THE

INTERNATIONAL ENCYCLOPEDIAOF

CURRICULUM

Edited by

ARIEH LEWY

Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel

PERGAMON PRESSMember of Maxwell Macmillan Pergamon Publishing Corporation

OXFORD • NEW YORK • BEIJING • FRANKFURTSAO PAULO • SYDNEY • TOKYO • TORONTO

Contents

Preface

PART 1 CURRICULUM AS A DOMAIN OF SCHOLARLY INQUIRY

Introduction—Curriculum as a Field of StudyJ. I. GOODLAD

xxv

SECTION 1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

OverviewA. LEWY and J. I. GOODLAD

Introduction: Definitions of CurriculumF. M. CONNELLY and O. C. LANTZ

(a) The Domain of Curriculum Studies

Curriculum TheoryU. HAMEYER

Neo-Marxist ApproachD. GORDON

Constructivism in EducationE. von GLASERSFELD

Social Reconstructionist ApproachW. H. WATKINS

The Reconceptualist ApproachW. F. PlNAR

Curriculum as EthicsM. HOLMES

Hidden CurriculumE. VALLANCE

Cybernetics and CurriculumD.PRATT

Curriculum ResearchD. JENKINS

Curriculum Inquiry: Alternative ParadigmsW. H. SCHUBERT and A. L. SCHUBERT

Curriculum Inquiry: "Commonplace" TopicsM. BEN-PERETZ

11

15

19

28

31

32

35

37

40

42

46

51

56

Social History of Curriculum Subjects 58I. GOODSON $•

Historical Research on Curriculum 63B. M. FRANKLIN

(b) Curriculum ComponentsCurriculum Components 67M. J. EASH

Curriculum Rationale 5 70B. PRATT

Syllabus 71M. J. EASH

Textbooks 74I. WESTBURY

Textbook Analysis 78B. B. ARMBRUSTER and T. H. ANDERSON

Teacher's Guide 81J. MCNEIL

Enrichment and Supplementary Materials - 84R. M. THOMAS

Curriculum Packages 85E. L. BAKER

Computers in Curriculum 88G. SALOMON

Computer Software for Curriculum 90M. L. KAMIL

Television: Classroom Use 93S. ROCKMAN and R. BURKE

(c) Factors Affecting Curriculum

Educational Ideologies 103Z. LAMM

Legal Factors 105T. VAN GEEL

Educational Psychology 108L. N. TANNER

Cognitive Psychology and Curriculum 110G. D. HAERTEL

U-Shaped Behavioral Growth: Implications for Curriculum Development 114S. STRAUSS

Curriculum Politics 116K. FREY

Contents

Curriculum Policy Management 117R. G. TOWNSEND

Economic, Social, and Cultural Factors 122M. SKILBECK

Explosion of Knowledge 126Y. ELKANA

Personal Knowledge 128D. J. CLANDININ and F. M. CONNELLY

Knowledge Technology and Curriculum Theory 131D. CHEN and A. OREN

Curriculum Policies 137A. S. HUGHES

The Impact of Textbooks . 138E. BALLER

Gender Studies: Impact on Curriculum 139J. L. MILLER

CURRICULUM APPROACHES AND METHODSOverview ' 145A. LEWY

Introduction: Curriculum Approaches and Methods j 149

M. BEN-PERETZ

(a) Historical Perspectives

Curriculum History: Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Century 151L. TANNERCurriculum Movements in the United States 154

