International Comparisons in Senior Secondary Assessment - Ofqual

International Comparisons in Senior Secondary Assessment

Full Report

June 2012

Ofqual/12/5179

International Comparisons in Senior Secondary Assessment: Full Report

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Contents

Acknowledgements .................................................................................................... 9

Executive summary .................................................................................................. 12

1 Introduction and methodology ........................................................................... 17

1.1 Background ................................................................................................ 17

1.2 Scope of the study ...................................................................................... 18

1.3 What do we mean by “demand”? ............................................................... 19

1.4 International studies ................................................................................... 20

The role of international testing and comparability ............................................ 22

1.5 Senior secondary assessment in England – A levels ................................. 23

1.6 Methodology ............................................................................................... 25

Judgemental methods ....................................................................................... 26

Priorities for investigation .................................................................................. 26

Stage 1: Desk research and selection of education systems ............................ 27

Stage 2: Qualification and assessment level analysis ....................................... 31

Stage 3: Synthesis and reporting ...................................................................... 34

2 Education systems ............................................................................................ 36

2.1 Constituent parts of an education system .................................................. 36

2.2 Education systems .......................................................................................... 39

2.3 Education system profiles .......................................................................... 44

Australia – New South Wales ............................................................................ 44

Canada ‒ Alberta .............................................................................................. 46

Denmark ............................................................................................................ 47

England ............................................................................................................. 49


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Finland ............................................................................................................... 50

France ............................................................................................................... 51

Hong Kong ........................................................................................................ 53

International Baccalaureate Organisation .......................................................... 55

Netherlands ....................................................................................................... 56

New Zealand ..................................................................................................... 58

Norway .............................................................................................................. 59

People’s Republic of China ............................................................................... 61

Republic of Ireland ............................................................................................ 62

Republic of Korea .............................................................................................. 64

United States of America (New York State and the ACT) ................................. 65

University of Cambridge International Examinations ......................................... 67

3 Descriptions of qualifications and assessments ................................................ 69

3.1 Qualification profiles ................................................................................... 75

Australia – New South Wales High School Certificate ....................................... 75

Canada – Alberta Diploma ................................................................................ 77

Denmark ‒ Studentereksamen (STX)................................................................ 79

England – A levels ............................................................................................. 80

Finland ‒ Ylioppilastutkinto or Studentexamen (Matriculation Examination) ..... 81

France ‒ baccalauréat général .......................................................................... 83

Hong Kong Advanced Level Examination (HKALE) .......................................... 84

Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education (HKDSE) .................................... 85

International Baccalaureate Diploma ................................................................. 87

Netherlands – hoger algemeen voortgezet onderwijs (havo) ............................ 88

Netherlands – voorbereidend wetenschappelijk onderwijs (vwo) ...................... 89


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New Zealand – National Certificate of Educational Achievement (NCEA) Level 3

.......................................................................................................................... 90

Norway ‒ Vitnemål fra den Videregående Skole (Certificate of Upper Secondary

Education) ......................................................................................................... 91

People’s Republic of China –Gāokăo (National Higher Education Entrance

Examination) ..................................................................................................... 93

Republic of Ireland – Leaving Certificate (Established) ..................................... 94

Republic of Korea – Su-neung (College Scholastic Ability Test, or CSAT)........ 96

United States of America – ACT ........................................................................ 97

United States of America ‒ New York State Regents Diploma .......................... 98

University of Cambridge International Examinations A levels .......................... 100

University of Cambridge International Examinations Pre-U Diploma ............... 100

4 Findings: Mathematics ..................................................................................... 102

4.1 Summary ....................................................................................................... 102

Content, coverage and depth .......................................................................... 103

Assessment ..................................................................................................... 107

4.2 Mathematics findings by education system .............................................. 111

Australia – New South Wales Higher School Certificate, or HSC .................... 111

Canada – Alberta Diploma .............................................................................. 113

Denmark ‒ Studentereksamen, or STX (Upper Secondary School Examination)

........................................................................................................................ 114

England – A levels ........................................................................................... 116

Finland ‒ Ylioppilastutkinto or Studentexamen (Matriculation Examination) ... 117

France – baccalauréat général ........................................................................ 119

Hong Kong Advanced Level Examination, or HKALE ..................................... 120

Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education, or HKDSE ............................... 121


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International Baccalaureate Diploma ............................................................... 123

Netherlands – hoger algemeen voortgezet onderwijs, or havo ........................ 126

Netherlands – voorbereidend wetenschappelijk onderwijs, or vwo ................. 127

New Zealand – National Certificate of Educational Achievement, or NCEA Level

3 ...................................................................................................................... 128

Norway – Vitnemål fra den Videregående Skole (Certificate of Upper Secondary

Education) ....................................................................................................... 129

People’s Republic of China – Gāokăo (National Higher Education Entrance

Examination) ................................................................................................... 130

Republic of Ireland – Leaving Certificate (Established) ................................... 131

Republic of Korea – Su-neung (College Scholastic Ability Test, or CSAT)...... 133

United States of America – the ACT ................................................................ 134

United States of America – New York State Regents Diploma ........................ 135


5 Findings: Chemistry ......................................................................................... 138

5.1 Summary ....................................................................................................... 138


Assessment ..................................................................................................... 146

Mathematical content ...................................................................................... 147

5.2 Chemistry findings by education system .................................................. 148



Denmark – Studentereksamen, or STX (Upper Secondary School Examination)

........................................................................................................................ 151

England – A levels ........................................................................................... 153



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Netherlands ‒ hoger algemeen voortgezet onderwijs, or havo ........................ 161

Netherlands ‒ voorbereidend wetenschappelijk onderwijs, or vwo ................. 162


3 ...................................................................................................................... 163


Education) ....................................................................................................... 165


Examination) ................................................................................................... 166


Republic of Korea – Su-neung (College Scholastic Ability Test, or CSAT)...... 169



University of Cambridge International Examinations AS levels and A levels ... 172


6 Findings: English ............................................................................................. 174

6.1 Summary ....................................................................................................... 174


Assessment ..................................................................................................... 178

6.2 English findings by education system ....................................................... 180



England – A levels ........................................................................................... 182


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3 ...................................................................................................................... 187





7 Findings: History .............................................................................................. 193

7.1 Summary ....................................................................................................... 193


Assessment ..................................................................................................... 199

7.2 History findings by education system ....................................................... 201



........................................................................................................................ 204

England – A levels ........................................................................................... 206






Netherlands – hoger algemeen voortgezet onderwijs, or havo and voorbereidend

wetenschappelijk onderwijs, or vwo ................................................................ 216


........................................................................................................................ 218


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Education) ....................................................................................................... 220


Examination) ................................................................................................... 223


Republic of Korea Su-neung (College Scholastic Ability Test, or CSAT)......... 226



8 Cross-cutting themes and issues identified ..................................................... 233

Issue 1: Breadth versus depth ............................................................................ 235

Issue 2: Independent study ................................................................................. 237

Issue 3: Different levels of demand within mathematics ..................................... 239

Issue 4: Breadth versus depth within mathematics ............................................. 241

Issue 5: Specialism within mathematics .............................................................. 243

Issue 6: Mathematical content within chemistry .................................................. 245

Issue 7: Focus of the study of English ................................................................ 247

Issue 8: Purpose behind studying history............................................................ 249

Issue 9: School-based assessment .................................................................... 251

Issue 10: Multiple choice ..................................................................................... 253

8.1 Next steps ................................................................................................ 255

9 References .......................................................................................................... 256

Appendix: Subject panel members and affiliations ................................................. 274


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Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the following organisations for their cooperation in this work:

Achieve, USA

ACT (formerly American College

Testing), USA

Assessment and Qualifications

Alliance (AQA), UK

Board of Studies NSW, Australia

British Council

Central Institute for Test Development

(Cito), Netherlands

College voor Examens (CvE),

Netherlands

Council for the Curriculum,

Examinations and Assessment (CCEA)

(Regulator), Northern Ireland

Department for Education (DfE), UK

Department of Education, Employment

and Workplace Relations (DEEWR),

Australia

Direction générale de l’enseignement

scolaire (DGESCO), France

Edexcel, UK

Education Bureau of Hong Kong

Foreign and Commonwealth Office, UK

Government of Alberta, Canada

Historical Association, UK

L’inspection générale de l’éducation

nationale (IGEN)

International Baccalaureate

Organization (IBO), Switzerland

International Review of Curriculum and

Assessment Frameworks (INCA), UK

Joint Mathematical Council of the

United Kingdom (JMC)

K International, UK

Korea Institute for Curriculum and

Evaluation (KICE)

Massachusetts Board of Elementary

and Secondary Education, USA

Maths, Stats & OR Network (MSOR),

UK

Matriculation Examination Board,

Finland

Ministry of Children and Education,

Denmark

Ministère de l’Éducation Nationale, de

l’Enseignement Supérieur et de la

Recherche (MENESR), France

Ministry of Education, New Zealand

Ministry of Education, Science and

Technology (MEST), Korea

National Association for the Teaching

of English (NATE), UK


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National Council for Curriculum and

Assessment (NCCA), Ireland

National Education Examinations

Authority (NEEA), China

National Foundation for Educational

Research in England and Wales

(NFER)

National Qualifications Authority of

Ireland

National Recognition Information

Centre for the United Kingdom

(UK NARIC)

Netherlands Institute for Curriculum

Development (SLO)

New York State Education Department

(NYSED), USA

New Zealand Qualifications Authority

(NZQA)

Norwegian Directorate for Education

and Training

Oxford Cambridge and RSA

Examinations (OCR), UK

Programme for International Student

Assessment (PISA) Governing Board

Qualifications and Curriculum

Development Agency (QCDA), UK

Shanghai Municipal Education

Commission (SHMEC)

thebigword, UK

Universities and Colleges Admissions

Service (UCAS), UK

Universities UK

University of Cambridge International

Examinations (CIE), UK

U.S. Department of Education

The Welsh Government

We would also like to acknowledge the project management team and the reviewers

who made up the subject panels to provide their views on the qualifications reviewed.

The study was led by Linda Mapp, with support from Liz Blackman, Sonia Davis,

Maria Eyo, Richard Knee, Gillian Morris, Caroline Perry, Jo Taylor, Laura Taylor,

Charlotte Venus and Carmen Watton. The study was ably overseen by Cath Jadhav

and Dennis Opposs.

Chemistry subject panel: Sarah Askey (panel leader), Fiona Clark, Anna Croft, Derek

Denby, Gina Grant, Ian Hotchkiss, Stuart Jones, Robert Maguire, Marie-Blanche

Mauhourat, Joseph Newman, Rob Ritchie, Yvonne Walls.

English subject panel: Jenny Stevens (panel leader), Janice Ashman, Adrian Beard,

Caroline Bentley-Davies, Barbara Bleiman, Russell Carey, Don Carter, Judith Catton,

Andrew Green, John Hodgson, Elmer Kennedy-Andrews, Ian McNeilly, Julian

Pattison, Alison Whitehurst.


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History subject panel: Dave Martin (panel leader), Arthur Chapman, Ian Connor,

Jenny Gillett, Richard Harris, Elin Jones, Jennifer Lawless, Angela Leonard, Sarah

Richardson, Geoff Stewart, Patrick Walsh-Atkins, John Warren, Alex Woollard.

