threat to the U.S. interests. On the other hand, the U.S. is also facing external severe pressure from

its own allies, especially in the Gulf.

Main Arguments and Analysis

     In past years, the funds which were provided by the U.S. through USAID to Pakistan were

designated for primary education, literacy programs, basic health, food aid, and support for

democracy, governance, and elections. The United States provided economic, development, and

humanitarian assistance to Pakistan through a number of funding accounts: the Economic Support

Fund, Food for Peace, Global Health and Child Survival, as well as International Disaster

Assistance, and Migration and Refugee Assistance. But today – especially sine 9/11 – more than 90

percent of total funds are directed toward military operations and very little percentage is directed

toward development.

     On one hand, the U.S. always emphasizes on democracy and transparency, especially regarding

the aid matters. But on the other hand, there are clear evidence that the U.S. denied its support and

aid assistance to Pakistan whenever their objects were accomplished or when they did not have any

political and security interest, even though when the nature of government was democratic and

transparent. Moreover, in order to fulfill their own objectives, the USA continued to support dictatorial

regimes in Pakistan and facilitated the corrupt politicians to take over power in the country, which

arouses many questions about the dual-standard policy of the United States, as well as marred the

relations between the U.S. and Pakistan.

Conclusion

     The U.S. aid to Pakistan in the post-9/11 era is no longer clear, and aid and development

assistance lost its very purpose - of helping the people who are in need of aid - and became a

political incentive.

     Major aid flows during some periods and drastic cuts in others years - particularly when the U.S.

suspended military assistance to Pakistan during the 1965 and 1971 war with its arch-rival India -

created a perception among many Pakistanis that the United States is not a reliable ally and merely

concerned about its own objectives. On the other hand, U.S. government views Pakistan as an

unreliable partner in U.S. counterterrorism efforts, particularly after the 2011 revelation of Al Qaeda

founder Osama bin Laden in a Pakistani city.

     The United States accept the fact that it has given Pakistan military aid primarily to conduct

military operations that support supposedly common counterterrorism interests in the region, and not

only for development. But the Bush Administration concluded in late 2008 that Pakistan diverted

much of the funds toward a military buildup focused on India, and thus the aid given to Pakistan was

misspent.(9)

Therefore, the military, economic and humanitarian aid should be separated and the U.S. should

avoid giving pre-conditions, on the other hand Pakistan should also make mechanism to make the

use of development and humanitarian aid more transparent and effective.

     As all above mentioned arguments and analysis indicates that, taking all the challenges in mind,

the U.S. does not have many options in the table, but to continue building a healthy and improving

relation with Pakistan with the aim of fulfilling its objectives. In doing so the U.S. continues its aid and

military assistance to Pakistan, regardless of trust and confidence issues.

     On the other hand, Pakistan is a critical friend and ally to the United States and share goals of

combating terrorism, firmly establishing democracy and rule of law, and promoting social and

economic development in Pakistan. It is also in the interest of the United States to ensure a stable

Pakistan, with a liberal, democratic government focused on development. Hence, a stable,

developed and strong Pakistan would also be in the interest of the United States.

The great struggles of the twentieth century between liberty and totalitarianism ended with a decisive victory for the forces of freedom—and a single sustainable model for national success: freedom, democracy, and free enterprise. In the twenty-first century, only nations that share a commitment to protecting basic human rights and guaranteeing political and economic freedom will be able to unleash the potential of their people and assure their future prosperity. People everywhere want to be able to speak freely; choose who will govern them; worship as they please; educate their children—male and female; own property; and enjoy the benefits of their labor. These values of freedom are right and true for every person, in every society—and the duty of protecting these values against their enemies is the common calling of freedom-loving people across the globe and across the ages.

Today, the United States enjoys a position of unparalleled military strength and great economic and political influence. In keeping with our heritage and principles, we do not use our strength to press for unilateral advantage.We seek instead to create a balance of power that favors human freedom: conditions in which all nations and all societies can choose for themselves the rewards and challenges of political and economic liberty. In a world that is safe, people will be able to make their own lives better.We will defend the peace by fighting terrorists and tyrants.We will preserve the peace by building good relations among the great powers. We will extend the peace by encouraging free and open societies on every continent.

Defending our Nation against its enemies is the first and fundamental commitment of the Federal Government. Today, that task has changed dramatically. Enemies in the past needed great armies and great industrial capabilities to endanger America. Now, shadowy networks of individuals can bring great chaos and suffering to our shores for less than it costs to purchase a single tank. Terrorists are organized to penetrate open societies and to turn the power of modern technologies against us.

To defeat this threat we must make use of every tool in our arsenal—military power, better homeland defenses, law enforcement, intelligence, and vigorous efforts to cut off terrorist financing. The war against terrorists of global reach is a global enterprise of uncertain duration. America will help nations that need our assistance in combating terror. And America will hold to account nations that are compromised by terror,

including those who harbor terrorists— because the allies of terror are the enemies of civilization. The United States and countries cooperating with us must not allow the terrorists to develop new home bases. Together, we will seek to deny them sanctuary at every turn.

The gravest danger our Nation faces lies at the crossroads of radicalism and technology. Our enemies have openly declared that they are seeking weapons of mass destruction, and evidence indicates that they are doing so with determination. The United States will not allow these efforts to succeed.We will build defenses against ballistic missiles and other means of delivery. We will cooperate with other nations to deny, contain, and curtail our enemies’ efforts to acquire dangerous technologies. And, as a matter of common sense and self-defense, America will act against such emerging threats before they are fully formed.We cannot defend America and our friends by hoping for the best. So we must be prepared to defeat our enemies’ plans, using the best intelligence and proceeding with deliberation. History will judge harshly those who saw this coming danger but failed to act. In the new world we have entered, the only path to peace and security is the path of action.

As we defend the peace, we will also take advantage of an historic opportunity to preserve the peace. Today, the international community has the best chance since the rise of the nation-state in the seventeenth century to build a world where great powers compete in peace instead of continually prepare for war. Today, the world’s great powers find ourselves on the same side— united by common dangers of terrorist violence and chaos. The United States will build on these common interests to promote global security.We are also increasingly united by common values. Russia is in the midst of a hopeful transition, reaching for its democratic future and a partner in the war on terror. Chinese leaders are discovering that economic freedom is the only source of national wealth. In time, they will find that social and political freedom is the only source of national greatness. America will encourage the advancement of democracy and economic openness in both nations, because these are the best foundations for domestic stability and international order.We will strongly resist aggression from other great powers—even as we welcome their peaceful pursuit of prosperity, trade, and cultural advancement.

Finally, the United States will use this moment of opportunity to extend the benefits of freedom across the globe.We will actively work to bring the hope of democracy, development, free markets, and free trade to every corner of the world. The events of September 11, 2001, taught us that weak states, like Afghanistan, can pose as great a danger to our national interests as strong states. Poverty does not make poor people into terrorists and murderers. Yet poverty, weak institutions, and corruption can make weak states vulnerable to terrorist networks and drug cartels within their borders.