H. M. KLIEBARD

(b) Methods of Organizing Knowledge

Structure of Disciplines in Education 157M. FINEGOLD and F. M. CONNELLY

Subject Matter 158M. BEN-PERETZ and F. M. CONNELLY

Integrated Curriculum - 160A. A. GLATTHORN and A. W. FOSHAY

Interdisciplinary Approach 162D. G. BATTS

Integrated Science Studies 163A. BLUM

Module Approach 168S. N. POSTLETHWAIT

vii

Minicourses 170A. I. OLIVER "~ $•

Spiral Curriculum 171A. W. FOSHAY

Flexible Scheduling 172J. M. COOPER

(c) Focus on Basics

Core Curriculum 175R. TYLER

Back to Basics Movement 177L. BERK

Minimum Competency Testing 178E. L. BAKER and B. H. CHOPPIN

Exemplar Approach 181W. KLAFKI

Key Concepts: Humanities 182A. C. PURVES

Key Concepts: Social Studies 183I. MORRISSETT

Key Concepts: Mathematics 184R. A. GARDEN

Key Concepts: Science 186A. HOFSTEIN

(d) Focus on the Individual

Individualized School Programs 189J. O. BOLVIN

Interest-based Programs 191L. W. ANDERSON

Student-centered Curriculum 192K. STRICKLAND

Independent Study 193F. M. KLEIN

Curriculum Contract 196D. COHEN

Accelerated Programs 197A. H. PASSOW

Honors Courses 198A. I. OLIVER

Diversified Curriculum 201J. LAUGLO

Contents

Elective Subjects 203W. H. SCHUBERT and T. MIKLOS

(e) Focus on Learning Activities

Experience-based Studies 205A. BANK

Process-oriented and Product-oriented Programs 207E. M. WEISS and J. REGAN

Discovery and Inquiry Methods 210

B. G. MASSIALAS

(f) Focus on Environment

Multicultural Education 215J. A. BANKS

Rural Education 217U. BUDE

Urban Education: Educational Programs -. 220J. A. BANKS

Nongraded Curriculum 221D. M. PURDOM

(g) National Systems of Education

National Curriculum Histories: An Overview k

W. H. SCHUBERT

AustraliaD. COHEN

People's Republic of ChinaW. F. CONNELL and ZHANG LIZHONG

Federal Republic of GermanyC. WULF

HungaryE. BALLER

JapanK. KlHARA

NigeriaW. WATKINS and Y. BYO

Socialist CountriesE. BALLER

SpainA. DE LA ORDEN

SwedenS. MARKLUND

Contents

Third World Countries 242H. W. R. H A WES *

United Kingdom 244D. LAWTON

United States 246H. M. KLIEBARD

Soviet Union 250

W. F. CONNELL and A. TULIKOVA

(h) Cultural Approaches

Buddhist Education 255A. W. P. GURUGEHindu Education 261J. J. NANAVATY

Islamic Education 265D. A. WAGNER

Jewish Education 267S. RESHEF

SECTION 3 CURRICULUM PROCESSESOverview 275A. LEWY and S. EDEN

Introduction: Curriculum Processes 277

S. EDEN and A. LEWY

(a) The Nature of Curriculum Innovation

Curriculum Change 279M.FULLANCurriculum Reform 281

T. RULCKER

(b) The Process of Curriculum Development

Curriculum Resources 291R. W. TYLERCurriculum Development 293G. GAY

Curriculum Decisions 302A. A. OBERG

Curriculum Deliberation 304L. E. BEYER

Denning Educational Objectives 306M. R. ERAUT

Contents

Taxonomies of Educational Objectives 317V. D E LANDSHEERE

Selecting Educational Objectives 327M. R. ERAUT

Curriculum Content 330F. M. CONNELLY and D. J. CLANDININ

Learning Experiences 331L. L. TYLER

Concept Mapping 333P. TAMIR

Curriculum Design 335F. M. KLEIN

Curriculum Organization 342M. SKILBECK

(c) Participants in the Curriculum Process

Curriculum Development Centers 347S. EDEN

Decisions at Educational System Level 349A. LEWY

Curriculum Personnel 354H.-D. HALLER and A. LEWY

Curriculum Consultant 357T. W. MAXWELL

Curriculum and Supervision 359W. T. MAY

Involving Parents 361B. E. STEFFY

Community Participation 363B. E. STEFFY

Teachers' Participation in Curriculum Development 365F. ELBAZ

School-based Curriculum Development 367N. SABAR

(d) Using the Curriculum

Curriculum Diffusion 373K. A. LEITHWOOD

Demonstration Program 375L.-E. DATTA

Curriculum Adoption 376S. F. LOUCKS

xi

Contents

Curriculum Implementation 378M. FULLAN 5?