Mathematics subject panel: Pat Morton (panel leader), Sally Barton, Brian Crossland,

Mike Dixon, Neil Hendry, Tony Holloway, Joe Kyle, Duncan Lawson, Bronwen

Moran, Sara Neill, Keith Pledger, Roger Porkess, Chris Thompson, Kevin Wallis,

Johan Yebbou.

A list of panel members including, where applicable, the organisations they represent

appears at the Appendix.


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Executive summary

This report presents the findings of a study investigating the demand of assessments

commonly taken by students looking to enter higher education in other high-

performing education systems in comparison with the A level qualifications in

England. The aim of the project was to gain a detailed understanding and to judge

the comparative demand of a range of subjects offered at senior secondary level in

different parts of the world. This would enable us to reflect on how the system in

England might develop.

What is assessed in examinations and qualifications, and the assessment techniques

used to test students, are critical parts of any education system. They are particularly

important for the highest achievers looking to progress to the most competitive higher

education institutions and into the world of work.

We looked in detail at four subjects, representing different academic disciplines:

mathematics, chemistry, English (where this is the national language or the main

language of tuition) and history. Each subject included formed a part of the main

qualification undertaken by students to gain entry to higher education in a range of

education systems from Europe, North America, East Asia and Australasia, as well

as some qualifications offered internationally. These were reviewed alongside one of

the A levels offered in each subject in England. We reviewed both curriculum

materials and assessment materials and focused on how these materials would

enable the highest achieving students to demonstrate their abilities.

That the examinations and qualifications included in this study were those taken by

students in preparation for higher education was one of the few common features

identified. Some were assessments (provided either by the state or by another

organisation) with the specific purpose of selecting students for higher education (for

example a matriculation examination) while others were assessments of educational

achievement that in addition are used to identify students for higher education (of

which A levels is one). Further, some assessments were taken as part of a diploma

or baccalaureate-style qualification with one or more compulsory components, while

other assessments stood alone.

Because we have concentrated on individual subjects and not the whole curriculum

on offer at senior secondary level, subjects within A levels start with an advantage

when judging comparative demand. The small number of subjects typically taken at A

level allows each to be the main focus of a student’s study. Elsewhere, courses

normally comprise much broader offerings, a core of compulsory subjects

supplemented with a number of subject specialisms. This emphasis on the study of a

broader range of disciplines may naturally limit the breadth and depth of study

achievable in each individual subject.


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Given this, it is maybe not surprising that through this detailed analysis in terms of

depth and breadth of subject coverage and by affording students the opportunity to

develop and demonstrate analytical skills, A level assessments compared favourably

with other systems.

By subject area, the key findings are:

Mathematics

Mathematics qualifications worldwide offer a different balance between breadth

of application and the pursuit of complex and deep study. Either style may result

in a highly demanding qualification; however a broader range allows a student

greater flexibility in the pathways that they can study in higher education.

A levels offer one of the broadest programmes of study seen. A level Further

Mathematics was the broadest and deepest qualification reviewed. Its inclusion

of abstract and technically difficult mathematics also makes it extremely

demanding. All the qualifications reviewed in this project require the study of

pure mathematics. The number of and depth of the topics covered affects the

demand of the qualification, with demand reduced where significant study of

calculus and trigonometry are not required. A levels cover both pure

mathematics and the application of mathematics in the same course as well as

including the study of mechanics. This is unusual, with few other systems

covering mechanics within their qualifications. Additionally, other systems

typically offer a variety of different mathematics assessments (often at a lower

level). Several qualifications involve internal assessment. This could potentially

broaden a qualification, allowing assessment of the application of IT, extended

problem-solving and the use of mathematics as a modelling tool.

Chemistry

A levels have the most coverage in terms of breadth and depth of chemical

knowledge, with content from organic, physical, inorganic and analytical

chemistry being studied in similar proportions. Students taking the A level would

therefore recognise the content of all of the qualifications included in this study.

The A level has the most mathematical content of all chemistry subjects

considered in the review and also includes a number of modern methods of

analysis. There are different balances in different systems between theory,

practice and application both within the syllabuses and assessments. This is

linked to the purpose and rationale of the qualification. There are also distinct

differences in how practical work is assessed and rewarded. The A level does

have a strong emphasis on practical skills, however, in some other systems this

is even greater with testing of practical skills making up a high proportion of the

assessment materials.


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English

This study found there to be no single unified definition of English as an

academic subject. A levels are unusual in comparison with other systems in

having an almost exclusive focus on reading and interpreting traditional forms of

text. In other systems there is more of an emphasis on language and broader

communication skills, or a combination of languages and literature. In different

systems, there are very different views on what can be considered a text. Some

take a much more multimedia approach with photographs and film appearing

with some regularity. The structure and schemes of assessment also show

considerable variation by system. The majority of qualifications offer a

combination of written examinations and internal assessment. However, some

use different approaches to the more conventional essay-writing, including short

answer and multiple-choice questions, as well as oral examinations. The

courses which provide the best foundation for study at a UK university include a

focus on genre based study over single text study, testing of both content and

skills, and where components are organised according to a coherent set of

theoretical principles.

History

The A level offers considerations of conceptual understanding, effective

deployment of knowledge, essay and document-based skills, and historical

enquiry, often to a greater level than the other qualifications reviewed. A levels

demonstrate a good balance of historical content with the concepts and skills to

analyse and interpret materials. The inclusion of coursework and personal study

(specifically related to historical studies) in A levels is also a strength, allowing

the development and assessment of historical enquiry skills. The purpose of the

history qualifications in other systems varies considerably. This clearly

determines the extent to which students are required to study their own national

history or develop a broad world view. The link between history and citizenship

is emphasised in many of the systems studied, whether this is citizenship of a

nation or of the world. Most qualifications reviewed rely on written assessment

or examinations with the essay question the most consistently used question

style, followed by the source question. The demand of these questions varies

by qualification, with A levels including some of the most demanding questions

seen. However, several other systems also rely heavily on multiple-choice

questions or use oral assessment.


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A series of themes emerged through the research. Some of these related to the

subject specific findings outlined above, and others related to cross-cutting issues or

wider structural considerations. These have been framed as issues that could form

the basis for discussion around what should be prioritised in England as part of any

future development of our senior secondary qualifications. These issues are

addressed in detail in section 8 of this report but in summary are:

Issue 1: Breadth versus depth – Many systems have a baccalaureate- or diploma-

style assessment system including the study of a number of subject areas

that are not required as part of A levels. Would this additional breadth

outweigh the strengths of additional depth of the current A level system?

Issue 2: Independent study – Would the inclusion of independent research,

projects and extended essays bring additional depth to subject expertise?

Issue 3: Different levels of demand within mathematics – The number of different

mathematics assessments at a variety of levels available to students in

many education systems was also in contrast to A level Mathematics. Is

there a need for A level Mathematics to have further lower-level options in

addition to AS?

Issue 4: Breadth versus depth within mathematics – Within the more challenging

mathematics courses considered, A level Mathematics is unusual in

covering both pure mathematics and the application of mathematics in the

same course. While this means that more fields within mathematics are

available to study, other education systems include more demanding

mathematics which an A level student can only access through additional

A level courses. Would a more focused A level mathematics course better

serve the needs of more capable mathematicians?

Issue 5: Specialism within mathematics - A level Mathematics includes optional

routes. This means students with the same grade in the qualification may

not be equally well prepared for a specific further course of study. Would

distinct qualifications, building on a mathematical core but emphasising

the different specialisms, better serve students and those seeking to

match them to appropriate further opportunities?

Issue 6: Mathematical content in chemistry – A strength of A level Chemistry was

seen to be its high mathematical content in comparison with other

systems. Is this balance correct? Would students and higher

educationalists find it preferable to have further or deeper chemistry

content within chemistry and move the bulk of mathematics currently

covered in chemistry to mathematics subjects?


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Issue 7: Focus of the study of English − A levels were found to be distinctly

different from the study of English in other education systems as they have

an exclusive focus on reading and interpreting traditional forms of text. In

other systems there is a broad range of views on what could be

considered a text (from a photograph, to film, to Chaucer). Would a

broader approach prepare students better for studying in a higher

education setting?

Issue 8: Purpose behind studying history − Other systems often had a clear

rationale for the study of history at senior secondary level, for example to

promote good citizenship. Do we need to address a purpose for the study

of A level History beyond preparing students for higher-level historical

study?

Issue 9: School-based assessment – Should there be more teacher- and school-

based assessment with the potential to stretch students, especially where

oral examinations are part of the system?

Issue 10: Multiple choice – Multiple-choice questions are common in other education

systems at senior secondary level. They are not common in A levels.

Multiple-choice questions can be used to test large amounts of content

and assess skills such as the ability to use the English language. These

can be difficult to test by other means. Should we revisit the use of

multiple-choice questions in A level assessments?


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1 Introduction and methodology

1.1 Background

As the regulator of qualifications, examinations and assessments in England, and of

vocational qualifications in Northern Ireland, we have a responsibility to ensure the

qualifications we regulate are fit for their purpose: they are of a high quality, they

command confidence, they equip students for the next step in their education or

working lives and they are value for money.

In an age when students cross international boundaries to study it is also increasingly

important the qualifications we regulate are comparable with those studied by

students in other high-performing education systems1. Students in England will often

be competing with international students for higher education and employment

opportunities.

The current UK government asked us to monitor the standards of regulated

qualifications in England against those available internationally. In response, we

began a long-term rolling research programme to investigate the comparability of

assessments taken by students internationally against those taken by students in

England.

The first of these studies is the International Comparison of Senior Secondary

Assessment study which focuses on assessment at pre-university level. We

compared the demand of the main assessment available to senior secondary

students in England with the main assessments offered in other education systems.

In doing so we aimed to identify what can be learned from other systems to

strengthen the assessment system in England at senior secondary or pre-university

level. Advanced Level General Certificates of Education (A levels) are the main

qualifications used to gain entry to higher education in England. A levels are

available in over 45 subjects and around 860,000 entries were made in 2011.

A levels were therefore the qualifications which we attempted to benchmark with

comparable qualifications2 internationally.

This report presents the findings of this first international comparability study. It sets

out the rationale and parameters for the study and the methodology used (section 1).

It goes on to give an overview of the education systems and assessments in the

1 The term “education system” relates to countries, provinces or states that control public education

within their borders, and is sometimes referred to as a jurisdiction.

2 When we refer to qualifications in this document, we are either referring to the programme of study or

an examination or series of examinations that gives rise to a result that students use to gain entry to

higher education.


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jurisdictions involved (sections 2 and 3), before detailing the findings drawn from the

analysis of international assessment materials (sections 4–8).

1.2 Scope of the study

In any comparability study, international or otherwise, it is essential to clearly define

the scope. Comparability is a broad concept and so providing adequate definitions is

critical to the success of a study. These definitions extend to the purpose of the

comparability study, the attributes being compared, and the methodology. The

methodology will be discussed in full later in the report.

The purpose of this comparison is to assess how the demand of A level qualifications

in England matches up to the demand of comparable qualifications in a range of

jurisdictions worldwide. When using the term “comparable” in this way, we refer to the

fact that there are grounds upon which a comparison can be made. This is linked to a

notion of “face comparability” (Elliot, 2011, p.10) – essentially that the comparator

qualifications selected appear to be comparable in the sense that they serve the

same cohort and have a similar purpose. In this study the similar purpose is entry to

higher education.