The United States will stand beside any nation determined to build a better future by seeking the rewards of liberty for its people. Free trade and free markets have proven their ability to lift whole societies out of poverty—so the United States will work with individual nations, entire regions, and the entire global trading community to build a world that trades in freedom and therefore grows in prosperity. The United States will deliver greater development assistance through the New Millennium Challenge Account to nations that govern justly, invest in their people, and encourage economic freedom.We will also continue to lead the world in efforts to reduce the terrible toll of HIV/AIDS and other infectious diseases.

In building a balance of power that favors freedom, the United States is guided by the conviction that all nations have important responsibilities. Nations that enjoy freedom must actively fight terror. Nations that depend on international stability must help prevent the spread of weapons of mass destruction. Nations that seek international aid must govern themselves wisely, so that aid is well spent. For freedom to thrive, accountability must be expected and required.

We are also guided by the conviction that no nation can build a safer, better world alone. Alliances and multilateral institutions can multiply the strength of freedom-loving nations. The United States is committed to lasting institutions like the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the Organization of American States, and NATO as well as other long-standing alliances. Coalitions of the willing can augment these permanent institutions. In all cases, international obligations are to be taken seriously. They are not to be undertaken symbolically to rally support for an ideal without furthering its attainment.

Freedom is the non-negotiable demand of human dignity; the birthright of every person—in every civilization. Throughout history, freedom has been threatened by war and terror; it has been challenged by the clashing wills of powerful states and the evil designs of tyrants; and it has been tested by widespread poverty and disease. Today, humanity holds in its hands the opportunity to further freedom’s triumph over all these foes. The United States welcomes our responsibility to lead in this great mission.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 

Pakistan may be the single greatest challenge facing the next American President.

The sixth most populous country in the world is suffering its greatest internal crises since partition, with security, economic, and political interests in the balance. With such turmoil, we find U.S. interests in Pakistan are more threatened now than at any time since the Taliban was driven from Afghanistan in 2001. The United States cannot afford to see Pakistan fail, nor can it ignore the extremists operating in Pakistan’s tribal areas. Pakistan’s nuclear arsenal (and past nuclear proliferation), al-Qaeda, and the war in Afghanistan keep U.S. national security firmly anchored in Pakistan. Afghanistan cannot succeed without success in Pakistan, and vice versa. As Americans learned to their great sorrow on September 11, 2001, what happens in Southwest Asia can profoundly affect their lives.

In the face of this challenge, Washington needs to rethink its approach to Pakistan. If we genuinely believe that a stable, prosperous Pakistan is in our interest, we must be much smarter about how we work with Pakistan and what sort of assistance we provide. As the September 19th bombing of the Marriott hotel in Islamabad demonstrates, there is little time to waste. Our options in Pakistan are diminishing rapidly.

Political developments in both Pakistan and the United States, however, make this an opportune moment to recalibrate U.S. policy. A new civilian government headed by the Pakistan People’s Party has emerged in Pakistan, and President Pervez Musharraf has departed the scene after nine years of military rule. The upcoming U.S. presidential election will similarly bring a new set of policymakers to power and a potential willingness to consider fresh approaches to managing the difficult but exceedingly important U.S.– Pakistan relationship.

Some of the key recommendations for strengthening U.S. policy toward Pakistan presented in this paper include:

Pakistani Politics and the Challenges for U.S. Diplomacy

Exhibit patience with Pakistan’s new democratically elected leaders, while working to stabilize the government through economic aid and diplomacy. But at the same time, emphasize to the Pakistan government that U.S. patience is not unlimited, and that the U.S. is prepared to be patient only so long as the Pakistan government is achieving visible results in its efforts against the extremists in the tribal areas.

Develop, invest in, and implement a farreaching public diplomacy program that emphasizes common U.S. and Pakistani interests in combating extremism, creating prosperity, and improving regional relationships instead of highlighting the struggle against extremism in Pakistan as part of the “Global War on Terrorism.”

Invest in U.S. institutions and personnel in Pakistan to support long-term engagement in the region. Expand the mission of the U.S. Embassy and the U.S. Agency for International Development in terms of physical structure and personnel and invest more in training diplomats and other government officials who will dedicate their careers to the region.

Counterterrorism and Internal Security

Commission a fresh National Intelligence Estimate (NIE) to form a common operating picture within the U.S. government on what Pakistan and others are doing to counter and/or support militancy and what these actions say about their intent.

Develop a strategy based on the NIE findings that seeks to adjust Pakistan’s cost–benefit calculus of using militants in its foreign policy through close cooperation and by calibrating U.S. military assistance.

Increase support for civilian institutions that would provide oversight of the military and the Directorate of Inter- Services Intelligence.

Regional Relationships

Assign primary responsibility for coordinating and implementing Pakistan– Afghanistan policy to a senior U.S. official with sufficient authority, accountability, and institutional capacity to promote better ties between Pakistan and Afghanistan.

Increase diplomatic efforts to encourage the bilateral peace process between New Delhi and Islamabad.

Work more closely with our allies and regional countries to encourage Pakistan to stiffen its resolve against terrorism and extremism and to promote greater stability in the country. Raise Pakistan as an issue to a higher level in U.S. bilateral diplomacy, particularly with countries that have good relations with Islamabad, such as China, Japan, Saudi Arabia, and other Gulf states.

Paper  -   I      Concepts and Principles of International Relations                         100

Paper  -  II      International   Organization                                                            100

Paper  - III      International       Law                                                                                100

Paper  - IV     Foreign       Policy       Analysis                                                                      100 Paper  -  V     International       Relations       Since       1945                                                             

100 Paper  -  VI   Functional English                                                                               50

M.A. ( FINAL )  EXAMINATION

Note : The examination will consist of Six Papers: Paper  -  VII   Pakistan’s       Foreign       Policy                                                                           

100 Paper  -  VIII   The Politics of International Economic Relations                                 

100

Paper  -  IX    Strategic       Studies                                                                                          100

Paper  -  X     Option-(A)      West Asia, since 1919 and the Arab World                      100

                                                                             Or                         Option-(B)    Government and Politics of South Asia with                   

100

                                             Reference to India.

 

Paper  -  XI    Paper  -  (A)     ESSAY       ( for Private

candidates )                                                 100                                                   

      ( for  Regular  Students ) (B)   (I)      THESIS WRITING                                  = 70     

(ii)      RESEARCH Presentation                      = 30                     

                                                                   TOTAL          MARKS                      =               

1150

M.A. (PREVIOUS)

PAPER   -   I                       CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES OF                        100 marks        

  INTERNATIONAL     RELATIONS

Contents : 1. Origin, Development and Scope of International Relations.

2.            Approaches to the study of International Relations.

3.            Evaluation  of the State- system.

4.            Nationalism and Sovereignty.

5.            Imperialism, Colonialism & NEO = Colonialism.

6.            National  Power

7.            Balance of Power.

8.            Regionalism and Internationalism.

9.            Modes of International Relations:  Friendship and Cooperation, Diplomacy, Alliances, Propaganda and Subversion.

