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Tectonic-magmatic-metallogenic system, Tongling ore cluster region,Anhui Province, ChinaJun Dengab; Qingfei Wangab; Changhao Xiaoab; Liqiang Yangab; Huan Liuab; Qingjie Gongab; Jing Zhangab

a State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, China University ofGeosciences, Beijing, China b Key Laboratory of Lithosphere Tectonics and Lithoprobing Technologyof the Ministry of Education, China University of Geosciences, Beijing, China

First published on: 03 November 2010

To cite this Article Deng, Jun , Wang, Qingfei , Xiao, Changhao , Yang, Liqiang , Liu, Huan , Gong, Qingjie and Zhang,Jing(2011) 'Tectonic-magmatic-metallogenic system, Tongling ore cluster region, Anhui Province, China', InternationalGeology Review, 53: 5, 449 — 476, First published on: 03 November 2010 (iFirst)To link to this Article: DOI: 10.1080/00206814.2010.501538URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00206814.2010.501538

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International Geology ReviewVol. 53, Nos. 5–6, April–May 2011, 449–476

ISSN 0020-6814 print/ISSN 1938-2839 online© 2011 Taylor & FrancisDOI: 10.1080/00206814.2010.501538http://www.informaworld.com

TIGR0020-68141938-2839International Geology Review, Vol. 1, No. 1, Jul 2010: pp. 0–0International Geology ReviewTectonic-magmatic-metallogenic system, Tongling ore cluster region, Anhui Province, China

International Geology ReviewJ. Deng et al. Jun Denga,b*, Qingfei Wanga,b, Changhao Xiaoa,b, Liqiang Yanga,b, Huan Liua,b, Qingjie Gonga,b and Jing Zhanga,b

aState Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing, China; bKey Laboratory of Lithosphere Tectonics and Lithoprobing

Technology of the Ministry of Education, China University of Geosciences, Beijing, China

(Accepted 10 June 2010)

The Tongling ore district of the Middle-Lower Yangtze metallogenic belt is a famousCu-Au-Fe-S polymetal region, and its tectonic deformation, magmatic evolution, andmetallogenic processes have been studied for decades. In this article, we propose acomprehensive tectonic-magmatic-metallogenic model of the ore-forming mechanismconstrained by magmatism and regional deformation. In the Tongling district, the tectonicregime underwent two transitions. (1) In the Middle Triassic, the tectonic regime tran-sitioned from quiescence to intense compression. During contraction, the lithospherethickened and a series of NE-trending folds developed in the cover sequence; becauseof the multi-layered structure of this caprock, bedding faults, typically cut by steeplydipping faults, developed widely. (2) From 134 to 150 Ma, the tectonic regime changedfrom compression to extension. During this transition, mantle–crust interaction wasprominent; ore-bearing magma was generated by the mixing of crust-derived and mantle-derived melts triggered by delamination of the thickened lithosphere. Meanwhile,detachment faults developed along the interfaces, for example between the lower andupper crust, serving as emplacement sites for several magma chambers. Ore-bearingmagma dikes containing large amounts of volatiles derived from a shallow chamber atabout –10 km depth migrated into the cover sequence along the pre-existing steeplydipping faults. Melt injection reworked the structural framework, facilitating furtherdevelopment of steeply dipping faults, as well as the vertical transport of ore-bearingfluids. Hydrothermal fluids derived from the emplaced magmas not only formed arange of deposits, including skarns, porphyries, and cryptobreccias around the intru-sions but also widely replaced carbonates along bedding-parallel faults and formedso-called stratabound skarn ore bodies, as well as superimposing synsedimentaryorebodies developed in the quiescence stage to form several large polymetallic hydro-thermal ore deposits. Various types of ore deposits at different depths are clustered in asingle orefield, composing a multi-layered mineralization network. In the network,skarn deposits dominate and are characterized by fluid immiscibility processes anddiverse element enrichments. The intense mineralization in the Tongling region wascaused by the abundance of metals derived from the mantle, favourable ore-controllingstructures, and widespread fluid boiling of magmatic hydrothermal fluids, which facil-itated metal deposition during the Mesozoic, as well as the superposition of Mesozoichydrothermal reworking of earlier Palaeozoic sedimentary ore bodies.

Keywords: ore-forming process; magmatism; structures and ore deposition; Mesozoicore deposits; Tongling district; NE China

*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]

Downloaded By: [Monash University] At: 08:57 4 March 2011

450 J. Deng et al.

IntroductionThe Tongling ore cluster region is an uplifted area in the Middle-Lower Yangtze metallo-genic belt located between the Lower Yangtze block and the North China block (Figure 1).During the Palaeozoic, the metallogenic belt occupied a passive continental margin. In theMesozoic, the belt experienced intense intraplate tectono-magmatic activities, and its tec-tonic evolution was constrained by the collision between the Yangtze and North Chinablocks, the subsequent underflow of the Pacific and Izanagi plates underneath Eurasia(Sun et al. 2007; Ling et al. 2009), and later lithospheric delamination and extension inEast China.

After several tectonic movements, the cover sequence in the Tongling region wasdeformed, and abundant Mesozoic intrusions were emplaced, inducing intense and diversemineralizations. More than 180 ore deposits and occurrences have been discovered in theTongling region and they are mainly clustered in five orefields: the Shizishan, Tongguanshan,Fenghuangshan, Xinqiao, and Jinlang orefields (Figure 2). On both sides of the Tonglingregion, abundant ore deposits are also concentrated in the Lujiang-Zongyang (abbreviatedas Luzong), Fanchang, and Nanjing-Wuhu (abbreviated as Ningwu) volcanic basins of themetallogenic belt (Figure 1).