Comparability studies must be undertaken on a particular “attribute” or variable

(Bramley, 2011; Elliot, 2011). Research may focus on syllabus content, the challenge

posed by the assessment of syllabus content, student performance or grading

standards, for example. As highlighted above, the attribute which forms the basis of

this particular comparability study is qualification demand, a combination of the first

two of these – put simply, what a student is expected to learn as part of their senior

secondary studies and the knowledge and analytical skills they need to use in the

assessment of their studies.

To help frame our reviewers’ thinking when making the comparisons in this study we

asked them to consider what would prepare a student well for entry to an honours

degree level course in the UK. Of course, with a very few exceptions, this is not the

specific purpose of the qualifications included in this study. The concept of demand,

however, is linked to qualification purpose, and in order to measure it, we needed to

redefine each qualification regardless of its original purpose and relationships in a

common way to enable meaningful comparisons to be made. Whilst this clearly

creates a common purpose that is artificial, some pragmatism is required in such

complex studies in order that some sensible basis for comparison can be found.

As a result of this framing, this study is not designed to make judgements on the use

of qualifications with regard to their suitability for the purpose they were designed to

fulfil. The transition between upper secondary to higher education is managed

differently in each education system. While in England, the two-year A level

programme typically leads to a three-year degree course, in many countries a full


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degree course lasts more than three years, meaning that the transition point between

the two levels of education is different.

Additionally, this study is not designed to make judgements about the predictive

validity of qualifications, or, whether completing one of these qualifications will lead to

success at higher education, in the UK or elsewhere. Universities UK (2003)

identified criteria and behaviours that were linked to success in higher education:

being self-organised, working well independently, motivation to learn and interest in

the subject area. None of these is concerned with what taught or how it was

assessed at senior secondary level.

Further, a study by the UK Department for Business, Innovation and Skills (Kirkup

et al., 2010) that looked at the predictive power of A levels, GCSEs and an adapted

SAT examination, individually and in combination, found that there were a number of

factors outside performance in qualifications that were statistically significant when it

came to success in higher education.

1.3 What do we mean by “demand”?

While this study is reviewing qualifications which differ greatly in their purpose,

content, target student groups and structure, they can all be analysed on the level of

“demand” they offer. Elliot (2011, p.11) defines demand as “the level of knowledge,

skills and competence required by the typical learner”. It is defined alternatively by

Pollitt et al. (2007, p.169) as the “requests that examiners make of candidates to

perform certain tasks within a question”. Within a qualification or assessment it is

often related to3:

the amount and type of subject knowledge required to be assimilated

the complexity or number of cognitive processes required of the student, the

extent to which the student has to generate responses to questions from their

own knowledge, or the extent to which the resources are provided

the level of abstract thinking involved

the extent to which the student must devise a strategy for responding to the

questions.

3 These factors had been identified in a study into question structure by University of Cambridge Local

Examinations Syndicate (UCLES) commissioned by QCA. Each factor has the capacity to make examination

questions more or less difficult, irrespective of the subject content. The exact interpretation of the four factors is

often, to a degree, subject dependent. Explaining any subject-specific aspects was one of the tasks carried out by

the lead reviewers.


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Demand can be a challenging concept when we consider that it is different from the

“difficulty” of a qualification. By “difficulty” we mean how students performed on a

question – essentially their success rate. In contrast, “demand” relies on the

judgement of experienced professionals as to the challenge that a question should

pose, based on the various cognitive processes and knowledge that it requires.

The distinction between the two concepts is illustrated well by Pollitt et al. (2007,

p.167), using questions from the Third International Mathematics and Science Study

1996 (TIMSS). In two different mathematics questions on this assessment the

success rates of Scottish children were 75 per cent and 76 per cent respectively.

Thus both questions were found to be equally difficult amongst this group. In England

the corresponding success rates were 59 per cent and 79 per cent; clearly they were

not equally difficult here. The questions were both exactly the same. However, they

required the same cognitive processes in its solution and were therefore equally

demanding. Due to differences in their educational experience, however, the English

students found one question more difficult than their Scottish counterparts did.

Comparability studies on the attributes of demand or difficulty may therefore yield

very different results.

In this study, judgements of demand will be based on the overall qualification

standard. Specifically this refers to:

“specification” or “syllabus” level factors such as assessment objectives,

qualification content and structure (such as breadth versus depth of study)

assessment level factors such as how the content is assessed and what is

covered, the weighting of each component and how the assessments are

marked, including reference to the level of expected performance indicated by

the mark schemes.

1.4 International studies

Making comparisons between any features of international educational systems is

notoriously difficult. Despite this, over recent decades there has been a proliferation

of transnational comparisons in education. Likewise, in England there has been a

new focus on the use of international comparisons to inform policy-making (DfE,

2011a; DfE, 2011b; DfE, 2011c).

This review, like others, is grounded in the conviction that international comparisons

allow us “to stand back and achieve a distance from our internal debates” (Allais

et al., 2008, p.1). They can help to garner insights and ideas that often cannot be

generated by looking inwards at education within England. This is what Oates (2010

p.1) terms “breaking the tendency towards introspection”.


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These comparisons should not be used to promote crude policy borrowing, rather to

present alternative perspectives on familiar issues and practices. Similarly,

international comparisons should not be read as an indication that one system of

education is “better” than another. There is no “one way” in education as similar

polices work with differing success in different circumstances. The indicative findings

will only point to possibilities and principles which may be successfully transferable to

different contexts.

This issue of context has been at the core of some of the criticisms of the early

transnational analyses. These reviews have compared numerous features of

international educational systems, from pedagogy, curriculum and assessment to

education structures. However:

The major problem with many of the early forays into this territory was that the methods of

investigation adopted were often partial and fairly unsystematic. Too much weight was

probably placed on single country comparisons and too little attention was paid to how

the parts made up the whole… under-performance in one area… [may have been

because]… a topic was not emphasised to the same extent in that country. In the

absence of systematic and detailed comparisons it was often difficult to know.

(Gray, in Ruddock and Sainsbury, 2008, p.8; parentheses added)

A number of other reports support this view (see, for example, Robitaille et al., 1993;

National Governors Association, 2009; Oates, 2010). As Black (1992) pointed out in

the report on the UNESCO-sponsored study on physics examinations used for

university entrance:

It was of course clear that there would be difficulties [in undertaking the comparisons]. An

examination in physics, like any other instrument that acquires any operational

significance, cannot be understood except as a product of the social and intellectual

context in which it functions and for which it is produced. Our study could clearly

recognise this, but its capacity to explore the context in depth would clearly be limited.

(Black, 1992, p.2; parentheses added)

The implication of the above is clear; any comparability study which takes one

dimension of education in isolation, removing it from its context, is flawed. It is crucial

that any variable should not be judged in isolation, and that we acknowledge that

assessments are a product of the society, culture, political and educational systems

within which they sit. A description of the general features of education systems is

further covered in section 2.1.

Taking into account the above criticisms levelled at previous comparability exercises,

therefore, this study acknowledges that qualifications, and the assessments that

support them, cannot be judged in isolation. This study will endeavour to consider the

wider educational and social contexts when drawing conclusions about qualification


Ofqual 2012 22

and assessment demand. When attempting to learn lessons from other education

systems, this appreciation of the context in which they operate is particularly

valuable.

The role of international testing and comparability

Of all international comparability work, it is the international achievement tests which

have most captured the attention of governments, policy-makers and media outlets.

These tests attempt to make comparisons between the achievement of learners, and

teaching and learning practices in different countries. They include the Programme

for International Student Assessment (PISA)4, the Progress in International Reading

Literacy Study (PIRLS)5 and the Trends in International Mathematics and Science

Study (TIMSS)6

A good general description of the process of setting up such international studies is

seen in Whetton et al. (2007, pp.3–7) and it is clear that much care is taken in

constructing them, quality-assuring them and reporting their findings. England’s score

in these tests has remained relatively stable over time. As Askew et al. (2010) noted:

England regularly gets positioned towards the top of the group of second ranking

countries and its performance is fairly stable over time. It also needs to be noted that the

differences between countries’ performance are not that large and are usually statistically

insignificant. The horse race approach to the rankings produced by international studies –

looking to see which position England is placed in and whether or not it has moved up or

down the league tables – is not that meaningful partly because the absolute differences in

scores between countries are not that great and partly because the constituent group of

comparators changes from study to study and from year to year. Overall, and over time,

England’s performance is not that worrisome. However, the fact that some countries are

consistently ranked highly (Japan, Korea, and Singapore), and some occasionally

4 PISA is conducted on a three-yearly basis by the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and

Development (OECD). It is taken by 15-year-olds and includes the domains of reading, mathematical

and scientific literacy. The last full study, conducted in 2009, involved 65 countries and economies.

5 PIRLS is administered by the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational

Achievement (IEA) on a five-yearly cycle. It measures the literacy achievement of children aged 9‒10.

Approximately 48 countries and 9 benchmarking entities participated in the 2011 study.

6 TIMMS is administered by the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational

Achievement (IEA) on a four-yearly cycle. Participants are aged 9‒10 and 13‒14 and are tested in the

domains of mathematics and science. A total of 63 countries and 14 benchmarking entities

participated in the 2011 study.


Ofqual 2012 23

dramatically improve (Finland), makes a closer study of such countries worthy of

attention.

(Askew et al., 2010, p.9)

Despite this sound performance, the findings of such tests remain a great concern in

England (see, for example, Department for Education, 2010a; Eccles, 2010; Paton,

2010; Shepherd, 2010). But as outlined above, there are good reasons to view the

findings of such international tests critically (Oates, 2010), not least their role in

creating a “league table” view of education systems (Allais et al., 2008). A number of

factors may influence the outcomes of the studies and it cannot be assumed that the

findings provide a definitive answer about which learners are the highest performing

overall.

First, there is an assumption that the items tested for are somehow an objective

measure of what is best; secondly, that the learners undertaking the study are a

balanced representation of all learners at that stage of education; and also that

learners sampled in each country are equally motivated to perform well in the tests

(Askew et al., 2010).

Further, all international comparisons, this one included, are subject to the fact that

they can only offer a snapshot of one moment in time, which may have been affected

by factors in the past that no longer apply. For example, student performance in an

examination may be the result of curriculum developments undertaken and

subsequently abandoned, investment in education infrastructure some time in the

past, or other factors that are no longer in operation in the system being analysed.

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) notes that

“on their own, cross-sectional international comparisons such as PISA cannot identify

cause-and-effect relationships between certain factors and educational outcomes,

especially in relation to the classroom and the processes of teaching and learning

that take place there” (2011b, p.20).

Acknowledging some of the limitations highlighted above, we have used PISA 2009

results to assist with the identification of other high-performing education systems for

inclusion in this study.

1.5 Senior secondary assessment in England – A levels

The qualifications which form the comparator for this international comparability study

are the Advanced Level General Certificates of Education, popularly known as

A levels. Since its introduction in 1951, the A level has functioned as England’s

principal pre-university examination. A levels are available in over 45 subjects. The

average student will take three or four A levels at around age 18.