10.         Economic Instruments of State Policy.

11.         War:  Causes and Consequences.

12.         The future of Mankind and the changing principles of International Relations. 

RECOMMENDED  BOOKS: 1. Brown, Seymon, International Relations in a Changing Global

System. Boulder; West vies, 1992. 2. Cox, Robert, Approaches to the World Order. Cambridge

University Press, 1996. 3. Deutsch, K.W., The Analysis of International Relations. N.Y. Prentice Hall, 1978. 4. Farns Morth David, International Relations: An Introduction. Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1987. 5. Frankel, Joseph. International Politics: Conflict and Harmony . London: Penguin, 1969. 6. Gilpin, R., War and Change in International Politics, Cambridge University Press, 1984.

7. Hass Ernst B., & Dynamics of International Relations. Whiting, Allen S, N.Y. Mc. Graw Hill, 1975. 8. Lopez, George A. & International Relations: Contemporary

Theory & Stohl, Michael S., Practices: Washington D.C. Congressional

Quarterly, 1989.

9.            And Books prescribed for B.A. (Part-I) Paper.

PAPER   - II                 INTERNATIONAL     ORGANIZATION                                             100 marks        

1.            The evolution of Multilateral Conference Diplomacy and International Institutions – Hague Conferences to the League of Nations.

2.            League of Nations – Origin, Structure and Nature.  Functioning and Causes of the Failure of the League.

3.            The UNO – Origin Aims and Objectives.

4.            The Organizational Structural of the UN-  Its Principle Bodies and the Functions. The Specialized Agencies and their Function within the UN System.

5.            Collective Security Preventive Diplomacy,  Peace-keeping and peace-making role of the UN.

6.            The Role of UN in Post-Cold War era.  UN Secretary General’s Report “Agenda for Peace”. The Restructuring of the United Nations,  the Expansion of Security Council, New Role of the General Assembly and of the Secretary General.

7.            The Functions of the UN Secretariat:  Its Recruitment Policy and the Financial Problems.

8.            Arms Control and Disarmament under the UN.

9.            The Role of Non-Government Organization (NGOs) in the UN and the International System (Population, Women, Environment).

10.         Inter-Government Organizations (other than the UN) OAU, NAFIA, ASEAN, EU, APEC, etc.

SUGGESTED BOOKS: 1. Archer, C. International Organizations, London: Allen and

Unwin, 1983. 2. Armstrong, D. The Rise of International Organizations,

         London: McMillan, 1982. 

3. Bennett, A.L International Organizations: Principles and Eaglewood Cliffs,

N.J. Prentice-Hall, 1977. 4. Cheever, Danial Organizing for Peace: International Organizations in

World S, & Jr.Haviland, Affairs. London: Skven & Son. 1957. H.

5. Goodspeed, The Nature and the Function of International Organization.

Stephen S., N.Y. 1980. 6. Verrier, A. International Peace – Keeping : London, Penguin,

1981.

PAPER - III                               INTERNATIONAL     LAW                         100 marks        

1.            Nature, Origins and Basis of International Law: Nature and Origins to basis of International Law.

2.            Sources of International Law: Treaties, decisions of arbitral of judicial tribunals, juristic works.

3.            Recognition of States and Governments: Recognition in general: recognition demure and de facto, legal effects of recognition, recognition of insurgency and belligerency.

4.            Succession of States and   Governments, Basic doctrinal positions, scope of the expression “succession of states”. Circumstances given rise to succession, different treatment of the various situations in positive law, depending on the cause and object of “succession”.

5.            Extradition and Asylum: Extraditablepersons, extradition crimes, territorial asylum, extra-territorial asylum.

6.            Immunity Sovereign, Diplomatic and Consular, 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, Scope of Diplomatic Immunities, 1963,  Vienna Convention of Consulate Relations, Scope of Consular Immunities, state immunity, scope of state immunity.

7.            Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources, Principle of permanent sovereignty as a general normative statement: control.

8.            International rivers: Major theories regarding water rights of riparian states: legal principles governing the use and explosion of International Rivers.

9.            Transit passage, archipelagic states, and exclusive economic zone: limits of continental shelf, right of access to and from the sea of land-locked states: International sea-bed areas; settlement of dispute. Marine environmental issues.

10.         Law of Treaties:  Main focus would be on the 1969 Vienna Convention on the law of Treaties with brief treatment of areas such as conclusion and entry into force, reservations, interpretation, invalidity (branch of international law: error, fraud, coercion, registration and publication, just congens) and termination and suspension of operation (branch, supervening impossibility of performance, Rebus Sic stantibus).

11.         Human Rights: Background Covenant on Civil political rights, covenant on economic, social and cultural rights, implementation mechanism, 1993. Vienna Conference on Human Rights.

12.         State Responsibility:  Internationally wrongful act: question of fault, absolute liability and the theory of risk, circumstances precluding wrongfulness, international crimes and international dialects, attribution of a wrongful act to a state as a legal person, forms of reparation for the breach of an international obligation.

13.         Environmental Protection: Environment, heritage of all the peoples of the world, a factor for peace, a factor for development combating pollution,

sectoral regulation, global regulation of nature and its resources, 1992, Rio Convention. 

14.         Air and Space Law:  Air, freedom of the air, aircraft, ICAAC, status of outer space moon and other celestial bodies, boundary with airspace, space communications, registration of space for objects, liability for damage caused by space objects, use of outer space for peaceful purposes.

15.         Use of Force:  Brief history of the use of force: UN Charter as the basis of International peace, recent developments in the use of force.

16.         Peoples and National Liberation Movements: Concept of people decolonization, peaceful co-existence and the rights of peoples conditions for recognition of national liberation movements, legal regime relating to the status of national liberation movements.

17.         International Terrorism: General background, three hijacking conventions.

18.         Law of International Armed Conflict:  Definition, rationale; identification of international armed conflicts, fundamental principles of humanitarian law;  combatants and non-combatants weapon limitations and other limits, civilians and armed conflict,  humanitarian limits on occupying forces, prisoners of war, enforcement of humanitarian Law.

19.         Pacific Settlement of Disputes:  Conciliation, mediation, good offices, commissions of inquiry, arbitration, adjudication.

20.         Future Prospects of International Law.

 

RECOMMENDED BOOKS:

1.         Akehurest, Michael,                        A Modern Introduction to International Law.

                                                            3rd Ed London: Allen & Unwicy   1978.

 

 

2.         Briaerly, J.L.,                         The Law of Nations in An International to the

International Law of Peace.  (6th ed) N.Y. Oxford University Press,   1963.

 

3.         Brownlie, Lan,                      Principles of Public International Law.

                                                            (4th Ed). Oxford: Clerenden Press,   1990.

4.         Brownlie, Lan,                      Basic Documents in International Law. (2nd Ed)

                                                            Oxford University Press,   1972.

5.         Bruggs, Heerbert   W.,         The Law of Nations   ,Cases, Documents and Notes:

                                                            London Stevens,   1953.

6.         Caster B.E., & Teimble,       International Law: Selected Documents.

            P R.,                                       Boston: Little, Brown & Co,  1991.

7.         Oppenhein, L.,         International Law,     A Treatise. (Vol- I & II).

                                                London: Longman,   1901-1905

8.         Ort B.H.,                     Public International Law in the Modern World.

 

                                                London: Pitman,   1987.