Because of the great economic value and scientific significance of the Tonglingregion, scientists have intensively studied its tectonic process, magmatic evolution, originof ore-forming fluids and materials, and the metallogenic processes (Chang et al. 1991;Zhai et al. 1992; Tang et al. 1998; Mao et al. 2004, 2009; Meng et al. 2004; Hou et al.2004, 2007; Xu et al. 2005a, 2005b, 2007a, 2007b; Yang et al. 2008b; Li et al. submitted;Yang and Lee 2011). The regional deep-seated structure has been studied using deepreflection seismic profiles (Lü et al. 2004a, 2004b). Caprock structures and their

Figure 1. Geological location of the Tongling ore cluster area, Anhui Province, China. TLF,Tancheng-Lujiang fault; XGF, Xiangfan-Guangji fault; YCF, Yangxing-Changzhou fault. Blackdots are magmatic intrusion-related Cu–Fe–Au deposits (after Pan and Dong 1999).


International Geology Review 451

deformation mechanism are discussed in detail (Deng et al. 2004b, 2004c; Wu et al. 2004;Wang et al. 2011). Petrologic structure, chemical compositions of magmatic rocks, andtheir origins have been studied by various researchers (Xing and Xu 1995, 1999; Xing1998; Xu and Lin 2000; Zhang et al. 2001; Wang et al. 2003a, 2004e, 2007; Wu et al.2003b; Di et al. 2005; Zeng et al. 2005; Xu et al. 2006; Li et al. 2007a, 2007b; Yang et al.2007; Cao et al. 2009; Xie et al. 2009b). The magmatic rocks and associated ores havebeen dated by different methods, including K/Ar (Zhai et al. 1996; Li 2004; Zeng et al.2004), 40Ar/39Ar (Wu et al. 1996, 2000), molybdenite and pyrite Re–Os, Os–Os (Sunet al. 2003; Mao et al. 2004; Yang et al. 2004a; Mei et al. 2005; Xie et al. 2009a), pyriteRb–Sr (Wang et al. 2004d), and zircon U–Pb (Wang et al. 2004a, 2004b, 2004c; Xu et al.2004, 2008; Di et al. 2005; Zhang et al. 2006; Du et al. 2007b; Lu et al. 2007; Yang et al.2007, 2008a; Wu et al. 2008; Xie et al. 2008b). Enclaves in the magmatic bodies and theirgeological significance have also gained wide attention (Wu et al. 1996, 2000; Du and Li1997; Qin et al. 2003, 2004; Du and Lee 2004; Du et al. 2004, 2007a). The transport networkand process of the magmas have also been studied (Deng et al. 2006, 2007). The origin ofthe ore-forming fluid and its evolution were also researched (Xiao et al. 2002, 2004; Duet al. 2003; Xie et al. 2004; Xu et al. 2005a, 2005b; Li et al. 2006; Lai et al. 2007). More-over, the spatial distribution of elements has been analysed by fractal methods (Deng et al.2008; Wang et al. 2008, 2010b).

Figure 2. Geological map of the Tongling ore cluster area, Anhui province, China. (The map ismodified after the 1:50,000 geological map accomplished by the 321 geological team in Anhuiprovince, 1989. The age of zircon U–Pb cited from Wang et al. 2004a, 2004b, 2004c; Xu et al.2004, 2008; Di et al. 2005; Zhand et al. 2006; Du et al. 2007b; Lü et al. 2007; Yang et al. 2007,2008a Wu et al. 2008; and Xie et al. 2008b. The age of Re/Os and Os/Os cited from Sun et al. 2003;Mao et al. 2004; Yang et al. 2004a; Mei et al. 2005; Xie et al. 2009a. The dating data is listed inTable 1.)


452 J. Deng et al.

The tectonic deformation, magmatic evolution, and ore-forming process behaved as aninterconnected system. Previous studies mainly focused on one or two aspects of the sys-tem, and a comprehensive framework of the Tongling region has not yet been constructed.Based on the results obtained by different disciplines and supplemented with some newevidence, the tectonic-magmatic-metallogenic model of the Tongling region with emphasison the interaction of the various geological processes is hereby established in this article.

Tectonic framework and compressional deformationTectonic frameworkAfter multiple tectonic movements, the crust of the Tongling region shows a low thicknessof about 32 km (Wu et al. 1999). The deep seismic reflection profile across the regionclearly displays crustal structure (Lü et al. 2004b). In the profile, the sub-Moho reflectionssupport the occurrence of underplating, and a weak Moho also denotes that intense mag-matism happened. The lower crust shows the typical reflection characteristics of a craton,suggesting no obvious magmatism. Strong reflections between the upper and lower crustis explained as a detachment between them. In addition, a transparent zone, representing abatholith, exists underneath the folded caprock (Figure 3). According to the gravity anom-aly and ETM image, it is recognized that the region is confined by deep faults and tra-versed by basement faults, in which the EW-trending faults in the north part is the mostobvious (Wang et al. 2011).

The caprock consists of a Palaeozoic basement and a sequence of Mesozoic sedimen-tary rocks. The Proterozoic low-grade metamorphic basement is exposed about 30 kmsouth of the study region (Chang et al. 1991). The stratigraphic sequence cropping out inthe study region ranges from Silurian to Triassic with thickness up to 3000 m (Figure 4).The sequence includes Silurian shallow marine sandstones interbedded with shales, Devo-nian continental quasi-molasse formation and lacustrine sediments, Carboniferous shallowmarine carbonates, Permian marine facies alternating with a marine-continental ones,Early to Middle Triassic shallow marine carbonates, and Quaternary sediments. Jurassicand Cretaceous volcanic rocks are developed in surrounding area. The first angular uncon-formity in the outcropped sequence lies between the Middle Triassic Dongma’anshanFormation (T2d) and the Yueshan Formation (T2y), and it divides the caprock into upperand lower structural layers. Several parallel unconformities are developed in the lowerstructural layer, and many angular unconformities occur in the upper layer. The lowerstructural layer covers most of the region and contains most ore reserves in the region.

In the lower structural layer, the strata with different lithologies and thicknesses alternate.During deformation, the Devonian thick quartz sandstone, as well as the Lower Permianand Lower Triassic thick carbonates may behave as competent layers. The thin carbonates,mudstone, shale, and silty shale in the Silurian and Upper Permian, on the other hand, actas incompetent layers. The alternation of the competent and incompetent layers facilitatesthe development of bedding detachment faults and non-harmonic folds.