Curriculum Adaptation 384A. BLUM and A. B. GROBMAN

Curriculum Adaptation within the Class 386A. SMYLIE

Course Offering 388W. H. SCHUBERT

Curriculum Pacing 389U. P. LUNDGREN and M.-A. COLLIANDER

Curriculum Studies in Teachers' Education 392M. SlLBERSTEIN

SECTION 4 CURRICULUM EVALUATIONOverview 397A. LEWY and M. C. ALKIN

Introduction: Three Decades of Curriculum Evaluation 399M. C. ALKIN and A. LEWY

(a) General Framework

Program EvaluationB. R. WORTHEN

Formative and Summative EvaluationA. LEWY

Curriculum Evaluation ResearchJ. R. SANDERS

(b) Approaches to Evaluation

Tyler Evaluation Model 411R. M. WOLF

Goal-free Evaluation 413B. STECHER

Decision-oriented Evaluation 414G. D. BORICH

Responsive Evaluation 418R. E. STAKE

Illuminative Evaluation 420M. R. PARLETT

Naturalistic Evaluation 424D. W. DORR-BREMME

Qualitative Evaluation 427G. WILLIS

Contents

Educational Connoisseurship and Criticism 429T. E. BARONE

(c) Curriculum Evaluation Strategies

Needs Assessment Studies 433T. M. SUAREZ

Prototype Evaluation 435M. C. ALKIN

Error Analysis 436T. N. POSTLETHWAITE

Feasibility Studies 438L. A. SOSNIAK

Curriculum Tryout 440A. LEWY

Curriculum Validation 441W. H. SCHUBERT

Curriculum Analysis 442T. ARIAV

Implementation Evaluation 444K. A. LEITHWOOD

Long-term Curriculum Evaluation - 448

P. TAMIR

(d) Evaluation at Various Phases of Curriculum Development and Use

Experimental Curriculum 451W. H. SCHUBERTIntrinsic Evaluation 452M. R. ERAUT

Delphi Technique 453N. P. UHL

Criterion-referenced Measurement 454R. K. HAMBLETON

Narrative and Story Telling Approach 459D. J. CLANDININ and F. M. CONNELLY

Transactional Evaluation 462R. M. RlPPEY

(e) Curriculum-specific Criteria

Curriculum Potential 465M. BEN-PERETZ

Curriculum Balance 466R. MCCLURE

Contents

Prerequisite KnowledgeM. RABINOVITZ and W. H. SCHUBER^

Impact Analysis of CurriculumM. C. ALKIN

Evaluating Computerized Curriculum MaterialsT. LEVIN

468

471

474

PART 2 SPECIFIC STUDY AREASIntroduction: Curriculum AreasM. JOHNSON

481

SECTION 5 LANGUAGE ARTSOverviewD. FEITELSON

Introduction: Language ArtsM. L. KING

(a) School Learning and Language Development

Language Across CurriculumB. FlLLION

Vocabulary DevelopmentD. L. JOHNSON

(b) Initial Reading

DecodingP. D. ROUSCH

PhonicsJ. E. MERRITT

Initial ReadingJ. S. CHALL and S. A. STAHL

Reading ReadinessD. FEITELSON

Basic Vocabulary InstructionA. FLEET

(c) Advanced Level Instruction

Reading Methods in Secondary SchoolsW. R. HILL

Comprehension InstructionH. SINGER

Critical Reading InstructionR. L. PARKER and L. UNSWORTH

493

497

501

502

504

506

508

511

514

521

xiv

Contents

Reading Rate and Reading Flexibility 523S. J. SAMUELS and N. SCHERMER

Listening Comprehension 524N. A. MEAD

Speech Instruction 526W. J. CROCKER

Composition Instruction 529A. C. PURVES

Spelling Instruction 532M. L. PETERS

Handwriting Instruction 535A. P. HOLBROOK

Study Skills 537J. E. VAN NORD

(d) Reading Habits

Reading Interest 541V. GREANEY

Independent Reading 544J. S. CHALL and A. W. MARSTON

SECTION 6 FOREIGN LANGUAGE STUDIES

Overview 549A. LEWY

Introduction: Foreign Language Education 551E. OLSHTAIN

(a) Foreign Language Curricula

Foreign Language Education 553I. DUNLOP, R. TITONE, S. TAKALA, H. SCHRAND, E. LUCAS, R. STEELE,E. SHOHAMY, J. P. B. ALLEN, E. OLSHTAIN, B. SPOLSKY, S. D. KRASHENand E. BIALYSTOK