9.         Staske, J.G.,              An Introduction to International Law.

                                                London:  Dy Herwathes,   1989.

                                                                       

PAPER - IV                               FOREIGN POLICY ANALYSIS                             100 marks        

 

Contents:       1.         Importance of Foreign Policy in International Relations

2.            Approaches to the Foreign Policy Making.

3.            Goals and Objectives of Foreign Policy.

4.            Determinants of Foreign Policy.

5.            Input of Foreign Policy Making: 

i)             Role of Head of Governments.

ii)            Foreign Minister

iii)           Foreign Office

iv)           Parliament

v)            Media

vi)           Public Opinion

 

6.            External Factors of the Foreign Policy Making (Transitional Factors)

7.            (i)         Foreign Policy making in a Democratic State: USA

(ii)          Foreign Policy making in a Socialist State: P.R.C

 

8.            New trends in the foreign policy making.

 

RECOMMENDED   BOOKS:

1.         Frankel, Joseph,                  the Making of Foreign Policy

                                                            London: Oxford University Press,   1977.

2.         Deutsch, K.W.,                     the Analysis of International Relations.

                                                            N.Y. Prentice Hall,   1978.

3.         Holsti, K.J.,                            International Politics:  A Framework for Analysis.

                                                            Pall Mall,   1968.

4.         Henkin, L.,                             How Nations Behave: Law and Foreign Policy.

                                                            London: Pall Mall, 1968.

5.         Synder R.C., Ed al.,             Foreign Policy   Decision   Making.

                                                            N.Y.  1982.

6.         Roseau, James &                International Politics and Foreign Policy

            James N, (Ed).                                  London, Franchise Printer,   1980.

                                                                         

 

PAPER - V         INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS SINCE   1945           100 marks

Contents:       I.          East-West Relations:

1.            Impact of World War-II on the structure of World Politics.

2.            Emergence of Super Powers: Bi-polarity, East-west confrontation, Cold War.

3.            Sino-Soviet Split, Sino-American Rapprochement.

4.            Détente’ East-West cooperation, peaceful co-existence.

 

II.            Post- Cold War Era- New World Order:

1.            United Nation in the Unipolar world.

2.            The Disintegration of the Soviet Union.

3.            East Europe after the Cold War.

4.            Russia in the Post-Soviet setting.

5.            Emerging regionalism, Economic Organization  EU, ECO, ASEAN, NAFTA, LAFTA & APEC.

III.           New Roles of International Power and Influence:

1.            Rise of China as a Major Power.

2.            Emergence of Japan and Germany as Economic Powers.

3.            Emergence of United Europe.

4.            Rise of the Asia-Pacific region. 

IV.          The Third World:

1.            Decolonization.

2.            Non Aligned Movement in the New World Order.

3.            Muslim World and the OIC.

4.            North-South Dialogue.

5.            Selected regional and International Issues:

The Gulf War, The Bosnian Tragedy, the Kashmir Dispute, the Islamic Revivalism and the West, the Muslim World and New World Order.

V.           Politics of International Resources (Food, Energy, Minerals etc), Environment, Human Rights, Terrorism, Non-Proliferation, Earth Matters and Weapons of Mass Destruction.

 

RECOMMENDED   BOOKS :

1.         Calvocressi  Peter,               World   Politics Since 1945  (6th ed) London: Longman,

1994.

2.         Claude, Inis L, Jr,                 Power and International Relations. N.Y. Random House,

                                                            1962.

3.         Dunbadin, J.P.D.,                International Relations Since 1945.  London

                                                            Longman,  1994.

4.         Gabriel, Almoud & G,                      Comprehensive Politics Today A World View:

            Gingham Kennedy,             London,  Scott, Foreman and Co., 1994.

Paul.,

5.         Kegley, Charles, W,             World   Politics:   Trends and Transformations:

            Jr, & Woltkopf,                      N.Y.  McMillan,  1993

Eugene  R.,

6.         Tassilte, John &                   A Global Agenda:  N.Y. United Press of America.

            Weolfson, susan (ed).                                                                       

 

M.A.  (FINAL)

PAPER   -   VII                 FOREIGN   POLICY   OF   PAKISTAN                      100 marks    

  Contents:      

1.         Determinants of Pakistan Foreign Policy.

2.            Elements and objectives to Pakistan’s Foreign Policy.

3.            Decision-Making Process.

4.            Pakistan :

a)            Afghanistan.

b)            India

c)            Iran

d)            China

5.            Pakistan and South Asia.

6.            Pakistan and the Muslim World (including its various organizations)

7.            Pak – US Relation

8.            Pak – Russia Relations

9.            Pakistan’s relations with Japan and South East Asia

10.         Pakistan and the Third World

11.         Pakistan and the Western World

12.         Pakistan and the United Nations

13.         Latest developments in Pakistan Foreign Policy. 

RECOMMENDED  BOOKS: 1. Arif, K., Pakistan’s Foreign Policy: Indian Perspective. Lahore: Vanguard, 1984 2. Barnds, W.J., India, Pakistan and the Great Powers. London Press,

1977.

3. Bhutto, Z.A., The Myth of Independence: Karachi, Oxford University Press

1969. 4. Bhutto, Z.A., TheThirdWorld: New Directions. London: Quartet

BooksLtd, 1977. 5. Burke, S.M., & Pakistan Foreign Policy: An Historical Analysis.

(2nd ed) Ziring, Lawrence., Karachi. Oxford University Press, 1990. 6. Cheema., Pervez Pakistan’ s Defense Policy. London: McMillan,

1990. Iqbal., 7. Gillani, Ijaz Pakistan’s Foreign Policy: An International Law

Perspective. Hussain., London Progressive Pub., 1988. 8. Hyder, Sajjad., Foreign Policy of Pakistan: Reflections of an

Ambassador. Lahore: Progressive Pub, 1987. 9. Hussain Pakistan and the Changing Regional Scenario. Mushahid., Lahore: Progressive Pub, 1988. 10. Khan Mohammad Friends Not Masters. Karachi, Oxford University

Press, 1967. Ayub., 11. Malik, Hafeez., Soviet – American Relations with Pakistan, Iran and Afghanistan. London, McMillan, 1986. 12. Mujtaba, Rizvi., The Frontiers of Pakistan: Karachi, National Pub

House, 1971. 13. Shahi, Agha., Pakistan’s Security and Foreign Policy. Lahore

Progressive Pub., 1988. Pakistan, China & America. Karachi, PIIA, 1980. Bhutto’s Foreign Policy and the Contemporary

problem of

Pakistan. London. Ej. Brill,  1974.

PAPER   -   VIII         INTERNATIONAL     POLITICAL     ECONOMY         100 marks

Contents:       1.         Fundamental concepts of International Economics.

2.            The importance of Economic in International Relations.

3.            The Emergence and growth of International Political Economy.

4.            The International Economic System

5.            Instruments of International Economics.

6.            The Politics of International Trade.

7.            The International Monetary System.

8.            The Politics of Foreign Aid.

9.            The process of Economic Development.

10.         The Phenomenon of Dependency and its consequences.

11.         The North-South Dialogue.

12.         The emerging international economic order.

 

RECOMMENDED BOOKS:

1.         Adams, John., (ed)              The Contemporary International Economy.

                                                            New York, St. Mortin’s 19

2.         Ahmed, Syed                                    The Politics of International Economic Relations.

            Salahuddin.,                         Karachi. Comprehensive Book Service, 1991.