The characteristics of the surface structures are shown in Figure 2. Three types of fun-damental structures can be observed. The NE-trending folds, most of which are S-shaped,are prominent. Bedding detachment faults and the NW and NNW-trending sinistral strike–slipfaults cutting the folds are widely developed. An analogous experiment was performed toreflect the formation process of caprock structural framework under overall NW compres-sion, and several important ore-controlling structures are identified (Deng et al. 2004a).Combining the experiment results and drill sections, it is discovered that reverse faults



Figure 3. (a) Stacked section of the Tongling deep seismic reflection; (b) line drawing of stackedsection and interpretative section. FCVB, Fanchang volcanic basin; TLU, Tongling uplift (modifiedfrom Lü et al. 2004b).


454 J. Deng et al.

Figure 4. Stratigraphy and mineralization developments of the Tongling, Anhui Province, China(modified after Geological Team 321, 1989 and Lü et al. 2007).



near the fold cores and non-harmonic folds containing multi-layered void spaces are likelyto be developed.

In the caprock, structures with various attitudes and in different layers compose anetwork, which serves as a pathway or emplacement space for magma and related hydro-thermal fluids. The network is characterized by bedding-parallel faults and void spacesthat are connected or cut by faults with high dip angles.

Compression processThe parallel unconformities in the lower structural layer suggest that the region remainedtectonically quiescent from the Silurian to the Middle Triassic. The first angular uncon-formity between T2d and T2y indicates the start of intraplate horizontal compression.Because the assembly between the Yangtze and North China blocks took place during210–240 Ma, as determined by the 40Ar/39Ar and Sm–Nd dating methods (Shen et al.1994; Chavagnac and Jahn 1996; Rowley et al. 1997), it is deduced that this assemblytriggered the horizontal deformation in the region. After the assembly ended, the activemotion of the Pacific and Izanagi ocean plates underneath the Eurasian plate began toinfluence the tectonic and magmatic evolution in the Tongling region (Sun et al. 2007;Ling et al. 2009).

The block collision induced an overall intense NW compression, inducing the devel-opment of lithospheric and deep crustal faults. Because of the confinement of the deepfaults, the Tongling region suffered a relatively independent deformation process. Andsome deep faults also served as concealed basement faults across the region.

The NE-trending folds and NW-trending strike–slip faults also suggest that the regionmainly suffered continuous and intense NW compression. Based on the S-shaped folds, itis proposed that the region experienced progressive deformation, in which the compressionwas followed by a simple shear (Deng et al. 2004b; Wu et al. 2004) (Figure 2). Neverthe-less, a non-coaxial and asymmetric compression model is proposed to be responsible forthe formation of the S-shaped folds (Wang et al. 2011). In the deformation models, it isrecognized that the caprock with multi-layered structures under an intense and complexdeformation process are responsible for the development of non-harmonic folds andreverse faults.

The compressions induced by the plate collision also resulted in a thickened crust,which differs from the structure of the modern crust in the Tongling region (Wang et al.2004c).

Magmatic evolution and tectonic transformationGeological occurrence and lithologic typesIntrusive rocks in caprock occur mostly as stocks, dikes, and sills with 2–10 km2 outcrop-ping areas. In the Shizishan orefield, intrusions occur as stocks and dikes along faults toform a network system approximately 3 km long and 1 km wide (Deng et al. 2004a). Thelargest Fenghuangshan intrusive body associated with a series of skarn deposits with anarea of about 10 km2 is located near the southeast boundary of the region. The magmaemplacement is largely controlled by the EW-trending basement fault crossing the Xin-qiao, Shizishan, and Tongguanshan orefields (Figure 2) (Chang et al. 1991; Wu et al.2003a).


456 J. Deng et al.

The region comprises three major rock associations: (1) pyroxene diorite–pyroxenemonzodiorite; (2) quartz diorite–quartz monzodiorite, which are the most important mag-matic rocks in the Tongling region; and (3) granodiorite. Most magmatic bodies are virtu-ally intrusive complexes consisting of both mafic and intermediate-acid intrusive rocktypes, such as the Baimangshan, Jiguanshan, Sujiadian, Caoshan, Yushan, and Shizishanmagmatic bodies (Chang et al. 1991).

Chemical compositions, emplacement age, and tectonic settingIn the Harker variation diagrams, most intrusive rocks in the region are categorized ashigh-K calc-alkaline series (Wang et al. 2003a). Several models have been suggested forthe formation of the intrusive rocks, including (1) the mixing of mantle- and crust-derivedmagmas, or assimilation and fractional crystallization of a mantle-derived magma, withmajor contributions from an ancient crustal component (Chen et al. 1993; Chen and Jahn1998; Wu et al. 2000; Deng and Wu 2001); (2) the partial melting of lower crustal materi-als in the Yangtze continental block (Yang and Lin 1988; Du and Li 1997; Zhang et al.2001; Wang et al. 2004c); (3) the production of rocks with SiO2 ≤ 55% by the crystalliza-tion of basaltic magmas derived from an enriched mantle, with limited assimilation oflower crustal materials; and in this model, rocks with SiO2 > 55% were generated by mix-ing of mantle-derived basaltic magmas and adakite-like magmas derived from melting ofthe basaltic lower crust (Wang et al. 2003a, 2003b); (4) partial melting of subducted oce-anic slab and subsequent crustal contamination (Ling et al. 2009).

Despite of the debates, the following opinions are well evidenced and recognized. Theintrusive rocks in the Tongling region were produced by a magma mixture of at least twoend-members, one mantle-derived and the other crust-derived, and the mixed magmaexperienced fractional crystallization during its ascent.

The mixing of the mantle-derived and crust-derived magmas is supported by the eNd(t)and (87Sr/86Sr)i values of the intrusions, the geochemical and mineralogical features ofenclaves, and the Fe3+/(Fe2+ + Fe3+) ratios of biotites in the intrusions (Wu et al. 2000;Wang et al. 2003a, 2003b; Gao et al. 2006; Lou and Du 2006; Du et al. 2007a, 2007b; Xieet al. 2009b). The fractional crystallization process is evidenced by the fact that the SiO2content is inversely proportional to that of CaO, TiO2, P2O5, MgO, and Zr and that theREE patterns of different intrusions are generally consistent.