Ofqual 2012 24

To understand the developments that shaped the modern A level, we need to go

back some 200 years to the early 19th century. Changes in that century marked the

end of education geared heavily to social class and shaped the formation of the

modern education and examination system. One driver for this was the steady

growth in the number of universities offering degrees which opened up education to a

wider group of learners. In 1836 the University of London became the first to offer a

degree outside Oxford or Cambridge, and was followed by new “red brick”

universities in towns such as Manchester and Leeds. With these came a growth in

matriculation examinations to enable objective selection into these institutions

(Tattersall, 2007; Gillard, 2011).

As the 19th century progressed, schools looked to universities for guidance on

standards in order to better prepare their students for university. Universities

responded by establishing boards which provided syllabuses and examinations for

students to take in schools. The requirements were specific to the needs of particular

universities. Schools were free to pick their preferred board, though most went for a

local board. It is these regional examination boards which have evolved into today’s

national awarding organisations which offer the modern A level.

By the early 20th century, roughly 100 separate examinations existed, with each

major profession, as well as the university boards, setting its own conditions of entry.

Concerns about the comparability and limited currency of these highlighted a need

for a system of examinations in which equivalency could be ensured. This led to the

introduction of the Higher School Certificate (HSC) in 1917. This was intended to

replace the need for university-specific matriculation examinations, and allow entry

into professions. Existing university boards were invited to set, mark and certificate

the HSC under the jurisdiction of the Board of Education (Tattersall, 2007).

By the 1950s, aspects of the HSC were causing concern. It was clear that some

students were failing the broad qualification because of weakness in a single area.

This led to the introduction of the General Certificate of Education examination at

A level in 1951, an examination which could be taken on a subject-by-subject basis.

Initially the A level was graded as pass or fail, but by 1963 rising numbers of entrants

required greater differentiation of achievement. A nationally agreed grading scale

was introduced, awarded nominally on the basis of norm referencing7. This was

maintained until the mid-1980s when guidelines about what proportions should

achieve each grade were dropped. More recently, A level assessment changed

significantly with the reforms of Curriculum 2000. This led to all A levels changing to

7 However some authors note that awarding bodies were critical of this grading scheme and therefore

did not follow the norm referencing guidelines uniformly (Tattersall, 2007; Newton, 2011).


Ofqual 2012 25

being made up of two components, the AS and A2, assessed at two examination

sessions each year (Tattersall, 2007; Gillard, 2011).

On its introduction the A level was targeted only at the very top of the ability range.

However, it has been studied by an increasing number of students and is now taken

by over a third of the national cohort. Whilst there are other pre-university

examinations available (vocational qualifications, the International Baccalaureate and

Cambridge Pre-U, for example), A levels remain the principal tool of university

selection in England. During their time in office, the current UK government has

signalled their intention to reform A levels to make them the best that they can be.

This study will help to inform potential reforms by drawing on the international

evidence to learn from high-performing nations worldwide. To support this, we have

selected a range of education systems at different stages of their own reform

processes.

1.6 Methodology

As with all research programmes, comparability methodology is shaped by the

purpose of the study. As defined in section 2.1, this international comparison is being

undertaken for the purpose of assessing how the demand of qualifications at senior

secondary level in England matches up to the demand of comparable qualifications

available in a range of education systems worldwide. A second purpose is to identify

what can be learned from other comparable qualifications to strengthen the English

assessment system.

One of the most challenging aspects of such research is assessing the comparability

of assessments which differ in more ways than simply the difficulty or demand

(Newton, 2007a). In this research, we are benchmarking qualifications which can

differ greatly in their purpose, content, intended cohort and structure, amongst other

things. Any methodology therefore needed to be flexible enough to capture this

difference. To ensure that the findings of this study were not just constrained to one

area of the curriculum, four subjects were selected for inclusion. These were:

mathematics

English

chemistry

history.

This decision added significantly to the scale of the study, but was invaluable in

allowing general patterns to be identified from education system to education system.

These subjects were selected to give a good cross-section of disciplines which are

likely to have differing assessment styles.


Ofqual 2012 26

The approach we used was based on judgemental methods and has been developed

from our well-established Standards Over Time programme (see QCA, 2006; Ofqual,

2011). The underpinning analytical tools and forms were reworked to reflect the

greater diversity of qualifications under review. This approach also included a

mechanism for collecting contextual information on the international qualifications.

This was to ensure that judgements about qualification demand were not made in

isolation.

Judgemental methods

Judgemental methods require experienced subject and assessment experts to

examine syllabus and assessment materials and make judgements as to the demand

of comparable qualifications. These methods have been used since the earliest days

of comparability monitoring and are a mainstay of educational assessment research.

[W]hen investigating comparability of assessment, or of qualifications, we have focused

mainly on comparing them on the basis of i) the perceived demands (of the syllabus and

assessment material); and ii) the perceived quality of examinees’ work. Both perceived

demand and perceived quality might be thought of as higher-order attributes that are built

up from lower order ones. The definition of these attributes suggests that they be

investigated by methods that use the judgement of experts.

(Bramley, 2011)

Judgemental methods are particularly important when investigating demand. Pollitt

et al. (2007) explain:

There is no statistical indicator of demands, and no prospect of our developing objective

scales for assessing them. Instead we rely on the judgement of experienced

professionals.

(Pollitt et al., 2007, p.168)

By their very nature judgemental methods are rarely definitive. They represent the

contrasting views of a diverse group of experts taking into account their unique

professional experience and standing. Where consistent judgements are made,

however, results can clearly signal issues for the attention of policy-makers.

Priorities for investigation

In order to reach judgements on the demand of comparable qualifications at senior

secondary level in each of these subjects, there were three priorities for the analysis:

a consideration of the purpose of each qualification, including target students,

an indication of what is considered “success” in the qualification, pass rates,

and intended progression following successful completion of the qualification


Ofqual 2012 27

a review of the subject-specific materials for each qualification to establish and

make judgements around the nature of the subject matter covered – including

the topics and sub-topics covered, breadth versus depth of subject coverage,

number of optional routes within the subject and accessibility to the range of

students targeted by the qualification

an investigation of the subject-specific assessment instruments to make

judgements around issues such as level of demand, the quality of the question

papers and mark schemes and the match between the assessment

instrument/s and subject syllabus or specification.

The approach used to address these priorities can be split into three broad stages:

stage 1: desk research to identify suitable education systems and assessments,

and to gain the contextual information in which to ground any technical

comparisons

stage 2: review of subject-specific qualification and assessment materials

qualification level analysis

assessment level analysis

stage 3: synthesis and reporting.

Stage 1: Desk research and selection of education systems

In late 2010, we carried out detailed desk research to inform the selection of

education systems in the study. The aim was to identify education systems which

were both desirable to include in the study and had a comparable assessment or

qualification at senior secondary level.

Detailed profiles were produced for 26 education systems. These built up a picture of

the education system as a whole (structures, recent reforms, and so on), as well as a

profile of the relevant assessment at upper secondary level (purpose, target

students, progression and so on). We used these profiles in two ways:

to identify suitable education systems to invite to participate in the study

to provide the context in which to ground the judgements reached in this review

of qualification demand.

One criticism made of some international comparability studies is that they do not

sufficiently take into account the myriad of contextual factors which make up an

education system. This initial desk research aimed to build our understanding of

these contextual factors in order that we could qualify our judgements about

international assessments.


Ofqual 2012 28

Selection of education systems

Using the initial desk research, we invited 22 countries, states and provinces

(education systems), as well as Cambridge International Examinations (CIE) and the

International Baccalaureate Organisation (IBO) to take part in the study. We also

invited the awarding organisations with the highest number of English A level

students for each subject.

The education systems that we invited to cooperate in the study were selected in

order to:

include a full range of European Union, Commonwealth and other educational

systems representing a breadth of education traditions and economic structures

include educational systems where the primary language of tuition is not

English

include educational systems with universities rank highly in international

comparisons, based on the World University Rankings 2010 (Times Higher

Education, 2010) and Academic Ranking of World Universities 2010 (Shanghai

Ranking Consultancy, 2010)

take into account the findings of the 2009 PISA survey (OECD, 2010)

take into account educational systems which have the highest rates of learners

coming to the UK to study (Higher Education Statistics Agency, 2010)

include educational systems at different stages along the reform process.

Participating education systems

Of those that were invited, the following educational systems (with the included

assessments / qualifications) accepted:


Ofqual 2012 29

Australia: New South Wales Higher School Certificate, or HSC

Canada: Alberta Diploma

Denmark: Studentereksamen, or STX (Upper secondary school examination)

England: Advanced Level General Certificate of Education, or A level8

Finland: Ylioppilaskirjoitukset / Studentexamen (Matriculation Examination)

France: baccalauréat général

Hong Kong: the outgoing Hong Kong Advanced Level Examination, or HKALE; and

the incoming Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education, or HKDSE

International Baccalaureate Diploma, or IB Diploma (concentrating on Higher Level

subjects)

Netherlands: hoger algemeen voortgezet onderwijs, or havo (Higher General

Continued Education) and voorbereidend wetenschappelijk onderwijs, or vwo

(Preparatory Scientific Education)

New Zealand: National Certificate of Educational Achievement, or NCEA Level 3

Norway: Vitnemål fra den Videregående Skole, or Vitnemål (Certificate of Upper

Secondary Education)

People’s Republic of China: Gāokăo (National Higher Education Entrance

Examination)

Republic of Ireland: Leaving Certificate (Established)

Republic of Korea: Su-neung (College Scholastic Ability Test, or CSAT)

USA: the ACT

USA: New York State Regents Diploma

University of Cambridge International Examinations A levels, or Cambridge

International A levels

University of Cambridge International Examinations Pre-U Diploma, or Cambridge

Pre-U.

8 Specifications used: OCR Chemistry A; AQA English Literature B; Edexcel History, Mathematics and

Further Mathematics.


Ofqual 2012 30

All of the above qualifications are the main mechanism used by students to gain

entry to higher education in their respective system. However, they still differ in

purpose. Some are assessments (provided either by the state or by another

organisation) with the specific purpose of selecting students for higher education (for

example, a matriculation examination). Others are assessments of educational

achievement that in addition are used to identify students for higher education. There

is a further distinction within this second type of assessment between those that

include the subject area as part of a diploma or baccalaureate-style qualification with

one or more compulsory components and those that standalone.

Provision of assessment materials

All participating education systems were asked to contribute materials for each of the

four subjects9 under review – chemistry, English, history and mathematics.

Materials for chemistry, history and mathematics were collected and analysed for

each of the 19 qualifications. English was only included where it was one of the

national languages or main languages of tuition (12 qualifications).

We provided guidance to each education system on the types of materials usually

required in comparability exercises. These requested materials included:

qualification criteria – the official minimum requirements of a qualification

qualification structure – where a qualification is a baccalaureate / diploma

qualification

specifications – the detailed description of an individual qualification

syllabuses – the content studied as part of a qualification

grade descriptors – definitions of the standard students must achieve for

particular grades or scores

assessment grids – mapping of assessment materials back to the specification

or syllabus

question papers

mark schemes

9 In many of the partner qualifications included in this study, the completion of more than one subject

is necessary to achieve the qualification. In these cases, the focus of the review was on the specific

subject elements that form part of that qualification. For ease of reference whether the subject is an

entire qualification, or a part thereof, all elements of the study will be referred to as “subjects”.