3.         Ansari, Jawed.,                                 The Political Economy of International Economic

                                                            Organization.  Boulders: Lynre Reinnery, 1986.

4.         Brandt, Willy.,                                   North-South: A programme for Survival.

                                                             Cambridge. MIT Press, (4th ed)  1980.

5.         Blake, David M &                 The Politics of Global Economic Relations.

            Walters, Robert H.,               Eaglewood Cliffs, N.J.Prentice-Hall, 1987.

6.         Oppenheineer,                                 Issues in International Economics.

            Peter, (ed).                             London: Routledge,  1980.

 

7.         Spero, Jean Edelman.,       The Politics of International Economic Relations.

                                                            (3rd ed) London Allen & University, 1990.

8.         Stubbs, Richard, & Bill        The Political Economy and the Changing Global Orders.

            Geoggery, (ed)                      London: McMillan, 1994.

                                                                       

PAPER   - I X                         STRATEGIC       STUDIES                                         100 marks          

Contents:       i.          The importance of Strategic Studies.

ii.            Fundamental Strategic Concepts.

iii.           Definition and Scope of Strategic Studies.

iv.           Theories and Ideas of Important Strategists:

a)            Clausevits

b)            Mahan

c)            Douhet

d)            Kissinger

v)            Contemporary Strategic Problems.

vi)           Development of Military Technology since 1945 and its impact on

Strategic thinking.

vii)         War as a political institutions.

viii)        Deterrence

ix)           Nuclear Strategy

x)            Crisis Management

xi)           Arms, Race, Arms Control and Disarmament.

xii)         Terrorism

xiii)        Nuclear Proliferation in South Asia.

RECOMMENDED   BOOKS:

1.         ------------------               The   Defense Journal

2.         Beafre, Indre.,           An Introduction to Strategic Studies.

                                                London. Faber & Faber,  1967.

3.         Buzan, Berry.,           An Introduction to Strategic Studies, Military Technology and

                                                International Relations:

                                                London: McMillan, 1987.

4.         Clausewitz, K.V.,      On War.

                                                N.J. Princeton University Press, 1976 ( Translated)

5.         Kissinger,Henry A., Nuclear Weapons and Foreign Policy.

                                                N.Y. Doubleday Anchor Books,  1983.

6.         Knoor, Klaus (ed)     Power, Strategy and Security.

                                                Princeton University Press, 1983.

7.         Schelling, Thomas  The Strategy of Conflict:

                                                Oxford University Press, 1963.

8.         Wright, Quincy.,       A Study of War.

                                                Chicago. University of Chicago, 1965 ,Paper back ed, 1983.

                                                                       

PAPER-IX  

( OPTION-A)   WEST ASIA, SINCE 1919 AND THE ARAB WORLD    100 marks                                             

A-   TURKEY

1.            The peace settlement and its effects on Turkey.

2.            Kemalist Revolution: Establishment of the Republic and Abolition of Khilafat:

Internal and External Politicians.

3.            Turkey during and after World War-II

4.            Democratic Regime, 1950-1960, its Internal and External Politics: Emphasis on Relations with the U.S.A., U.S.S.R and the Muslim World, Collective Security Arrangements including NATO and CENTO.

5.            Coup d’état of 1960 and Aftermath; Government of Ismat Inonu.

6.            Cyprus Problem

7.            Present Political Set up and Foreign Policy of Turkey.

B-   EGYPT

1-            The rise of Nationalism; sea’ d Zaghlol and the Wafd Party. Anglo-Egyptian Relations from 1919-1939; The Egyptian treaty of 1936, Egypt during world war II.

2-            Anglo-Egyptian Relations in the post-war period; Problem of Treaty Revision, Egypt’s Middle Eastern Policy; First  Arab- Israel war and its effects.

3-            The July revolution, Naguib’s  Policy; settlement of the Sudan  Sudan problem and Anglo-Egyptian treaty of 1954; Pall of Naguib and suppression of Muslim brother-hood International reforms, The Suez crisis.

4-            Naseer’s Foreign Policy sine Suez crisis, his relation with Arab states and the Afro-Asian Countries, Policy of neutralism.

5-            United Arab republic and the Arab states; breakaway with Syria.

6-            Anwar Sadat and the Camp David Agreement with Israel; Internal and External policies.

7-            Post – Sadat  Period

 

C-   IRAN

1.            RAZA Shah and its reforms; foreign Relations.

2.            Post  world war II Problems; Relations with U.S.S.R. and U.S.A.

3.            The rise and fall of Mussadaq and problem of Oil.

4.            The 1954 Consortium : the Baghdad pact.

5.             

6.            Relation with Pakistan and Turkey: E…

7.            Fall of Iranian Monarchy; revolution in the Islamic republic of Iran.

8.            Internal and External Policies. Iran/Iraq war and its impact.

D-   THE ARAB WORLD

1.            Arab nationalism,Nionism,. Peace Settlement of 1912

2.            Pan Arabism, the Arab League.

3.            The Palestine problem-1919 to the present.

4.            Super-Power Rivalry in the Middle East.

5.            Brief survey of Major Internal Policies Affecting the Region.

6.            A.C.C  &  G.C.C.

7.            Current Development in Gulf.

BOOKS RECOMMENDED

1.            lenzoski,F.                  The Middle East in World Affairs , N.y. 19556.

2.            Izedin, Najila,            The Arab World, Chicago, 1956.

3.            Hollingworth, Cr,       The Arab and the West, London, 1952 

4.            Little, Tom,                  Egypt, New York, 1959.

5.            Lewis, G.L                  Turkey, New York, 1956.

6.            Hass,W.S,                  Iran, New York, 1946

7.            Grosseclose, E.         Introduction to Iran, New York, 1947.

8.            Imamuddin, S.M.      A Modern History of the Middle East & North Africa,        

Dacca, 1961.

9.            Procter, Haris(ed)      Islam and International Relations, N.Y.

10.         Macdonald,W.          The League of Arab States,   Princeton , 1965.

11.         Seal,  Prrisk,               The Struggle of Syria, Oxford, 1964.

12.         Overy, Peter.             Modern Iran, New York. 1965.

13.         Rivilin Benjamin,      The Contemporary Middle East. New York, 1965.

& Joseph Szvilo

Wics (ed).,

14.         Hadded  George.      Revolutions and Military Rule in the Middle East

New York,  1965.

            15.       Lagueur, Walter.,     The Road to Jerusalem: The Origin of Arab Israel

                                                            Conflict.  New York,  1968.

            16.       Hedyri,  Sami.,          Bitter Harvest: Palestine Between 1914-1967.

                                                            New York,  1967.

            17.       Morre, John               The Arab Israel Conflict.  Princeton, 1977.

                        Morton.,

            18.       Lilienthal.,                 The Zionist   Connection .  New York,  1978.

BOOKS   OF   REFERENCE:

            1.         R.I.I.A.,                       The Middle East: Political and Economics Survey

                                                            (Latest ed)   London.