The origin of the magmas reflects a complex deep process, which consists of delami-nation of the lower part of the thickened lithosphere, lithospheric thinning, astheno-spheric upwelling, and crust–mantle interactions (Wang et al. 2003a; Xie et al. 2009b).Zircon U–Pb dating shows that the emplacement ages of the magmas varied from132.7 ± 4.8 Ma to 151.8 ± 2.6 Ma, mainly from 134 to 142 Ma (Figure 2) (Wang et al.2004a, 2004b, 2004c; Xu et al. 2004, 2008; Di et al. 2005; Zhang et al. 2006; Du et al.2007a; Lu et al. 2007; Wu et al. 2008; Yang et al. 2007, 2008a; Xie et al. 2009b). The nar-row age range indicates the different intrusions emplaced semi-synchronously. Theemplacement duration represents the transition interval from lithospheric thickening todelamination, that is from regional compression to extension.

The zircon U–Pb ages of the Mesozoic volcanic rocks in the Luzong and Ningwu vol-canic basins range from 134.8 ± 1.8 Ma to 127.1 ± 1.2 Ma (Table 1) (Fan et al. 2008;Zhou et al. 2008; Yan et al. 2009). The greatest age of the intrusions in the Tonglingregion is similar to the smallest age of the volcanic rocks in the volcanic basins; it is thusproposed that the onset of lithosphere thinning and extension occurred at about 134 Ma inthe Tongling region and its vicinity. The zircon U–Pb ages of the A-type intrusions widely



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458 J. Deng et al.

distributed in the Luzong basin range from about 126 to 124 Ma, denoting an intenselithosphere thinning (Li et al. 2011). It is inferred that the extension duration in the Ton-gling and adjacent regions was generally from 134 to 124 Ma.

Magma transport process and its effect on the tectonic frameworkMagma transport network and migration process at deep and shallow levelsBased on the pressure calculation for the enclaves in intrusions and the crustal structuredetected by deep seismic reflection, three magma chambers are proposed to exist in thecrust (Wu et al. 2000; Du et al. 2007a). The deep and middle magma chambers developedaround the Moho and the interface between the upper and lower crust, respectively. Aconcealed magma chamber existed at about –10 km, from which the ore-forming magmatransported into the caprock.

In regional extension, the tectonic framework may be changed to some extent, anddetachment faults along the interfaces formed. Meanwhile the steeply dipping compres-sion fault displayed dilational characteristics: vertical weakness zones in the middle andlower crust may be developed. These steeply dipping structures can connect the multi-layered detachments in the crust, as is similar to the spatial assembly of different structures inthe caprock. The magma stemming from the deep magma chamber was transportedupwards along the vertical structures and aggregated in the detachments, forming the mid-dle and shallow chambers (Du 1999). Because the lower crust shows little evidence ofmagmatic activity, mesoscale pervasive flow, rather than diapirism, is supposed to be thetransport pattern between the chambers, in which magma moves upwards through anextensive network developed in hot, low-viscosity country rocks where diking is inhibited(Leitch and Weinberg 2002; Weinberg 1998; Wu et al. 2004).

In the upper crust, the basement faults and the above NE-trending high-angle reversefaults served as the main magma pathways, and the magma emplaced in the pathways andthe saddle void spaces within the folds.

In addition, the zircon U–Pb age and the K–Ar, Rb–Sr, and 40Ar/39Ar ages are almostidentical for the same intrusive, even though the closure temperatures of these isotopicsystems are very different (Xie et al. 2009b). It is thus suggested that the felsic magmasexperienced fast transport and cooling. Based on the fast transport of the magmas, thewide development of cryptobreccias denoting a high abundance of volatiles, and the geo-logical occurrences of the intrusions, it is deduced that the magma transported intocaprock from the shallow magma chamber rapidly via a diking pattern. The diking patternindicates that magma with volatiles at its top migrated rapidly upwards along pre-existingweak structural planes in an elastic medium (Emerman and Marrett 1990; Petford et al.1993, 1994). Pulse generations of the dikes because of continuous fractioning in the shal-low magma chamber may be partly responsible for the concentrated emplacement of mag-mas and the multiple lithological components in one intrusion (Deng et al. 2006; Petfordand Koenders 1998).

Influence of the magma emplacement on the caprock structuresTo further study the strata deformation after several tectonic movements, trend surfaceanalysis of the S–D, D–C, C–P, P2–P3, and P–T boundaries is performed based on theirelevations sampled evenly in a composite 1:50,000 geological and topographic map (Deng



et al. 2007). Trend surface analysis has been used consistently by geologists to separatemap data into a regional component and one with local fluctuations (Davis 1986).

After superposing trend surfaces of adjacent boundaries (such as superposing the S–Dboundary on the D–C boundary), it is discovered that the lower trend surface alwayspierces the upper one. Moreover, the position and orientation of the pierced part of the dif-ferent superposed trend surfaces are similar and in accordance with the regional EW-trending magmatic-metallogenic belt comprising the Shizishan, Tongguanshan, and Xin-qiao orefields (Figure 1). This indicates that the caprock on the EW-trending basementfault is subject to bending resulting from magmatic emplacement.

In the Fenghuangshan intrusion, the foliation and lineation defined by the dark miner-als and enclaves in the intrusion margin (Figure 1), the strike of the fold hinge, as well asthe flow cleavage of the ductile shear zone in the contact, are parallel to the intrusionboundary, indicating a final ballooning emplacement of the intrusion and a correspondingcompression to the nearby strata (Zhang and Li 1999; Wu et al. 2004). The ballooningemplacement can be explained as a result of the rapid supply speed, that is the fast trans-port, of the magma, as is consistent with its diking pattern.

The stratal trend surface simulations and the internal and contact deformation of thelarge intrusion both indicate the great kinetic energy of the magmas as they ascended, fur-ther supporting the diking pattern and its influence on the caprock deformation.