Ofqual 2012 31

examiners’ reports – qualitative details and technical analysis of the

assessments carried out for a particular time period

grade boundaries – cut scores10 selected to differentiate between levels of

student achievement

grade distribution – number of students within each grade, and how they are

distributed at each mark between the boundaries.

Descriptions of each item were provided to our contact within each jurisdiction to

account for differences in assessment terminologies between systems. It became

apparent that the existence of such documentation varied from system to system so

the quantity of materials on which a judgement was based varied accordingly by

education system.

Another factor influencing the quality of the materials collected was the home

language of the participating jurisdiction. Materials were already available in English

for 12 of the education systems in the study. Seven education systems (Denmark,

Finland, France, Netherlands, Norway, the People’s Republic of China and Republic

of Korea) provided their materials in their home language, necessitating a large

translation exercise. Whilst careful checking of all translations took place, there is the

danger that some of the meaning in the original materials may have been lost or

changed slightly in their translated form. All qualifications which were analysed in

translation are flagged throughout the report.

As well as being asked to provide the assessment materials, all participating

education systems were invited to nominate an individual to join each subject panel

and take part in the analysis. Where such participants were provided, their insight

was invaluable both in interpreting the assessment materials and in adding context to

our understanding of a qualification.

Stage 2: Qualification and assessment level analysis

In order to reach judgements on the demand of comparable qualifications at senior

secondary level in each of these subjects, a framework with two elements was

identified:

qualification level factors such as assessment objectives, qualification content

and structure (such as breadth versus depth of study), what is assessed and

how, and the weighting of each component

10 A “cut score” is the minimum score a candidate has to achieve in order to get a given grade in a test

or an examination.


Ofqual 2012 32

assessment instrument level factors including the amount of factual recall as

opposed to analytical skills required to generate answers.

This framework is grounded in recent thinking and experience from projects in the

area of comparability (Newton et al., 2007; Ofqual, 2011 and takes into account the

methods used by comparative studies outside England (such as Black, 1992; Le

Métais, 2002; Newton, 2007b, Whetton et al., 2007; Allais et al., 2008; Askew et al.,

2010).

To gather judgements on these two elements, four panels of experts were convened

(one for each of the subjects in scope – chemistry, English, history and

mathematics). Each of these was led by an independent subject expert who is

familiar with our scrutiny and comparability studies. The panel memberships were

designed to represent a broad spectrum of stakeholders and to bring together a

range of different views (including those from higher education, learned societies,

subjects associations, awarding organisations and partner educational systems).

There were approximately ten members in each subject panel. Due to the different

nature of each of the subjects studied, the focus and composition of each panel was

very slightly different. A full list of reviewers can be found in Appendix 1.

The first interaction with subject experts began with our briefing of the four panel

leaders on 5th November 2010. This set out the aims of the study and was an

opportunity for these experienced reviewers to inform the development of the

analytical forms or frameworks to be used in the analysis of each subject. A second

briefing was then held with all panel members for each of the four subjects, to

standardise their approach and ensure their understanding of their role.

Subject experts were then allocated their specific subsets of qualifications for the

(individual) home-based analysis. In each panel at least four (but more usually five or

six) reviewers considered each set of subject-specific assessment materials from

participating educational systems, with every panel member analysing the A level

specification as a baseline for comparisons. Therefore, taking into account all four

subjects for a certain education system or qualification, approximately 16‒20

reviewers will have examined materials from each education system (or 12‒16 where

English is not a national language). Therefore, whilst we cannot say that these

judgements were definitive, a wide range of views on each education system was

collected.

Qualification level analysis

This strand of analysis required panels to consider what learners need to know and

be able to do to succeed in the assessment. It comprised:

a factual check of the content covered in the course, the assessment objectives,

types of assessment, how the content was assessed and how the answers


Ofqual 2012 33

were rewarded. It also comprised a fact check of different routes through the

qualification where students (or schools) are able to select options as well as

core content.

a comparison made between the above for each of the sets of assessment

materials reviewed and A levels.

Reviewers recorded their judgements on a series of bespoke forms that we produce

for such purposes. These were adapted where required to take into account any

requirements of the four subjects under review. These forms are:

A form

Factual analysis of specification or syllabus, question paper and mark scheme.

One of these forms was completed for each qualification by each panel

member.

B form

Comparisons: differences in demand between the sets of subject materials

reviewed against A level. In their comparisons subject experts were asked to

consider how a B grade student at A level would find the qualification and

assessment demand. One of these forms was completed for each qualification

by each panel member.

C form

Overall summary of key findings and ranking of qualification and assessment

demand. One of these forms was completed overall by each panel member.

Assessment level analysis

This second strand of analysis required the panels to make judgements on issues

such as the level of demand of assessment materials, the quality of the question

papers and mark schemes and the match between the assessment instrument/s and

the subject specification or syllabus.

Again, we provided the reviewers with a series of our forms and tools to guide their

judgements. These included our A, B and C forms as well as our Complexity,

Resources, Abstractness and Strategy (CRAS) form. The CRAS form was developed

for our predecessor organisation, QCA. Pollitt et al. (2007, pp. 185‒7) describe it as

being designed to capture the aspects of a question paper that lead to its demand

(see section 1.3 for further details). This CRAS analysis is used as a basis for

organising the thoughts of reviewers with regard to specific features at question, task

or question paper level.

Panel members were asked to undertake a CRAS analysis by rating the assessment

instruments and / or individual questions against a set of factors that are known to

affect the demand of questions and against the standard that would be expected of


Ofqual 2012 34

students prior to entrance to higher education. The ratings use a scale of 1 (below

the required level) to 4 (exceeding the required level) and cover:

the complexity of each component operation or idea and the links between them

(for example, simple operations versus synthesis or evaluation of operations)

the extent to which resources are provided (for example, “all and only the data

or information needed is given” versus “student must generate all the necessary

data or information”)

the extent to which the student deals with abstract ideas rather than concrete

objects of phenomena (for example, “avoids need for technical terms” versus

“requires use of technical terms”.

the extent to which the student devises (or selects) and maintains a strategy for

tackling and answering the question (for example, “no selection of information

required” versus “selecting from a large and complex pool of information”).

Some subject panels also chose to develop their own analytical tools at this stage of

the review. The chemistry panel, for example, developed a Question Paper Analysis

framework to assist with their mapping of demand, required skills and knowledge,

and question styles and formats. This framework was used on a question-by-

question basis for every assessment by each panel member. The intention was that

this would provide a clear and objective overview of the structure, form and nature of

question papers, alongside reviewers’ own judgements.

Stage 3: Synthesis and reporting

Once individual panel members had completed their qualification and assessment

level analysis, completed forms and tools were collated by the subject panel lead.

Leads analysed the findings and then synthesised these into a standard report

template. We then convened full panel meetings in the spring of 2011 to allow the

panels to discuss the conclusions drawn by lead reviewers. Once the four subject

reports had been composed, the four panel leads met us in May 2011 to consider the

common themes across the four subject areas.

It was the intention that this process should be completed once for this project. It was

actually completed twice due to the slightly later sign-up of four countries to the

study. France, Norway, the People’s Republic of China and the Republic of Korea all

signed up to the study once work on the qualification and assessment analysis was

already underway. It was decided to complete the first group of 15 qualifications as

planned, and then repeat the process on a smaller scale in order to include these

four new education systems.

After the analysis and report-writing for the first group of qualifications was

completed, a smaller panel was reconvened for chemistry, history and mathematics


Ofqual 2012 35

and the process was repeated with these additional four education systems. There

was no requirement to reconvene an English subject panel due to the fact that none

of these four additional education systems had English as a national language or a

language of teaching.

Analysis of these additional qualifications was completed during July and August

2011, and the findings were incorporated into the existing report for each subject. A

final subject panel briefing was held in August 2011, to confirm that all findings had

been synthesised appropriately.

The findings of this process are presented in sections 4‒7 of this report.


Ofqual 2012 36

2 Education systems

This study is not about education systems, but the subject of this study, senior

secondary assessment, exists either within the context of an education system or to

measure its outcomes in terms of student performance.

The nature of senior secondary assessment is therefore intrinsically linked with the

various ways in which countries, provinces, regions, states and independent

education providers organise the formal learning opportunities for their population.

The design or evolution of education systems is very specific to the local cultural,

economic, and political situation, resulting in a variety of systems operating

worldwide as noted by Cambridge Assessment:

the evidence from overseas requires careful understanding of the nature of the checks

and balances within those systems. Some nations such as Singapore, Hong Kong,

France and Finland operate a single board model. Conversely assessment in

Queensland, Norway and Sweden is highly devolved… The USA has no federal public

examinations system and is in the process of developing standards… Germany is in a

similar position, with school assessment operated on a regional state basis and is

developing overarching qualification criteria.

(Cambridge Assessment, 2011)

The OECD recognises the difficulties such a variety of approaches can cause and

has developed a detailed set of indicators with which to measure the current state of

education internationally, and to enable comparisons to be made between education

systems. These “indicators provide information on the human and financial resources

invested in education, on how education and learning systems operate and evolve,

and on the returns to educational investments” (OECD, 2011a, p.21).

Some understanding of the education systems within the jurisdictions participating in

this study will provide a context for comparison and relative judgement of the senior

secondary assessments they operate. These are outlined in sections 2.2 and 2.3 and

in Table 1 of the Full Report: Table Supplement.

2.1 Constituent parts of an education system

How students are assessed and what they are assessed in is a very important part of

an education system, but other considerations around the way in which opportunities

for school-based learning and achievement are organised within a system are also

important. The OECD identifies four actors in an education system: “individual

learners and teachers, instructional settings and learning environments, educational

service providers, and the education system as a whole” (OECD, 2011a, p.21).


Ofqual 2012 37

Although at the highest level most developed education systems appear very similar,

more detailed examination reveals that the variable interactions of these four actors

create and maintain very different systems.

The OECD expands on the above and describes six dimensions that each have an

influence on an educational system. These are economic development, teacher

quality, curriculum, instruction and assessment, work organisation, accountability,

and student inclusion; “progress along each of these dimensions can be made, at

least to some degree, independently of the others – but not without some penalties”

(OECD, 2011b, p.18).

All students must learn at high levelsThe best students must learn at high levels

Student inclusion

Primary accountability to peers and

stakeholders

Primary accountability to authorities

Accountability

Flat, collegialHierarchical, authoritarian

Work organisation

Complex skills, creativityBasic literary, rote learning

Curriculum, instruction and assessment

High level professional knowledge workersFew years more than lower secondary

Teacher quality

High value-added, high wageImpoverished, preindustrial low-wage

Economic development

All students must learn at high levelsThe best students must learn at high levels

Student inclusion

Primary accountability to peers and

stakeholders

Primary accountability to authorities

Accountability

Flat, collegialHierarchical, authoritarian

Work organisation

Complex skills, creativityBasic literary, rote learning

Curriculum, instruction and assessment

High level professional knowledge workersFew years more than lower secondary

Teacher quality

High value-added, high wageImpoverished, preindustrial low-wage

Economic development

(OECD, 2011b, p.17).