            2.         R.I.I.A.,                       Survey   of   International   Affairs . (Relevant Chapters)

            3.         R.I.I.A.,                       Documents of International Affairs (Relevant Chapters)

            4.         Fisher, Sydney .,      The Middle East.   London,  1959.

            5.         Hurewitz, J.C.,          Diplomacy in the Near and Middle East., Princeton,1956.

            6.         Mowat, R.C.,             Middle East Perspective.  London, 1958

            7.         Lacouture, W.Z.,       The Middle East in Transition, New York, 1958.

            8.         Lacouture, G.,           Egypt in Transition., New York, 1958.

            9.         Naseer, Gamal         The Philosophy of the Revolution. , Washington, 1958.

                        Abdul.,

            10.       Lenczowski, G.,        Russia and the West in Iran.,  Ithaca,  1946.

                                    ……………………

PAPER- X   Option-(B)                   SOUTH     ASIA                                                               100 marks    

 

1.            Post-Second World War. International System in South Asia.

2.            Basic Cleavages between India and Pakistan.

3.            Government and Politics in India.

4.            India and the South Asian States (other than Pakistan)

5.            Indian Foreign Policy since 1947

6.            Review of the South Asia States, Politics & Problems ( Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, Sri Lanka)

7.            Formation of South Asian Regional Cooperation

8.            South Asian States Attitude towards Nuclear Free Zone in the Region

9.            Super Power Rivalry in the Indian Ocean and Response of the South Asian States.

BOOKS   RECOMMENDED:

            1.         Verma, and Misra (ed).,      Foreign Policy in South Asia.,  New Delhi,  1966.

2.         Rajan, M.S.,                          India in World Affairs, 1954-56. New York, 1964.

 3.         Barndsh, W.J.,                      India, Pakistan and Great Powers, New York 1972

4.         Gupta, Sisir.,                         India and Regional Integration in Asia, New York,

                                                            1964.

5.         Harrison, Sclig S (ed).,        India and the United States, New York, 1961.

6.         Misra, K.P. (ed).,                   Studies in Indian Foreign Policy, Delhi,  1969.

7.         Brecher, Michael.,                The New States Of Asia.  London,  1968.

8.         Ayub, Muhammad.,             India, Pakistan and Bangladesh: Search for a New

Relationship ., New Delhi, 1974.

            9.         Ziring, Lawrence (ed)          The Sub-continent in World Politics, India Neighbor

and the Great Power ., Preager,  1982.

10.       Choudhry, G.W.,                 India, Pakistan and the Major Powers: Politics of a

                                                                        Divided Sub-continent.  New York,  1975.

                                                                       

PAPER-XI: ESSAY     OPTION A.                           (FOR   PRIVATE   CANDIDATES 100 MARKS

OPTION (B)

 I) THESIS WRITING (For Regular Students) 100 marks1 II) RESEARCH METHOD PAPER RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Contents:

1. Introduction . a) Definition 

b) Concepts C) Purpose

2. approaches to Research Methodology a) Historical Approach 

h) Empirical Approach c) Behavioral Approach d) Eclectic Approach

3. Methods & Techniques of Modern Research a) Selection of Topic 

o) Hypothesis formulation and  Testing c) Research Designing d) Collection, Analysis and treatment of Data.

4. Techniques of Reporting .

a) References: Primary and Secondary Sources b) Preparation of Bibliography

The Systems Approach conceives of nations which come in contact to form a complicated relationship resulting from the phenomenon of interaction. The activities of a nation are always directed towards the preservation of its national interest.

FACT SHEET: The United States and Pakistan – a Strong and Enduring Relationship

President Barack Obama and First Lady Michelle Obama hosted Prime Minister

Nawaz Sharif and First Lady Kalsoom Nawaz Sharif at the White House on October

22, 2015.  Their visit reinforced the commitment of both leaders to an enduring U.S.-

Pakistan partnership, a prosperous Pakistan, and a more stable region.  The two

leaders expressed their conviction that a resilient U.S.-Pakistan partnership is vital to

regional and global security and reaffirmed their commitment to address evolving

challenges in South Asia and beyond.  Since enactment of the Enhanced Partnership

with Pakistan Act of 2009 (“Kerry-Lugar-Berman” or “KLB”), the United States has

committed $5 billion in civilian assistance to Pakistan and over $1 billion in emergency

humanitarian response to disasters and conflict, including for 2010 flood relief. 

Security assistance has also strengthened cooperation on key national security

interests.  Building on KLB, the leaders committed to fostering a deeper, stronger,

more multi-dimensional partnership to cooperatively tackle the global challenges of the

21st century.  The leaders highlighted the following areas of U.S. cooperation:

Energy and Economic Growth

Energy: Since 2009, the U.S. Government helped add approximately 1,700

megawatts (MW) of electricity to Pakistan’s grid system, benefitting nearly 19 million

Pakistanis.  U.S. assistance funded the construction and rehabilitation of a number of

hydropower dams and thermal power plants.  U.S. assistance has also helped

Pakistan improve governance and management systems, and increase revenue

collection – by over $200 million in 2015– as well as provide commercial opportunities

for U.S. businesses.  Efforts also include Overseas Private Investment Corporation

(OPIC) debt financing and political risk insurance that support U.S. investments in

Pakistan.  Additionally, U.S. business played an important role in facilitating Pakistan’s

access to international liquefied natural gas (LNG) markets earlier this year.  The

new U.S.-Pakistan Clean Energy Partnership  (USCEP) will help the private

sector add at least 3,000 MW of clean power generation infrastructure to Pakistan’s

national electricity system over the next five years.

Bilateral Trade and Investment:  The United States and Pakistan will expand

cooperation on the 2013 Joint Action Plan on Trade and Investment.  The United

States remains Pakistan’s largest bilateral export market and a significant source of

foreign direct investment.  In March 2015, during U.S.-Pakistan Economic

Partnership Week , the first U.S.-Pakistan Business Opportunities Conference

held in Islamabad was headlined by U.S. Secretary of Commerce Penny Pritzker and

Pakistani Finance Minister Ishaq Dar. To promote private investment, OPIC has

facilitated $800 million in financing and insurance for projects in Pakistan.  Trade and

investment assistance is provided under the bilateral Trade and Investment

Framework Agreement (TIFA). 

Regional Connectivity: To facilitate Pakistan’s regional trade efforts and in

support of our shared security objectives, the United States has funded the

construction and rehabilitation of approximately 1,000 kilometers of roads, including

major trade routes between Pakistan and Afghanistan.  The United States supports

implementation of the Afghanistan-Pakistan Transit Trade Agreement and anticipates

collaboration with Pakistan upon its accession to the Transports Internationaux

Routiers (TIR) Convention.  The United States has contributed $15 million to date to

the development of the Central Asia South Asia Electricity Transmission and Trade

Project (CASA-1000) project, which will transmit 1300 MW of electricity from Central

Asia to Afghanistan and Pakistan, and supports the CASA-1000 Secretariat. 