Foreign Language Curricula: Primary Schools 569H. H. STERN

Foreign Language Curricula: Secondary Schools 575P. S. GREEN

(b) Factors Relating to Foreign Language Studies

Educational Linguistics 581B. SPOLSKY

Pedagogic Grammar 585E. OLSHTAIN

ontents

Language Needs Analysis 586J. L. M. TRIM

Language for Special Purposes 587J. C. SAGER

Contrastive Linguistic Analysis 589K. SAJAVAARA

Interlanguage 591J. H. SCHUMANN

Interference 591R. A. BERMAN

Error Analysis 593K. SAJAVAARA

Attitude Toward Learning Foreign Language 594L. W. ANDERSON

Immersion Education 597M. SWAIN

Language Laboratories 598J. J. HIGGINS

Foreign Language Testing in the Classroom 600A. D. COHEN

Testing Speaking Proficiency in Foreign Language 602J. L. D. CLARK

(c) Teaching Specific Foreign Languages

Arabic 605E. M. BADAWI

Chinese 606WANG HUAN, DU RONG and CHIN CHUAN CHENG

English 608C. B. PAULSTON

French 611R. BERGENTOFT

German 614H-J. KRUMM

Hebrew 616R. NlR

Italian 618R. TlTONE

Japanese 619K. NOMOTO

VI

Contents

RussianA. A. LEONTIEV

SpanishM. E. Ruiz

SwahiliM. HAUNER

620

621

623

SECTION 7 HUMANITIES CURRICULAOverviewA. LEWY

Introduction: Humanities EducationM. R. GRUMET

General Education CurriculumC. KRIDEL

Philosophy Programs: Primary SchoolsM. LlPMAN

Philosophy ProgramsL. ZAHN

Religious EducationR. M. THOMAS

Literature: Educational ProgramsA. C. PURVES

Attitude Toward LiteratureR. W. BEACH

Children's LiteratureP. LAMB and M. SANATI

Writing in the HumanitiesJ. M. WlLLINSKY

Classical Languages CurriculaH. VESTER

627

629

632

635

637

638

649

653

657

663

664

SECTION 8 ARTS CURRICULAOverviewA. LEWY

Introduction: Arts EducationP. G. GLUCK

(a) Traditional Subjects

Aesthetic EducationG. OTTO

671

673

675

xvn

Contents

Art: Educational Programs 678A. EFLAND

$ • •

Attitude Towards Art 684J. w . MORRISMuseum Education 686S. E. LEE and K. SOLENDER

Music Curricula 688R. L. GARRETSON

Handicrafts 694K. SCHLEICHER

(b) Innovative Study Areas

Creativity: Educational Programs 699A. J. TANNENBAUM

Dance: Educational Programs 702G. DlMONDSTEIN

Film Studies 705F. B. SHUCHAT-SHAW

Theatre Studies 708D. CHILD

Visual Education 711L. M. COCHRAN

Media Literacy 713J. K. MORROW

SECTION 9 SOCIAL STUDIESOverview 717A. LEWY

Introduction: Social Studies 721

C. CORNBLETH

(a) Traditional School Subjects

Social Sciences v. Social Studies 723I. MORRISSETTSocial Studies: Elementary-school Programs 725B. R. TABACHNICK

Social Studies: Secondary-school Programs 731J. A. GlLLESPIE

Moral and Values Education 736K. RYAN

History: Educational Programs 743K. PELLENS

xviii

Contents

Geography: Educational Programs 746H. L. SCHRETTENBRUNNER

yCivic Education 752J. TORNEY-PURTAEconomics: Educational Programs 755M. KOURILSKY