Other commentators have identified similar spectrums of factors which may affect the

outcomes of learners. For example, Oates cites 13 “control factors” which “exist in

complex relations and balances” (2010, p.13). These are:

1. curriculum content (national curriculum specifications, textbooks, support

materials, etc.)

2. assessment and qualifications

3. national framework – system shape (e.g. routes, classes of qualifications)

4. inspection

5. pedagogy

6. professional development (levels and nature of teacher expertise)

7. institutional development


Ofqual 2012 38

8. institutional forms and structures (e.g. size of schools, education phases)

9. allied social measures (such as that which links social care, health care and

education)

10. funding

11. governance (autonomy versus direct control)

12. accountability arrangements

13. selection and gate-keeping (e.g. university admissions requirements).

(Oates, 2010, p.13)

Most of the above factors are internal to the education system. There are also a

number of external factors which can exert influence over it, sitting outside the control

of a jurisdiction’s educationalists.

One such factor is the prevailing cultural attitude towards education, including

parental expectations and the role of education in society. Cultures based on the

Confucian tradition, for example, are recognised as placing a very high value on

education and students’ achievement in school. The link between cultural attitudes

(and parental expectation) and high achievement has been highlighted in a number

of studies (see OECD, 2011b). In particular, Askew et al. noted that “high attainment

may be much more closely linked to cultural values than to specific mathematics

teaching practices” (2010, p.12). Other external factors include the level of economic

development and wider policy issues such as funding.

The overall performance of an education system will depend on how these different

elements inter-relate. Indeed, Oates (2010) details the need for the control factors he

describes to be aligned in order to support a coherent education system.

However, education systems reach this alignment in a variety of ways, influenced

over time by a number of different factors, some or all of which may no longer be

evident, and therefore may often be overlooked.

Historically the influences have come from within society itself, often from the elite

group which exercised political control. For example, the legislation enacted in

Finland in 1686 to make literacy a requirement for marriage is widely credited as the

basis for the high importance education has in modern Finnish culture (Oates, 2010).

However, more recently, shifts in an education system have been influenced by

outside factors, including reference to what takes place in other parts of the world.

For example, in the early 1990s the Brazilian government recognised that the

existing model of having a highly educated elite, but over 75 per cent functional

illiteracy seriously restricted Brazil’s competitiveness in global markets, prompting

change to the system led by central agencies (OECD 2011b).


Ofqual 2012 39

In contrast to this, access to education for a very high proportion of the population of

the USA has been a feature for many years: 96 per cent by age enter upper

secondary (UNESCO, 2008) and 76 per cent by age graduate (OECD, 2011a). But

reform was still seen as important to address increasing concerns about the

achievement gap amongst different parts of the population, leading to cooperative

efforts by the federal and state governments to agree common curriculum content

and standards.

Another potentially significant driver in the alignment of education system dimensions

or control factors relates to financial constraints. For example, recent monitoring work

carried out by UNESCO during 2009 in response to concerns about the impact of the

global financial crisis identified that national education budgets were being

maintained or even increasing as a proportion of total national budgets in the face of

the global financial crisis, but many were decreasing in real terms with inevitable

impacts upon educational provision (Gwang-Chol Chang, 2010).

2.2 Education systems

The structures and other key features of the education systems included in this study

vary greatly. They differ in what proportion of young people progress into upper

secondary education, how this education is regulated and the assessments

administered. There are also very different models for how access to higher

education is controlled. A table outlining these and some other key features of the

education systems in this study is included in Table 1 in the Full Report Table

Supplement and is detailed country by country in section 2.3 below.

In England over 90 per cent of young people complete senior secondary education

with almost half of these gaining A level qualifications at the end of their studies.

There are similarly high levels of completion or graduation in Denmark, Finland,

France, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, the Republic of Ireland and the

Republic of Korea (OECD, 2011a).

This is in contrast to Hong Kong where just over half of young people complete

senior secondary education. Partly because of this relatively low completion rate, a

new education system is now being introduced with a new qualification replacing the

Hong Kong HKALE. The first cohort of students will complete the new HKDSE in

2012. The HKDSE has been designed to include and recognise both academic and

vocational courses for a broader range of students. As a result the current HKDSE

final year has over twice as many students as the previous HKALE annual cohort

(Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Education Bureau,

2012)

Hong Kong, with a population of 7.1 million, is typical of the size of population that a

single education system caters for, as reviewed in this study. The regulation and

administration of qualifications and examinations is most often held at national level,


Ofqual 2012 40

for example Denmark, New Zealand and the Republic of Ireland, who also each have

a population of around 4–7 million people. Some examples of this are presented in

Table A. Two out of the three systems included in the study that are administered at

a provincial or state level, Alberta and New South Wales, are also a similar size (the

exception being New York State with a population approaching 20 million).

Countries such as France and England (with populations of around 63 and 52 million

people respectively) are unusual in having single education systems that cater for

such large populations. In other large systems in this study (the Republic of Korea

and the People’s Republic of China) there is a combination of local and national

control. While it is the case that the examinations included in this study are national,

much control of the education system itself lies at a more local level. In the Republic

of Korea, many decisions are made by the seven municipal and nine provincial

district offices of education rather than by the central government (International

Review of Curriculum and Assessment Frameworks Internet Archive, 2010). In the

People’s Republic of China responsibility for aspects of the education system,

including text books, school examinations, finance and teaching are devolved to a

local level (OECD, 2011b, pp.85–98). The city of Shanghai is an example of one of

these local level units, and with a population of just over 20 million, the education

system caters for a similar size population as the New York State Education

Department.

Education system Control of

education system

Population Number of students

taking the

qualification

included in this

study

Alberta Provincial level 3.7 million 45,286

Denmark National level 5.5 million 51,178

New South Wales State level 7.1 million 68,409

New York State State level 19.5 million 224,744

England National level 52 million 250,000

France National level 63.1 million 328,467

Table A: Examples of population and qualification figures for education systems

included in this study

In most of the education systems there is a central organisation which administers

the senior secondary assessments considered by this report, although this may not

be under governmental control. In Denmark, for example, assessments are managed

directly for all students by the Ministry of Children and Education. In contrast the

Finnish universities provide the assessment materials offered by the independent

Matriculation Examination Board to all general studies students, whereas in Norway

the Ministry of Education and Research administers the assessments but students


Ofqual 2012 41

are selected to sit a maximum of five external examinations (including Norwegian)

from the nine or more subjects studied. The Republic of Ireland has the State

Examination Commission, while in England the requirements or criteria for A levels

and other qualifications are specified by Ofqual.

As regulator, we also monitor the A level providers to ensure standards are

maintained and the assessments are administered appropriately, but the course

content is designed and the assessments are administered by one of the five A level

providers.

Where the responsibility for education is at state, province or territorial level there are

often initiatives at national level as governments attempt to tackle recognised

differences in the achievement of students across the country. For example the

United States has high-profile federal campaigns such as the continuing “No Child

Left Behind” policy based on the 2001 Act, together with close cooperation between

all 50 states leading to the adoption of the “Common Core Standards” for

mathematics and English language arts. There is also the National Assessment of

Educational Progress (NAEP) programme which collates data on educational

achievement across the country. However there is currently no national programme

to assess student achievement and the administration of education is still largely

devolved to the school districts with schools encouraged to develop their own

courses which meet and expand upon the state requirements.

In 2008 the Australian national, state and territorial governments jointly introduced

the National Assessment Program – Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN) to all

Australian schools. The data from these assessments has been used to identify

successful schools as a potential source of good teaching practices which will be

shared nationally. Additional funding has also been provided by the national

government to support teacher development and additional resources in

disadvantaged schools (Garrett, 2012).

Almost all of the education systems in this study assess students in their final two

years of study which means most have completed 11 or more years of study before

taking their final assessments. New York State is the exception as the Regents

Diploma examinations can be taken from Grade 9 onwards. Each subject in the

Regents is designed to be taken in a particular grade (school year), therefore both

course content and assessment take into account the student’s age and the years of

study. This approach spreads the assessment load across the student’s senior high

school career, although very capable students may choose to complete their Regents

Diploma examinations early in order to concentrate on college preparations in the

last years of high school.


Ofqual 2012 42

The way in which education systems incorporate both academic and applied or

vocational subjects and the nature and content of the assessments offered is

covered in detail in section 3.

In England students study primarily academic subjects to the end of compulsory

schooling at age 16, although there are increasingly options for more practical

studies. Post-16 the A level courses provide the academic route taken by about

45 per cent of students. The remainder start work and / or training leading to a

vocational qualification. Choosing an equivalently demanding course of vocational

study does not exclude a student from university, and may be an advantage for

particular university degree courses.

By contrast, in the Netherlands a student’s choice of study route at the beginning of

secondary education determines their access to higher educational opportunities.

Some secondary schools allow flexibility in course choices up to the end of the first

year of study. There are two study programmes designed to prepare students for

degree-level studies, but a student in the technical programme (havo) who wishes to

apply for an academic university must complete a conversion course before they can

apply. Denmark has a similarly structured secondary education system.

What Denmark, England and the Netherlands do have in common with Finland,

France and Norway is that at some point in secondary education there is a clear

separation of academic and vocational study programmes and outcomes.

In New South Wales, New Zealand, and the Republic of Ireland the programme of

study can include both academic and vocational courses leading to the same overall

qualification. However, a student in the New York State can only graduate from high

school by obtaining the New York State Regents Diploma which requires them to

demonstrate sufficient academic achievement. This does not prevent students from

including vocational courses in their individual programme of study, but there is a

compulsory academic core. The approach in Alberta is similar although the education

system is less rigid about the time within which a student is expected to complete

their diploma examinations.

Very academically capable students in both New York State and Alberta are actively

encouraged to move through the school grades more quickly, enabling them to

achieve their diploma earlier than usually expected. Both Alberta and New York State

fund comprehensive college preparation programmes including use of commercially

provided study and assessment programmes.

In all the education systems included in this study success in the senior secondary

assessments increases, but may not guarantee, opportunities for continued studies.

In New Zealand a student must complete their senior secondary education with a

minimum level of achievement in order to be considered for university. Students in


Ofqual 2012 43

Canada and the USA aiming for top universities expect to complete high school and

then further college preparation before applying.

In Finland, passing the Matriculation Examination entitles a student to continue their

studies at a Finnish university. However, it is not so straightforward for students in the

People’s Republic of China and the Republic of Korea. In the Gāokăo (People’s

Republic of China) and CSAT (Republic of Korea) university entrance examinations

students are allocated a rank or score which can only be used in support of the

current year’s applications for university places. Students wishing to defer university

entrance must retake the series of assessments in the year they wish to enter

university.


Ofqual 2012 44

2.3 Education system profiles

In this section we outline some of the key features of the education systems included

in this study. This includes a brief outline of each education system as a whole with a

focus on the nature and context of the senior secondary assessments which allow

students to apply for university places. These profiles are supported by information

contained in Table 1 of the Table Supplement to this report.

Australia – New South Wales

Located in the southern hemisphere, Australia consists of the mainland of the

Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and a number of smaller islands in the

Indian and Pacific Oceans. Australia is a federal nation consisting of six states and

two territories and has a population of 21.9 million (Australian Bureau of Statistics,

2009).