Private Sector Financing and Entrepreneurship:  The United States

assists Pakistan’s small and medium enterprises, catalysts of its economic growth.  At

the U.S.-Pakistan Business Opportunities Conference in March 2015, Pakistani

partner banks committed to provide up to $60 million in financing for businesses under

the U.S.-Pakistan Partnership for Access to Credit , The U.S.-financed

Pakistan Private Investment Initiative (PPII), a set of three investment funds that are

matching U.S. funding one-to-one with private equity capital, will make over $150

million in financing available for small businesses. The U.S. Global Innovation

through Science and Technology  (GIST) initiative provides training and

resources and sponsors a global pitch competition, GIST Tech-I, where a female

Pakistani scientist won for the best healthcare startup.     

Agriculture:  U.S. assistance has increased incomes for more than 800,000 farm

households; increased sales by nearly $145 million; irrigated over 480,000 acres of

land; facilitated nearly $57 million in exports of targeted commodities; and helped

nearly 147,000 farmers and others apply improved technologies.  Forthcoming U.S.

support will help producers and processors increase export sales by $250 million and

leverage over $180 million in private sector investment.

Support in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA):  The

United States and Pakistan are committed to strengthening governance, expanding

development, and facilitating the voluntary return of 1.6 million displaced persons to

the FATA.  During Secretary Kerry’s January 2015 visit to Pakistan , he

pledged $250 million to assist in the relief, recovery, and rehabilitation of the region. 

The United States continues to partner with Pakistan to reconstruct schools, hospitals,

and infrastructure to restore communities and assist in the return of people to their

homes.

Women’s Economic Advancement:  Women’s economic participation in

Pakistan is advanced through the U.S.-Pakistan Women’s Council , established

in 2012 by the State Department and American University (AU) in cooperation with

Pakistani-Americans, and a 2014 U.S. – Pakistan MOU to Enable Women’s Economic

Empowerment and Entrepreneurship.  The United States also sponsored the opening

of the WECREATE  Center in Islamabad, which works with women entrepreneurs in

Pakistan.  The Council also established a university partnership in women’s

entrepreneurship between AU and the Lahore University of Management Sciences

(LUMS).  Joint trade missions, U.S. Department of Commerce business and trade

capacity building, and new initiatives led by the Council’s corporate members also

seek to increase women’s entrepreneurship and employment.  The USAID Gender

Equity Program promotes women’s access to information, justice, and economic

opportunities and helps address and prevent gender-based violence. 

Education, Health, and Civil Society Cooperation

People-to-People Exchanges:  Approximately 1,200 Pakistanis came to the

United States on U.S.-funded exchange programs in 2014.  There are more than

15,000 Pakistani alumni of U.S.-funded exchange programs, with many involved in the

Pakistan-U.S. Alumni Network, which has 12 chapters throughout Pakistan.  These

alumni create important intellectual and business links between U.S. and Pakistani

institutions. 

Higher Education: Pakistan is the recipient of the largest U.S. government

funded Fulbright Program  in the world.  Since 2009, the Fulbright Program has

funded over 800 Masters and 200 PhD candidates and nearly 100 Senior Scholars

from Pakistan.  The United States has also funded the Merit and Needs Based

Scholarship Program, which provides scholarships to talented but under resourced

candidates to attend university in Pakistan, with over 40 percent awarded to women. 

Through several programs, the United States has funded over 12,000 total

scholarships for underprivileged students to attend university in Pakistan, 50 percent

to women, and financed a new dormitory for women at Forman’s Christian College in

Lahore.

Science and Technology Agreement:  Since 2003, the bilateral U.S.-

Pakistan Science and Technology (S&T) Cooperation Agreement has provided a

framework to increase cooperation in science, technology, engineering, and

education.  In 2005, USAID, Pakistan’s Ministry of Science and Technology, and the

Higher Education Commission launched the associated S&T

Cooperation  Program, which jointly funded nearly $34 million in collaborative

research projects.  This year, the United States and Pakistan intend to sign a

Memorandum of Understanding for the seventh S&T Cooperation Program, which

would funding a new phase of joint grants to enhance U.S.-Pakistan collaboration,

research capacity in Pakistani universities, and S&T innovation. 

University Partnerships:  The United States funds 23 partnerships between

Pakistani and U.S. universities to facilitate professional development for faculty,

curriculum reform, joint research, and peer-to-peer interaction.  In June 2015, USAID,

in collaboration with Pakistan’s Higher Education Commission, launched the U.S.-

Pakistan Centers for Advanced Studies , which established three centers in

Pakistan through partnerships between four Pakistani and three U.S. universities in

energy, water, and agriculture and food security.  The purpose of the centers is to

foster long-term research collaboration, industry linkages and innovation, and

university governance, prepare approximately 1,000 Pakistani graduates for

employment, and provide scholarships.

University Governance: The Community College Administrator Program will

enable Pakistanis in higher education to travel to the United States to learn about the

U.S. community college system, building on the Community College Initiative

Program , which enables Pakistani students to study and earn a professional

certificate at a U.S. community college. 

Basic Education:  Under a U.S.-Pakistan Basic Education Initiative, the United

States is funding reading programs to improve the reading skills of 1.9 million primary

grade students.  Since 2002, the United States and Pakistan have developed degree

programs for education professionals.  The United States is funding the construction

of state-of-the-art Faculty of Education buildings at 16 universities.  USAID has helped

rebuild or renovate almost 1,000 schools since 2009.  The United States has also

provided English language training to 9,400 underprivileged Pakistani teenagers

countrywide. 

Let Girls Learn:  Through Let Girls Learn , the United States, Pakistan, and

other partners will help educate and empower more than 200,000 additional

adolescent girls across Pakistan.  These efforts, which will also reduce barriers to

girls’ success and address harmful practices and attitudes, will be enhanced through

collaboration with other donors and the diaspora community, as well as through

public-private partnerships such as the U.S.-Pakistan Women’s Council Summer

Sisters program, which brings underprivileged Pakistani high school girls to explore

education and career options at top U.S. universities. 

English Language Programs:  The United States partners with a range of

Pakistani institutions in English language teaching and learning.  Investing in teachers

has a tremendous multiplier effect, directly reaching an average of 450 individuals

each year and thousands more from expanded teaching capacity.  The English

Access Microscholarship Program  has provided two years of after-school

English language instruction to more than 10,000 Pakistani adolescents from

disadvantaged backgrounds since 2007.  

Civil Society and Democratic Institutions:  The United States works with

civil society organizations to strengthen human rights, advance rule of law reforms,

combat intolerance, strengthen civil society, enhance media capacity, and safeguard

media autonomy.  U.S. assistance includes: support for legal aid centers for

vulnerable populations, strengthening university journalism programs for media

professionals, and enhancing the skills of provincial women parliamentarians.  USAID

programs have helped register more than 350,000 women with the National Database

and Registration Authority and enabled 100 citizen committees with oversight roles,

and integrated grassroots ideas into party platforms, with some becoming law. 