Sociology: Educational Programs 758T. KASHTI and M. ARIELI

Psychology: Educational Programs 760H. MARCUCELLA and K. M. WHITE

Home Economics: Educational Programs 761H. TAYLOR SPITZE

(b) Innovative Study Areas

Anthropology Programs 765M. J. RICE

Community Education 767F. M. NEWMANN

Area Studies 769D. HEATER

Environmental Education 770A. M. LUCAS

Political Education 771W. LANGEVELD

Peace Education 774C. WULF

International Education 775D. HEATER

Women's Studies 777M. JOHNSON

Black Studies 779W. H. WATKINS

Daily Living Skills 782R. J. RlEHS

Consumer Education 784P. IDMAN

Drug Education Programs 786D. J. HANSON

Family-life Education 789L. C. HARRIMAN

xix

Contents

Sex Education 792N. KLUGE

Safety Education 795R. MORTIMER

Education For A Life of Work 796Y. DROR

Social Skills Educational Programs 800A. R. BRANDHORST

Communication Skills 802J. M. WlEMANN

Television Studies 805A. DORR

Newspapers in Education 806E. F. DEROCHE

Education for Leisure Time 807H. RUSKIN

Outdoor Education 810G. L. MEHAFFY

Library User Education 812J. E. HERRING

SECTION 10 MATHEMATICS EDUCATIONOverview 817A. LEWY

Introduction: Mathematics Education 819J. KlLPATRICK

(a) Traditional Subject Areas

Mathematics: Elementary-school Programs 821R. B. DAVIS and F. GOFFREE

Mathematics: Secondary-school Programs 825K. J. TRAVERS

Arithmetic: Educational Programs 833T. LEVIN

Algebra: Educational Programs 835C. KlERAN

Analysis in Mathematics: Educational Programs 837Z. R. MEVARECH

Geometry: Educational Programs 839J. T. FEY

Contents

(b) Innovative Topics

New Mathematics yS. VlNNER

Mathematical Applications: Primary SchoolR. LESH

Mathematical Applications: Secondary SchoolZ. USISKIN

Problem-solving in MathematicsJ. KILPATRICK

Number and Measurement ConceptsF. VOIGT

Number Theory and Systems in Mathematics ProgramsT. E. KlEREN

Measuring in MathematicsA. J. BISHOP

Estimation in Mathematics EducationP. S. WILSON and E. G. GIBB

Set Theory: Educational ProgramsD. TIROSH

Rational Numbers in Mathematics EducationR. LESH

Probability and StatisticsE. FlSCHBEIN

Transformation Geometry ProgramsA. J. BISHOP

Computer Literacy ProgramsH. H. RUSSELL

(c) Issues in Mathematics Education

History of Mathematics EducationC. KEITEL, G. SCHUBRING and R. STOWASSER

The Language of MathematicsP. NESHER

Attitude Towards MathematicsL. R. AlKEN

Mathematics InstructionM. PELLEREY

Calculators in Mathematics EducationL. A. HUTTON

Computers in Mathematics EducationJ. OLIVE and L. L. HATFIELD

Contents

Metacognition and Mathematics 888A. H. SCHOENFELD $•

Mathematics as a Humanistic Discipline 891A. M. WHITE

SECTION 11 SCIENCE EDUCATION PROGRAMS

Overview 897P. TAMIR

Introduction: Reforms in Science Education 899

P. TAMIR

(a) Comprehensive Programs

History of Science Education 903E. W. JENKINSScience Education: Primary School 906W. HARLEN

Science Education: Secondary School 911R. F. GUNSTONE

General Science Programs 916

E. W. JENKINS

(b) Specific Subjects -

Life Sciences: Educational Programs 919P. TAMIRBotany: Educational Programs 924P. TAMIR

Zoology: Educational Programs 925P. TAMIR

Agriculture: Educational Programs 926A. BLUM

Environmental Education Programs 927A. M. LUCAS

Nutrition: Educational Programs 929G. M. BRIGGS

Physics Programs 930V. N. LUNETTA

Chemistry Programs 935R. BEN-Zwi

Earth Sciences Programs 939P. E. PEZARO

Energy Education 941J. LEWIS

Contents

Astronomy: Educational ProgramsM. R. COHEN ^

(c) Issues in Science Education

Language of ScienceC. SUTTON

Scientific LiteracyL. E. KLOPFER

Science, Technology and Society as a Curricular TopicJ. SOLOMON

Science Concepts and SkillsW. HARLEN

Attitude Towards ScienceW. W. WELCH

SECTION 12 PHYSICAL EDUCATIONOverviewH. RUSKIN

Physical Education InstructionM. PlERON

Physical Education ProgramsH. HAAG and J. E. NlXON

Attitude Towards Physical EducationJ. BIELEFELD

Health EducationM. J. LOUPE

SECTION 13 INTERNATIONAL CURRICULUM ASSOCIATIONS ANDJOURNALSCurriculum Associations and JournalsE. C. SHORT

Contributors Index

Name Index

Subject Index

942

945

947

948

951

953

959

961

969

974

975

981

985

997

1021