Responsibility for education policy and provision is devolved to state and territory

legislatures although there is active cooperation with two key national agreements

reached in 2008:

Council of Australian Governments (COAG)

The Intergovernmental Agreement of Federal Financial Relations and the

National Education Agreement resulted in a common framework for reform to

education.

Ministerial Council on Education, Early Childhood Development and Youth

Affairs (MCEECDYA)

The Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians

outlined new national goals for schooling (Australian Government Department

of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations, 2010).

In addition, the Australian national curriculum in English, mathematics, science and

history for Kindergarten to Year 10 was published in 2011. A national senior

secondary curriculum and the Australian curriculum for languages, geography and

the arts are under development (Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting

Authority, 2011).

School education is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 16 (Years 1 to 10) and

comprises 13 years, including the non-compulsory preparatory year prior to Year 1

and senior secondary Years 11 and 12 (Australian Government, 2012).

The Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) provides guidelines for the Senior

Secondary Certificate of Education (local titles are used at state / territory level)

which is used to certify the completion of secondary education. Requirements for the

Senior Secondary Certificate of Education are set by statutory bodies for each state

or territory (AQF Advisory Board, 2007).


Ofqual 2012 45

At 7.1 million New South Wales (NSW) has the largest population of any Australian

state or territory and contains over a quarter of the Australian universities (Australian

Education Network, 2012). Two of these, the University of Sydney and the University

of New South Wales, are ranked amongst the best in the world (Times Higher

Education, 2010).

In NSW the Senior Secondary Certificate of Education is called the Higher School

Certificate (HSC) and is awarded by the Board of Studies NSW. The Office of the

Board of Studies NSW is the statutory body responsible for NSW curriculum

development, assessment of student performance (including the HSC) and the

registration and accreditation of non-government schools and home schooling (Board

of Studies NSW, 2012a).

After awarding the HSC, the Board of Studies NSW provides raw student HSC

scores to the University Admissions Centre for calculation of each individual’s

Australian Tertiary Admission Rank (ATAR), a rank which allows comparison of

students who have completed different HSC course combinations.

Almost 84 per cent of the labour force in NSW has completed Year 12 level

education (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2011) although individuals may not have

received the HSC, as alternative qualifications are available to reflect different

programmes of study and levels of achievement (AQF Advisory Board, 2007).

Whilst there is no overall OECD data available on upper secondary graduation rates,

data would indicate that for Australia as a whole, the graduation rate from a general

upper secondary education is 67 per cent and a vocational upper secondary

education is 44 per cent (OECD, 2011a).

University admissions

Australia does not have a central body responsible for administering admissions to

tertiary education, although there are organisations such as the Universities

Admissions Centre (UAC) and Queensland Tertiary Admissions Centre (QTAC)

which manage admissions for particular groups of institutions.

Completion of Year 12 evidenced by a suitable level of achievement in the Senior

Secondary Certificate of Education is acceptable for admission to an Australian

university, although specific courses do have particular subject requirements.

The ATAR can also be used for admission to some institutions as this rank allows the

comparison of students who have completed different combinations of senior

secondary subject courses. The ATAR is calculated solely for use by these

institutions to rank and select school leavers for admission to tertiary courses. Other

selection criteria may be used together with the ATAR (Universities Admissions

Centre, 2012).


Ofqual 2012 46

Single-subject courses of full-time study are typically two years for an associate

degree, three years for an ordinary degree and four years for honours. Joint-subject

courses can last up to seven years.

Canada ‒ Alberta

Canada is a federal nation in North America consisting of ten provinces and three

territories. Spanning over 9.9 million square kilometres, it is the world’s second-

largest country by total area and has a population of 34.1 million (Statistics Canada,

2010). There is no national ministry or department for education because the

provincial legislatures have exclusive powers concerning matters of a local nature,

including education policy and provision. Some national education organisations do

exist however;

In 1967 ministers of education from across Canada founded the Council of Ministers of

Education, Canada (CMEC) as an intergovernmental body to serve as:

a forum to discuss policy issues

a mechanism through which to undertake activities, projects and initiatives in areas of

mutual interest

a means by which to consult and cooperate with national education organisations and the

federal government

an instrument to represent the education interests of the provinces and territories

internationally.

(Council of Ministers of Education, Canada, 2012)

The ages for compulsory schooling vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Most require

attendance in school from age 6 to age 16, although in some provinces it may extend

to age 18 or until graduation from secondary school. All jurisdictions have some form

of pre-elementary (kindergarten) education, operated by the local education

authorities. Depending on the jurisdiction, “kindergarten may be compulsory and pre-

school classes may be available from age 4 or even earlier” (Council of Ministers of

Education, Canada, 2012).

Alberta is the fourth largest province by population (3.7 million; Statistics Canada,

2010) and contains over 10 per cent of Canada’s universities (Association of

Universities and Colleges of Canada, 2012). One of these, the University of Alberta,

is ranked amongst the best 200 in the world (Times Higher Education, 2010).

Alberta Education is the provincial government ministry for education. The ministry

“supports the needs of students, parents, teachers and administrators from Early

Childhood Services (ECS) through to Grade 12” and has responsibilities for

education and schools across the province (Government of Alberta, 2012a). These


Ofqual 2012 47

include defining the Alberta Diploma requirements which students must complete in

order to graduate from high school (Government of Alberta, 2012a).

Almost 77 per cent of the labour force in Alberta has completed Grade 12 level

education although individuals may not have received a high school diploma as

alternative qualifications are available to reflect different programmes of study and

levels of achievement (Statistics Canada, 2006). In 2009, 91 per cent of Albertans

aged 25‒34 reported they had completed high school (Government of Alberta,

2010a).

Whilst there is no directly comparable data, statistics from the OECD (2011a) indicate

a total first-time graduation rate from senior secondary education of 79 per cent for

Canada as a whole. For students aged under 25 years, this rate is 75 per cent. The

vast majority of this graduation is from general education which has a graduation rate

of 76 per cent, compared with 3 per cent for vocational education.


Canada does not have a central body responsible for administering admissions to

tertiary education. Institutions act independently by defining the level of achievement

(including completion of senior high school) they expect from applicants.

Although most universities have a range of entrance paths and requirements,

students typically enter at Bachelor level after successful completion of secondary

school or the two-year Collège d’enseignement général et professionnel (Cégep)

programme in Quebec. Bachelor degrees usually require three or four years of full-

time study, depending on the province and the nature of the programme (Council of

Ministers of Education, Canada, 2012).

Denmark

With a population of 5.5 million (Denmark.dk, 2012a), the Kingdom of Denmark is the

smallest of the Scandinavian countries and includes two autonomous provinces – the

Faroe Islands and Greenland (Denmark.dk, 2012b).

Education in Denmark is governed by government ministries and managed locally by

local authorities in cooperation with school boards. The Ministry of Children and

Education is responsible for early childhood education and care, primary and

secondary education and the Ministry of Science, Innovation and Higher Education is

responsible for higher education institutions (Ministry of Children and Education,

2012a).

In Denmark, students are required to complete ten years of education between the

ages of 6 and 16 (primary and lower secondary) with around 13 per cent of the

children taught outside the state school system in private independent schools

(Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark, 2009). There are 14 years of school


Ofqual 2012 48

education in total, including the non-compulsory additional lower secondary (Year 10)

and senior secondary (Years 11–13) (Eurypedia, 2011a).

Students in upper secondary education are usually aged between 16 and 19 (or 17 if

they have chosen to undertake the optional Year 10). Upper secondary education

takes between two and five years depending upon the route taken. There are four

different upper secondary education programmes in Denmark:

the traditional general upper secondary education offered in the Gymnasium

(senior secondary school): the Studentereksamen, or STX (Upper Secondary

School Examination) and the Højere Forberedelseseksamen, or HF (Higher

Preparatory Examination; Ministry of Children and Education, 2012b and 2012c)

the vocationally orientated general upper secondary education: Højere

Handelseksamen, or HHX (Higher Commercial Examination) and Højere

Teknisk Eksamen, or HTX (Higher Technical Examination; Ministry of Children

and Education, 2012d and 2012e).

Although the different programmes are offered in different institutions, the common

subject courses often have the same core curriculum and examinations (Ministry of

Children and Education, 2012f). The different programmes also have common

objectives, specifically to “prepare young people for higher education, and in that

connection ensure that they acquire general education, knowledge and competences

by means of the subjects they study and in the interaction between them” (Ministry of

Children and Education, 2012g).

According to OECD statistics, the total first-time graduation rate from upper

secondary education in Denmark is 85 per cent (75 per cent amongst those

aged25 years or under). The graduation rate from general programmes (55 per cent)

is slightly higher than for vocational programmes (47 per cent) in Denmark (OECD,

2011a).

Around 34 per cent of the working population in Denmark have completed higher

education (Statistics Denmark, 2011). The Danish government’s goal is that at least

50 per cent of a youth cohort are to have a higher education in 2015 (Ministry of

Children and Education, 2012h).


Admission to most courses of higher education in Denmark is managed through the

Koordinerede Tilmelding, or KOT (Coordinated Enrolment System). The general

admission requirement is the completion of one of the four courses of senior

secondary education, although particular courses do have specific requirements

(Ministry of Children and Education, 2011a).


Ofqual 2012 49

Single subject courses of full-time study are typically three years for a Bachelor

degree (University of Copenhagen, 2011).

Denmark has three of its universities ranked within the best 200 in the world. These

are the Technical University of Denmark, Aarhus University and the University of

Copenhagen (Times Higher Education, 2010).

England

England is one of the four nations of the UK. It is located to the west of continental

Europe and comprises the central and southern part of the island of Great Britain.

With a population of 52.2 million, it has 80 per cent of the population of the UK (Office

for National Statistics, 2011).

Following the devolution of responsibilities from the UK central government to

national governments, education policy for England is managed by the Department

for Education (DfE) supported by a number of governmental bodies. Local authorities

are generally responsible for the provision of state-sector schooling in accordance

with the DfE’s policies, although the DfE is now encouraging successful schools to

consider Academy status and independent groups to develop Free Schools. Both

Academy status schools and Free Schools receive public funding but operate outside

local authority controls.

School education is compulsory between the ages of 5 and 16 (Year 1 to Year 11). In

total it comprises 15 years, including the non-compulsory part-time nursery and full-

time Reception prior to Year 1 and senior secondary Years 12 and 13.

Qualifications commonly accepted for university entrance in England include

A levels, the International Baccalaureate Diploma and Cambridge International

A levels. Additional qualifications at level 3 (pre-university), for example the Diploma,

the Cambridge Pre-U and Extended Project have recently been developed. At

Ofqual, we regulate the assessments for qualifications available within state-funded

English schools and the various awarding organisations that develop and provide

them.

Senior secondary education in England includes a wide variety of courses from

academic subjects through to vocational courses equipping students directly for the

world of work, with 92 per cent of UK students completing some form of senior

secondary education (OECD, 2011a). Over 55 per cent of students go on to study at

universities, primarily in the UK (UNESCO, 2008). In 2009 over 360,000 UK-based

students began undergraduate university studies in England (Higher Education

Statistics Agency, 2011).