The major ore-controlling structures in the caprock, which experienced regional com-pression and later extension, were further reworked by the bending resulting from magmaemplacements. The bending can activate the vertical and bedding structures around theintrusions, providing suitable physical conditions for multi-layered emplacement and longmigration of ore-forming fluids (Deng et al. 2007).

Ore-forming processMetallogenic diversity and superposition of ore-forming processesOre deposit types in the Tongling region mainly include skarn, stratabound hydrothermal,porphyry, and cryptobreccia. The Fenghuangshan orefield consists of contact skarn andporphyry deposits, whereas the Tongguanshan, Xinqiao, and Shizishan orefields are com-posed of more types, such as stratabound skarn and hydrothermal deposits, as illustrated inFigure 5, which shows an overall distribution of the ore deposits in the Tongling region.

The skarn deposits, characterized by Cu and Au mineralization, are dominant in theregion. Skarn ores are composed of chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, pyrite, garnet, diopside,quartz, calcite, epidote, chlorite, and wollastonite, with a few containing sphalerite,galena, and native gold. Mineralization of the skarn deposits can be generally divided intofive stages. Stage 1 is characterized by anhydrous skarn minerals (garnet, diopside, andwollastonite) and calcite. Stage 2 is represented by an assemblage of actinolite, tremolite,epidote, and chlorite. Stage 3 is characterized by the formation of magnetite as the mainmineral. Stage 4 is the main ore stage and is characterized by the formation of chalcopyriteand bornite, together with quartz, pyrite, siderite, and calcite. Stage 5 is represented by thecalcite and sulphides, such as pyrite, sphalerite, and galena (Pan and Dong 1999; Lai et al.2007; Li et al. submitted).

Some skarn orebodies with jagged and sharp boundaries developed along the intrusioncontact zone. Ore minerals are deposited in tensional spaces distributed unevenly alongthe contact zone, and some of the tensional spaces are genetically related to the activities ofthe magmatic hydrothermal (Liu et al. 2008). For example, in the open pit of the Jinniudong


460 J. Deng et al.

deposit located in the Fenghuangshan orefield, orebodies are contained in the tensionalfractures in the skarns and cryptoexplosive breccias (Figure 6). Moreover, replacementskarns of both calcic and magnesium types within sedimentary strata along the beddingfaults are widely developed and host so-called stratabound skarn orebodies (Figure 7). Inthe stratabound skarn orebodies, cryptoexplosive breccias are barely observed, becausethe bedding-parallel fault could keep the pressure balance between the intrusions and

Figure 5. Metallogenic model of the deposit distribution in the Tongguanshan, Shizishan, Xin-qiao, and Fenghuangshan orefields, Tongling area, China. (The figure is based on fieldwork andthe references Chang et al. 1991; Xu and Zhou 2001; Wu et al. 2003a, 2003b.) (1) Huangshilaodeposit; (2) Maanshan deposit; (3) Dongguashan deposit; (4) Huashupo deposit; (5) Laoyaolingdeposit; (6) Datuanshan deposit; (7) Xishizishan deposit; (8) Dongshizishan deposit; (9) Hucun deposit;(10) Caoshan pyrite deposit; (11) Xinqiao deposit; (12) Jinniudong deposit; (13) Fenghuangshan deposit;(14) Xianrenchong deposit.

Figure 6. Mineralization phenomena in the open pit of the Jinniudong skarn deposit, Fenghuangshanorefield, Tongling ore cluster area. (a) Ore pit in the Jinniudong deposit; (b) and (d) cryptoexplosivebreccia ore; (c) sulphide orebody in skarns.



surrounding skarns. An ore deposit can comprise several stratabound skarn orebodies, whichare controlled by the multi-layered ore-controlling bedding-parallel faults (Figure 7).

The polymetallic stratabound hydrothermal orebodies, such as those in the Huangshilaodeposit in the Tongguanshan orefield and the Xinqiao deposit, are developed mostly onthe D–C boundary. The Xinqiao deposit, situated 24 km east of Tongling city, is a large-scale Cu–S–Fe–Au polymetallic deposit (Figure 1). In the deposit, there are two differenttypes of sulphide mineralization. One is the stratabound orebody restricted to the D–Cboundary and the other is the skarn mineralization restricted to the intrusion contact. How-ever, significant economic reserves have only been explored in the stratabound orebody.A horizontal extension of 2550 m and a vertical extension of 1810 m with an averagethickness of 21 m have been confirmed for the stratabound orebody by drilling (Figure 8).The stratabound mineralization is dominated by pyrite with minor amounts of chalcopy-rite, magnetite, pyrrhotite, galena, sphalerite, quartz, and dolomite (Xu and Zhou 2001). Inthe Xinqiao ore deposit, 300 groups of Au–S–Fe–Cu–Zn concentrations of ores were col-lected for performing a cluster analysis, as shown in Figure 9. The cluster analysis showsthat the Fe and S are highly correlated, indicating that pyrite is dominant in the ores. Inaddition, numerous occurrences characterized by pyrite mineralization around the D–Cboundary are widely developed in the region (Figure 5). The mineral compositions of thestratabound hydrothermal ores are very different to those in the skarn ores, indicating thatthe origins of the two types of deposits are possibly distinct.

Ore deposits with various types located at different depths are clustered in one singleorefield. From a cross-section view, the main orebodies exist as multiple floors from thetop to the bottom of the orefield, composing a multi-layered mineralization network. Forexample, in the Shizishan orefield, the Dongguashan porphyry and stratabound skarndeposit exist in the deep part, Huashupo and Datuanshan stratabound skarn deposits are in

Figure 7. Sections in the Huashupo ore deposit of the Shizishan orefield, Tongling ore cluster area(modified from Chang et al. 1991).


462 J. Deng et al.

the middle, Laoyaling and Xishizishan stratabound skarn deposits are in the upper part,and Dongshizhishan cryptobreccia deposit and Baocun, Baimongshan, and Jiguanshanskarn deposits are developed in the shallow (Figure 5).