Health Cooperation:  The United States and Pakistan cooperate extensively in

the health sector to support family welfare and reproductive health.  Since 2010,

USAID has trained over 29,000 health care workers, who served over 3.5 million

community members throughout Pakistan.  Among program beneficiaries assessed in

2014, USAID-funded trainings and other activities resulted in a 52 percent increase in

prenatal care visits and a 20 percent increase in deliveries with a skilled birth

attendant. The United States and Pakistan also support the multilateral Global Health

Security Agenda (GHSA) to prevent, detect, and respond to infectious disease

threats.  To implement the GHSA and promote Pakistan’s health sector, the United

States will support Pakistan’s efforts to: build capacity in the public and veterinary

health workforce, advance an effective, safe, and secure laboratory system, counter

antimicrobial resistance, integrate health surveillance information systems, and

enhance multi-sectoral emergency response capability for epidemic threats.

Countering Evolving Threats

Civilian Law Enforcement and Rule of Law:  Through training, equipment,

and infrastructure assistance, the United States supports Pakistan’s efforts to enhance

civilian law enforcement and justice institutions’ response to serious crime and

terrorism.  The United States has trained over 17,000 provincial and federal law

enforcement personnel since 2001, including women law enforcement units.  The

United States and Pakistan have also worked closely to address the needs of

Pakistan’s judiciary, prosecution services, and corrections system.  Since 2009, the

United States has sponsored exchanges and provided training for over 1,000

Pakistani prosecutors and 212 judges and trained over 130 corrections and policy

officials since 2012.  The U.S. counter-narcotics efforts support interdiction, demand

reduction, and crop control.

Security Assistance:  The United States and Pakistan enjoy a positive security

partnership and are working collaboratively to address security threats that both of our

nations face.  Through security assistance, the United States has enhanced

Pakistan’s capabilities to address its counterterrorism and counterinsurgency

challenges in the FATA.  The United States has provided Pakistan with critical

equipment and training to enhance key counterinsurgency and counterterrorism

capabilities such as precision strike, air mobility, and counter improvised explosive

devices.  Assistance has also supported Pakistan’s participation in international

maritime coalition operations and enhanced its ability to patrol its coastal waters. 

Military Training and Exchanges: The United States provides Pakistan’s

military with training to promote regional stability, strengthen its counterterrorism and

defense capabilities, enhance professionalism, promote human rights, and improve

civilian-military relations.  Since 2009, the United States has trained over 2,300

members of the Pakistan military.  Pakistan is the largest partner for U.S. International

Military Education and Training funding in the world.  In addition, the United States

and Pakistan conduct military staff exchanges and joint training exercises to enhance

coordination and interoperability between our militaries.

Countering Violent Extremism:  The United States works with Pakistani civil

society and nongovernmental organizations to foster a stable Pakistan, increase

capacity to counter violent extremist narratives, and reduce the number of individuals

in Pakistan who accept the legitimacy of narratives that justify the use of violence. 

Programs focus on vulnerable populations and include documentary films, interfaith

dialogues, and madrassa training. More than 11,000 imams and teachers in over

2,600 madrassas received training in interfaith harmony and peacebuilding. 

Improvised Explosive Devices:  In partnership with the United States, Pakistan

has taken positive steps over the past two years to increase its controls and

interdiction of the illicit supply of materials used to produce improvised explosive

devices.  Through U.S. security assistance programs coordinated by the Joint

Improvised-Threat Defeat Agency, the United States and Pakistan share technical

expertise and equipment to improve Pakistan’s ability to detect and defeat these

devices. 

US Development Assistance

to Pakistan: 2014 and

BeyondAlexis Sowa, Senior Policy Analyst

August 2013

The withdrawal of US troops from Afghanistan in 2014 provides a critical moment

for the United States to evaluate its development objectives in Pakistan and

signal its credibility as a long-term partner. Afghanistan and Pakistan are at

different points on the path of development and require different kinds of

assistance delivered in different way. Short-term stabilization is the top priority in

Afghanistan while long-term development is and should be the priority in

Pakistan. Given this context, the key development considerations for Pakistan

are as follows.

Americans should be concerned about Pakistan's

long-term stabilityPakistan is poised to become the world's fifth most populous nation, with nuclear

weapons and 100 million young people with few jobs but plenty of opportunities

for radicalization. 1US investment in Pakistanis’ economic opportunities and

hope for the future is an investment in the United States’ own security.

The history of US assistance to Pakistan has been

very volatileUS aid levels to Pakistan have waxed and waned for decades as US geopolitical

interests in the region have shifted. 2While Pakistan’s actions have of course

contributed to this volatility, the subsequent mistrust on both sides has

undermined the United States’ ability to contribute to a longer-term development

agenda in Pakistan. Pakistan has become hesitant to use US aid for long-term

investments in their people and institutions, focusing instead on projects with

short time horizons and a more limited effect on long-term development. The US

withdrawal from Afghanistan marks a critical moment for the United States to

signal its credibility as a long-term partner to Pakistan.

US Assistance to Pakistan

The 2009 Enhanced Partnership for Pakistan Act

needs more time to be effectiveThe intention of the 2009 Enhanced Partnership for Pakistan Act (commonly

known as the Kerry-Lugar-Berman bill, or KLB) was to put security and

development on two separate tracks, insulating the development agenda from

unpredictable geopolitical and military events and facilitating longer-term

planning for development. This is a good thing, but it will take longer than five

years, particularly because of its emphasis on spending money through local

partners to build Pakistan’s capacity. As recommended by the Center for Global

Development in its 2012 assessment of the United States approach to

development in Pakistan, the United States should “avoid the rush” and spend

KLB over more years: 3

given the large amounts of unobligated funds for Pakistan, constraints on

the aid-delivery machinery, and the acute implementation challenges facing

the United States and Pakistan, Congress and the administration should

agree on a scaled-back program of development assistance for Pakistan for

fiscal year 2013 at least. The United States can adhere to the KLB

commitment of spending $7.5 billion on civilian programs, but the time

horizon should be extended from 5 to 10 years. One could think of this as a

no-cost extension, leaving open the possibility that US efforts will improve,

that absorptive capacity in Pakistan will increase, and that there will be

fewer bumps (such as Abbottabad) in the road ahead.

Traditional aid is not the only instrumentDeveloping a vibrant private sector is essential for generating economic

opportunities and greater prosperity for ordinary citizens in Pakistan. While aid

can help stimulate private-sector growth, efforts to reduce Pakistan’s trade

barriers with the United States and India would have a much greater impact, with

negligible adverse impact on the US economy. 4 Additional opportunities include

increasing investment in Pakistan’s private sector through OPIC projects or

investment facilities such as the Pakistan Private Investment Initiative. 5 Finally,

the United States should collaborate with the IMF and World Bank to provide

support on systematic macroeconomic and energy challenges facing Pakistan.

Three recommendationsFor more effective US development assistance to Pakistan, we recommend three

changes:

1. Name a leader : it is currently unclear which agency is ultimately in charge of the development strategy in Pakistan, the State Department or USAID.

2. Clarify the mission : it is critical to develop a long-term development strategy for Pakistan, one that is independent of our defense policy and independent of Afghanistan.

3. Finance what is already working : other partners, such as the multilateral banks and the UK aid agency DFID, are already making impactful investments in Pakistan. The United States should make it easier for USAID to cofinance successful and proven projects.