Figure 8. Typical exploration sections in the Xinqiao deposit, China (compiled based on theexploration data of 803 Geological Team 1971).

Figure 9. Cluster analysis of the Au–S–Fe–Cu–Zn concentrations in the stratabound hydrothermalores in the Xinqiao deposit, Tongling ore cluster area.



Most ore deposits in the Tongling region are genetically related to the magmatic rocks.The molybdenite samples were collected from the different skarn orebodies for preciseRe–Os dating. The determined mineralization ages are identical to formation ages of intru-sive rocks within errors (Sun et al. 2003; Meng et al. 2004; Mei et al. 2005) (Figure 2). Inaddition, sulphur and lead isotopes of sulphides both suggest that most ore-forming mate-rials come from magmatic rocks, and REE distribution patterns of most ores are also simi-lar to the adjacent intrusions (Tian et al. 2005, 2007; Xie et al. 2008a; Yang et al. 2011;Yang and Lee 2011). The hydrogen and oxygen isotope compositions of the fluid inclu-sions in vein quartz of different mineralization stages in the skarn deposits show that theore-forming fluids mainly originated from magmatic fluid with a minor mixture of mete-oric water (Zhou et al. 2000; Ren et al. 2006; Qiu et al. 2007). Qin et al. (2003, 2004)discovered sulphides in amphibole cumulate xenoliths and amphibole megacrysts in Mes-ozoic magmatic rocks, verifying that the magma brought metals from the deep.

However, several mineralizations, including the Laoyaling molybdenite mineraliza-tion in black shale of the Upper Permian Dalong Formation and the polymetallic oredeposit at the D–C boundary, are shown to be synsedimentary via geological phenomena,dating, and isotopic data (Zhou et al. 2000; Yang et al. 2004b) (Figures 4 and 5). Theblack shale from the Laoyaling Mo orebody has been dated to 234.2 ± 7.3 Ma by the Re–Os technique, which is much earlier than the regional Mesozoic intrusions, and youngerthan the Later Permian deposition age, denoting that the Mo ore is sedimentary in originand possibly suffered a later hydrothermal disturbance (Yang et al. 2004a). In terms of theore compositions, and the isotopic and dating evidence, the Xinqiao and Huangshilaodeposits were inferred to be first formed via pyrite accumulation in synsedimentary miner-alization during the Hercynian period, then superimposed by the Yanshanian magmatichydrothermal fluids, during which they became enriched in Au, Cu, and Zn elements(Chang et al. 1991; Hou et al. 2004). The superposition of the different ore processes isprominent in the Tongling region, increasing the deposit tonnage and facilitating polyme-tallic mineralization. The superposition mineralization on the D–C boundary makes it hostthe greatest ore reserve in the caprock.

Magmatic hydrothermal ore-forming processesOre-controlling structuresThe ore-controlling structures are composed of those related to the intrusive boundary andthose in the strata. The structures in the strata were first formed under intense compressionand later reactivated by regional extension and magma intrusion. The previous compres-sional structures became dilational and facilitated fluid migration and element deposition.

Several types of structures are considered to control migrations of magmatic hydro-thermal fluids. The most important is the multi-layered bedding-parallel fault, which controlsstratabound orebodies. The great length of the stratabound orebodies, such as the orebodyup to several kilometres long in the Huangshilao deposit, means that the fluids can migratefar along the detachment fault. The widespread non-harmonic folds are emplacementlocalities for fluids; for example, an excellent non-harmonic fold was developed in theXinqiao deposit and partly controls the emplacements of magmatic bodies and orebodies(Figure 8). High-angle reverse faults can behave as pathways for hydrothermal fluids. Theore-controlling structural network in the strata is also characterized by interconnected bed-ding faults and steeply dipping ones. For instance, in an ore hand specimen of the Caoshandeposit in the Shizishan orefield, the ore-forming hydrothermal is observed to transport


464 J. Deng et al.

first along the reverse fault, which shows dilational characteristics, and then to migratealong the bedding-parallel faults as the hydrothermal ascends (Figure 10).

Fluid evolution process in skarn depositsWhen magma with a large number of volatiles is rapidly emplaced in the caprock andencounters void spaces, fluid boiling can be caused because of the sudden pressure drop.The fluid boiling is evidenced by the cryptobreccia ores, in which the breccias are sealedby quartz (or calcite) and sulphide veins or by felsic materials, and also revealed by fluidinclusions formed in the metallogenic stages 4 and 5 in skarn deposits (Table 2). Forinstance, in the open pit of the Jinniudong deposit in the Fenghuangshan orefield, thecryptobreccia ores, in which the marble breccias are sealed by the calcite and sulphideveins, are widely developed around the intrusive (Figure 6). The skarn deposits in the dif-ferent orefields experienced similar fluid evolutions with decreasing temperatures andsalinities from early to late stages, as manifested by fluid inclusions (Table 2). From theearly to late stages, usually declines, suggesting a greater involvement of mete-oric water, as is exemplified by the Dongguashan deposit (Xu et al. 2005a, 2005b; 2007a,2007b). Thus, it is concluded that the fluid evolution is characterized by immiscibility inthe early stage and by fluid mixing in the late stage.

Element-enrichment features during skarn mineralizationBecause of the ore-forming process in a relatively complex structural network, the spatialdistributions of ore-forming elements should show much irregularity. Five drillcores thatare nearly 1000 m in length, located in the Dongguashan, Changlongshan, Huashupo,

Figure 10. Fluid migration network at the handspecies scale in the Caoshan ore deposit in theTongling ore cluster area.

d18H OO

2



Tabl

e 2.

Flui

d in

clus

ions

in sk

arn

depo

sits

of t

he T

ongl

ing

regi

on, A

nhui

Pro

vinc

e, C

hina

.

Ore

field

Ore

dep

osit

Ore

-for

min

g st

age

Hos

t min

eral

FI ty

peTh

/°C

Salin

ity

(%N

aCl,

equ.

)G

eolo

gica

l si

gnifi

canc

eR

efer

ence

Tong

guan

shan

Tong

guan

shan

Skar

n st

age

Gar

net,

diop

side

I58

0–88

537

.8–4

4.9

Xie

et a

l. (2

004)

IV IIa

Tong

guan

shan

Qua

rtz-s

ulph

ide-

(or)

ca

rbon

ate

stag

eC

alci

te q

uartz

289–

452.

56.

01–1

5.47

12.0

5–26

.44

Xia

o et

al.

(200

4)

Qua

rtz-c

arbo

nate

stag

eQ

uartz

cal

cite

126–

231.

5Sh

izis

han

Shiz

isha

nC

rypt

o-ex

plos

ion

brec

cia

stag

eD

iops

ide

III

>600

42.0

–56.

2B

oilin

gX

iao

et a

l. (2

002)

Skar

n st

age

Gar

net

I, II

b42

2–46

738

–45.

1B

oilin

gC

alci

teI

443–

472

10.2

–10.

7Q

uartz

-sul

phid

e st

age

Qua

rtzI,

II

337–

439

3.0–

30.0

Boi

ling

Qua

rtz-c

arbo

nate

stag

eC

alci

teI,

II14

8–33

5.8

2.1–

40.4

Boi

ling

Xis

hizi

shan

Skar

n st

age

Gar

net

II>5

70Li

et a

l. (2

006)

IV>5

7044

.32–

54.5

1Q

uartz

-car

bona

te st

age

Cal

cite

I28

0–28

5II

131–

366

1.07

–23.

11IV

200–

248

31.8

7–34

.56

Dat

uans

han

Skar

n st

age

Gar

net

II>5

70Q

uartz

-sul

phid

e st

age

Qua

rtzI

274–

437

18.5

5II

205–

430

7.56

–22.

65IV

262–

400

34.3

7–43

.83

Hua

shup

oSk

arn

stag

eG

arne

tII

>570

Qua

rtz-s

ulph

ide

stag

eQ

uartz

I30

2II

191–

450

11.1

0–18

.04

IV24

0–35

728

.56

Qua

rtz-s

ulph

ide

stag

eQ

uartz

I31

2II

256–

380

13.9

4–17

.79

IV31

5–52

534

.93–

49.9

1

(Con

tinue

d)


466 J. Deng et al.

Tabl

e 2.

(Con

tinue

d).

Ore

field

Ore

dep

osit

Ore

-for

min

g st

age

Hos

t min

eral

FI ty

peTh

/°C

Salin

ity

(%N

aCl,

equ.

)G

eolo

gica

l si

gnifi

canc

eR

efer

ence

Don

ggua

shan

Skar

n st

age

Gar

net e

pido

teI

530–

573

17.3

–22.

8X

u et

al.

(200

5a)

IV>6

00>5

6. 6

II44

8–53

610

–19.

9Q

uartz

-sul

phid

e st

age

Qua

rtzI,

II, I

V40

6–48

515

.8–4

6.2

Boi

ling

405–

438

7.9–

53.7

Qua

rtz-c

arbo

nate

stag

eC

alci

teII

147–

252

3.8–

9.5

Cha

osha

nSu

lphi

de-q

uartz

(or

calc

ite) s

tage

Qua

rtzI

268–

349

7.45

–22.

98Y

ang

et a

l. (2

008b

)II

148–

361

18.4

7–22

.78

IV22

5–34

728

.43–

42.5

9Su

lphi

de-q

uartz

-cal

cite

st

age

Cal

cite

I26

0–36

07.

31–1

0.73

II12

6–32

915

.57–

22.9

1IV

220–

339

30.1

0–41

.40

Feng

huan

gsha

nFe

nghu

angs

han

Skar

n st

age

Gar

net

IIb

455–

>600

41.4

–71.

5La

i et a

l. (2

007)

I47

8–>6

00C

alci

teII

b44

8–>6

0045

.2–5

3.6

I52

0–>6

00Q

uartz

-sul

phid

e st

age

Qua

rtzIa

222–

325

11.7

–18.

575

–250

4.7–

7.7

Qua

rtz-c

arbo

nate

stag

eC

alci

te12

2–14

56.

4–12

.4I,

Gas

-ric

h flu

id in

clus

ions

;II,

liqui

d-ric

h flu

id in

clus

ions

;IIa

, liq

uid-

rich

incl

usio

ns w

ithou

t dau

ghte

r min

eral

s;II

b, li

quid

-ric

h in

clus

ions

with

dau

ghte

r m

iner

als;

III,

gas-

liqui

d in

clus

ions

;IV

, mul

ti-ph

ase

fluid

incl

usio

ns.



Hucun, and Datuanshan skarn deposits in the Shizishan orefield, were chosen for analys-ing the characteristics of element enrichment. The Datuanshan drillcore is dominated bymarble and the other four by skarns.

The five drillcores were sampled from top to bottom with an interval of 10 m, and theore-forming elements in the samples were analysed (Wang et al. 2008). The concentrationcurves of the ore-forming elements in the typical drillcores are irregular, as shown in Figure 11,and thus analysed by the fractal models (Wang et al. 2010a).

The Hurst exponent in the self-affine fractal and multifractal spectrum was utilized toanalyse the distributions and assemblages of ore-forming elements to better understandthe element transport during the formation of the skarn deposit (Deng et al. 2008; Wanget al. 2008). The Hurst exponent was proposed by Hurst et al. (1965) to discriminate ran-dom and persistent distributions. Via the Hurst exponent, it is reflected that the elementaldistributions in the marble-dominated drillcore, where the original characteristics of thesedimentary rocks generally remain, show approximately random distributions. The ele-mental distributions in the skarn-dominated drillcores are generally persistent, and the per-sistence indicates that the mineralized segments developed repeatedly along the drillcores,as is according to the multi-layered structures of the ore-controlling bedding faults andorebodies (Deng et al. 2008; Wang et al. 2010b).

The multifractal spectrum is powerful in characterizing singular measures arising in avariety of physical situations, including the spatial element distribution during ore-formingprocesses. The multifractal spectrum is a reverse bell shape, with a width Δa and a height

Figure 11. Element concentration curves along the drillcores located in the Dongguashan,Huashupo, and Datuanshan ore deposits respectively, Shizishan orefield, Tongling ore cluster area(modified from Wang et al. 2010b).


468 J. Deng et al.

difference Δf (a) between the two ends of the spectrum. An increase in Δa means a transi-tion from a homogeneous (random, space filling) to a heterogeneous (ordered, complex,clustered) pattern. A positive Δf (a) means the spectrum is right hooked, indicating thatthere are more small values within the dataset than large ones; otherwise, they are domi-nated by larger ones (Zeleke and Si 2006; García Moreno et al. 2008). Wang et al. (2008)studied the multifractal parameters of the ore-forming element distributions in the drill-cores, discovered that the Δf (a) of most elements between two drillcores show propor-tional relationships, and thus proposed that different deposits show similarities in theelement enrichments. In this article, the multifractal parameters are analysed further. TheΔf (a) and Δa of various elements in the Changlongshan drillcore against those in theDongguashan drillcore and those in the Hucun drillcore were plotted in Figure 12. InFigures 12(a) and (b), the Δf (a) of most ore-forming elements are positive, indicating thatthe elements are locally enriched in the drillcores. Although generally proportional rela-tionships among the elements in Figures 12(a) and (b) are easily observed, most plots inFigure 12(a) and part plots in Figure 12(b) are away from the diagonal line. It is revealedthat the elemental enrichment characteristics in one drillcore still show much variancecompared to those in another drillcore. The Δa plots, as illustrated in Figure 12(c) and (d),still show inconsistent element-enrichment characteristics between the drillcores. It is

Figure 12. Plots of the multifractal parameters of the element distributions in skarn deposits in theShizishan orefield, Tongling ore cluster area. (a) Δf (a) plots between Changlongshan and Hucundeposits; (b) Δf (a) plots between Changlongshan and Dongguashan deposits; (c) Δa plots betweenChanglongshan and Hucun deposits; (d) Δa plots between Changlongshan and Dongguashan deposits.



demonstrated by further analysis of multifractal parameters that the skarn deposits in thesame orefield show diverse element-enrichment characteristics.

Evolution of the Tongling tectonic-magmatic-metallogenic systemThe evolution of the tectonic-magmatic-metallogenic system of the Tongling ore clusterregion is outlined in this article. The regional evolution is divided into three stages (Figure 4).The first stage ranging from S to T2 is a relative tectonic quiescence period, during whichseveral parallel unconformities and multi-layered synsedimentary orebodies formed. Inthe second and third stages ranging from T2 to K1, the Tongling region suffered intenseintraplate tectono-magmatic activations in a tectonic environment evolving from compres-sional to extensional.

Stage 2 from the Middle Triassic (T2) to the Late Jurassic (J3) is the tectonic compres-sional stage; the region suffered NW compression resulting from the collision between theNorth China block and the Yangtze block. Continuous and intense compression resulted ina thickened lithosphere. The NE-trending folds and bedding-parallel faults induced bycompression were dominant in the caprock. The bedding faults containing void spacesbetween various strata are commonly connected by various types of nearly vertical faults.

Stage 3 lasted roughly from 150 to 134 Ma, defined by the emplacement age of theregional intrusions. The magmatic activity was triggered by the delamination of the thick-ened lithosphere, and this stage is considered as a transition from a compressional toextensional environment. The lithospheric delamination and asthenosphere upwellingcaused crust–mantle interactions and the mixing of mantle- and crust-derived magmas.The mixed magma experienced fractional crystallization during its ascent. The structuralframework formed by the previous compression was reworked and shows more tensionalcharacteristics to facilitate the magma ascent.

In the crust, the magma ascended along the deep faults or structural weakness zonesprobably as mesoscale pervasive flow at depth and aggregated at the detachment faults toform multi-layered magma chambers. The magma generated from the shallow magmachamber at about 10 km migrated into the caprock in a diking model. Because of theinherent kinetic energy of dikes, the magma emplacement caused the bending of the strataand further reactivation of the existing structural network. Magma emplacement furtherenhanced the vertical transport of ore-bearing fluid, promoting the formation of a multi-layered mineralization network.

The magma emplacements and the following magmatic hydrothermal activitiesinduced the formation of deposits with various types, in which skarn deposits are domi-nant. Some orefields were composed of multi-layered orebodies, constrained by the spa-tial features of ore-controlling structures. The different skarn deposits generally showdiverse element-enrichment characteristics and similar fluid evolution. In the early stage,ore-forming fluid activity was influenced by a rapid decrease of the magma external pres-sure and characterized by fluid immiscibility in skarn deposits. Superpositions of the Mes-ozoic hydrothermal fluids on the synsedimentary orebodies formed in the first evolutionstage are outstanding in the region.

ConclusionsThe tectonic-magmatic-metallogenic system of the Tongling ore district is characterizedby the following features:


470 J. Deng et al.

(1) The system experienced two major tectonic transitions. In the Middle Triassic, thetectonic regime changed from quiescence to intense compression. The second tec-tonic transition, from compression to extension, occurred during the interval from134 to 150 Ma. The main ore deposits formed during the second transition.

(2) Because of the transition of the tectonic regime, superposition of Mesozoic mag-matic hydrothermal deposition on the previously formed Palaeozoic sedimentaryore bodies occurred throughout the region during the quiescence stage.

(3) Intense Mesozoic mineralization in the Tongling region was due to the abundantmetals derived from mantle, favourable ore-controlling structures, and widespreadfluid boiling attending hydrothermal fluid evolution, which facilitated metal depo-sition.

(4) The ore-controlling structure system in the cover sequence formed during strongtectonic compression and was reworked by the deformation that resulted frommagma emplacement, and is reflected in the multi-layered bedding faults cut bysteeply dipping faults. This structural assemblage resulted in the spatial multi-layereddistribution of bedding-parallel ore bodies in a number of deposits.

AcknowledgementsThis research was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 40234051),the Programme for Changjiang scholars and Innovative Research Team in University (No.IRT0755), the 111 project (No. B07011), and the Special Plans of Science and Technology of LandResource Department (No. 20010103).

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