Ofqual 2012 50


Higher education is the responsibility of the Department for Business, Innovation and

Skills (BIS). Each university, and courses within them, may have their own particular

entry requirements, and offers of places are made on the basis of applicants meeting

specific conditions. One of these conditions usually relates to a minimum number of

Tariff points allocated by the Universities and Colleges Admissions Service (UCAS).

Applications to tertiary education across the UK, including English universities, are

managed by UCAS, and the tariff system allocates points to all the different

qualifications used for entry to higher education. This enables students to use a

range of qualifications to secure a place on an undergraduate course.

Whilst tariff points are often specified in entry requirements for higher education

institutions (HEIs), other factors may be taken into account, such as the quality of an

applicant’s personal statement and references (UCAS, 2012a). These conditional

offers are usually made based on Tariff points, actual qualification grades or a

combination of the two. According to UCAS, “in 2010, 54.6 per cent of all offers made

through UCAS used Tariff points or a combination of Tariff points and qualifications”

(UCAS, 2012b).

Single-subject courses of full-time study are typically two years for a foundation

degree and three years for an honours degree (UCAS, 2012c).

England has 24 universities ranked amongst the best 200 in the world. Of these four

are within the top 40 institutions globally: University of Cambridge, University of

Oxford, Imperial College London and University College London (Times Higher

Education, 2010).

Finland

Finland is a Scandinavian country located in northern Europe, with a population of

5.4 million (Statistics Finland, 2011). It became an independent republic following the

Russian revolution in 1917.

The Ministry of Education and Culture is responsible for publicly funded education in

Finland. It is accountable for “preparing educational legislation, all necessary

decisions and its share of the state budget for the government” (Eurydice, 2010). It is

supported in its work by several expert bodies, including the Finnish National Board

of Education which determines the national core curriculum.

The intention in Finland is that “pre-primary education, basic education and upper

secondary education and training, complemented by early childhood education and

before- and after-school activities, form a coherent learning pathway that supports

children's growth, development and well-being” (Eurydice, 2010). Starting at the age

of 7, students have to complete nine years of education (primary and lower

secondary), which is available in Finnish, Swedish, Sami, Roma and sign language.


Ofqual 2012 51

In all, there are 13 years of school education including the voluntary year of pre-

primary education and three years of upper secondary education.

Throughout education, national assessments are used to sample student

achievement, but individual student achievement is measured and certified by

schools (except for the Matriculation Examination described below).

Upper secondary education consists of general education leading to entry in the

Matriculation Examination, or vocational education and training which leads to

vocational qualifications and further and specialist qualifications.

In 2009 over 50 per cent of students completing compulsory education continued on

to upper secondary general education. Historically, most students in general

education at this level will attempt the Matriculation Examination (STX). Of these

students just under 20 per cent will continue into a university education, and just over

20 per cent will continue into technical and vocational studies, usually to degree

level. Students who study vocational subjects at senior secondary level also have the

opportunity to continue into degree-level studies (Statistics Finland, 2010a).

A total of 95 per cent of the Finnish population complete some kind of upper

secondary education (with a graduation rate of 84 per cent in the under-25s).

Graduation rates from vocational education (50 per cent) are slightly higher than

those for the competitive general programmes (47 per cent) (OECD, 2011a).Around

28 per cent of the working population in Finland have completed higher education

(Statistics Finland, undated).


Admission to ten of the universities in Finland is coordinated through University

Admissions Finland, although all institutions manage their own admission processes.

Students must provide evidence their senior secondary general or vocational

diploma, including the Matriculation Examination. Specific courses may also have

particular requirements (University Admissions Finland, 2012).

Single-subject courses of study are typically three to five years leading to a Bachelor

degree (Ministry of Education and Culture, 2012a).

One Finnish university (University of Helsinki) is ranked within the top 200

universities in the world (Times Higher Education, 2010).

France

France is a European republic with a population of 63.1 million (Institut national de la

statistique et des études économiques, 2011). It is the largest western European

country and consists of 22 metropolitan regions (including the island of Corsica) and

five overseas regions.


Ofqual 2012 52

France has a centralised system for education with responsibility for the content of

the instruction and examinations held by the Ministère Éducation Nationale Jeunesse

vie Associative (Ministry for Education, Youth and Community Life). However,

administrative responsibility for education at a regional level is undertaken through 28

regional academies, each of which is headed by a Recteur, who is a civil servant

appointed by the Ministry. Recteurs are required to implement national policy and

also to manage local education services (Ministère Éducation Nationale Jeunesse vie

Associative, 2011a).

The Ministry for Education, Youth and Community Life., is responsible for all

standardised testing, acting as the awarding organisation for national qualifications at

primary and secondary level. The Ministère de l’Éducation Nationale, de

l’Enseignement Supérieur et de la Recherche, or MENESR (Ministry for National

Education, Higher Education and Research) is responsible for higher education.

School education is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 16 (primary and lower

secondary education). In total it comprises 16 years, including the non-compulsory

pre-school education and two non-compulsory senior secondary years (première and

terminale) before students take the baccalauréat assessment at the end of their

senior secondary schooling.

Upper secondary education (lycée) consists of two cycles. The direct cycle (seconde)

is compulsory and the syllabus is similar for all students except for those who follow a

vocational programme. The final cycle lasts for two years and consists of the

première and terminale classes. Students must choose one of three general streams

or from seven technological streams or from the wide range of vocational

programmes.

Following the completion of the upper secondary education three qualifications are

awarded:

baccalauréat général (general baccalaureate)

baccalauréat technologique (technological baccalaureate)

baccalauréat professionnel (vocational baccalaureate).

To be awarded the qualification students must complete the academic programme

and then take the baccalauréat examination (Eurypedia, 2011b).

Whilst there are no overall graduation rates available, 50 per cent of the French

population have graduated from a general upper secondary education, with 62 per

cent completing a vocational programme at the equivalent level (OECD, 2011a).


Ofqual 2012 53

In 2011, 71.6 per cent of the French adult population had completed general

secondary education: 36.5 per cent with the general baccalaureate, 16.2 per cent

with the technological baccalaureate, and 18.9 per cent with the vocational

baccalaureate.


Higher education in France includes state-funded universities and the Grande École,

(Great School). Admission to the state-funded universities is open to any student who

has achieved a pass in their chosen baccalauréat. Applications are managed online

by MENESR (Ministère de l’Enseignement Supérieur et de la Recherche, 2012).

Admission to the Grande École is extremely competitive. Most students study for a

further two to three years in “classes préparatoires aux grandes écoles” (CPGE)

before taking the selection examination. This process is supported by the Ministry

(Ministère de l’Enseignement Supérieur et de la Recherche, 2011). Single-subject

courses of full-time study are typically three years to achieve the Licence, or honours

degree.

Four French universities are listed amongst the world’s top 200 universities. These

include École Polytechnique, École Normale Supérieure – Paris, École Normale

Supérieure (ENS) de Lyon and Pierre and Marie Curie University (Times Higher

Education, 2010).

Hong Kong

Hong Kong is a Special Administrative Region (SAR) of the People’s Republic of

China. Prior to 1997 Hong Kong was governed from the UK and the handover to

Chinese rule provided the opportunity for reform in a number of areas of government

including education. A city-state situated on China’s south coast, Hong Kong has a

population of 7.1 million (Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative

Region Census and Statistics Department, 2011).

Hong Kong maintains its own system of education under an Education Bureau (EDB)

which reports to the Hong Kong government (OECD, 2011b). An Education

Commission advises the Secretary for Education on the overall educational

objectives and policies. The Hong Kong education system is currently undergoing

significant reform. The Reform Proposals for the Education System in Hong Kong

were first submitted by the Education Commission (EC) to the Hong Kong

government in September 2000 (Education Commission, 2000). These proposals

included reforms to the curricula, assessment arrangements and changes to the

admission systems for the different stages of education. Many of these reforms are

already taking place, and the Hong Kong government is putting in place support

measures for schools and teachers to assist their smooth implementation. The scope

of the reform covers the curricula, the assessment mechanisms as well as the

admission systems for different stages of education. The government has published


Ofqual 2012 54

a timetable for implementing the reform measures. Support measures for schools

and teachers are being put in place to ensure that the reform can be implemented

smoothly (Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Education

Bureau, 2007).

From 2008, the government of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region changed

the policy of nine years’ free and compulsory education (which included the first three

years of secondary education) to 12 years’ free education. In total it now comprises

15 years, including the three non-compulsory kindergarten years prior to Primary P1

and senior secondary years S4 to S6 (Institute of International Education, 2012).

Students who started their secondary education before 2006 (prior to the reforms

being implemented), and decided to continue their academic studies after secondary

year S3 (age 15) would study for two years (senior secondary years S4 and S5) for

the Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination (HKCEE), which selected about

one third of the annual student cohort for the sixth form and then a further two years

(senior secondary years S6 and S7), before taking the Hong Kong Advanced Level

Examinations (HKALE) (Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority, 2008a

and 2011).

As a result of the recent reforms, all students who started their secondary education

from 2006 onwards are given the opportunity to continue until S6 and complete the

Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education (HKDSE). The first cohort of students

are due to complete their HKDSE in 2012 (Hong Kong Examinations and

Assessment Authority, 2012a). The HKALE, HKCEE and HKDSE are developed and

delivered by the Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (HKEAA).

Whilst there is no OECD data available on Hong Kong graduation rates from upper

secondary education, some figures are available from the Government of the Hong

Kong Special Administrative Region Census and Statistics Department (2010).

These show that 52 per cent of Hong Kong’s population above the school leaving

age have completed senior secondary education and around 35 per cent of these

went on to complete a degree course.


The Joint University Programmes Admissions System (JUPAS) is the central body

responsible for administering admissions to the eight publicly -funded universities in

Hong Kong; these include four universities considered to be amongst the best 200 in

the world: the University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong University of Science and

Technology, Hong Kong Baptist University and Hong Kong Polytechnic University

(Times Higher Education, 2010).

Once they receive their examination results students complete an application on

which they list in preference order up to 20 courses of study at the JUPAS


Ofqual 2012 55

participating institutions. Applications for each course are then ranked by merit by the

institution. JUPAS processes the course applicant merit order in combination with the

individual applicant’s preferences in order to identify the best possible offer for each

applicant (Joint University Programmes Admissions System, 2012a).

The year 2012 will be a double cohort year when the last cohort of students under

the old structure and the first cohort of students under the new structure will graduate

from upper secondary school in parallel. Nevertheless, the Education Bureau

announced in July 2006 that there will be double provision of university places for

students of the old and new systems (that is 15,150 for each cohort). There will be

no competition for university places between S7 students of the existing system and

S6 students of the new system (Education Bureau, 2012).

Each university sets the admission requirements for specific courses of study, but the

general entrance requirement (GER) is set by agreement between the University

Grants Committee (UGC) and of the Heads of Universities Committee (HUCOM)

(Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority, 2012a).

Post-HKALE courses of full-time study are typically three years for an honours

degree and post-HKDSE courses of full-time study are typically four years for an

honours degree (Joint University Programmes Admissions System, 2012b).

International Baccalaureate Organisation

The International Baccalaureate Organisation (IBO) is a not-for-profit educational

organisation, founded in Geneva, Switzerland in 1968. It was conceived as a single

programme for internationally mobile students preparing for university and has since

grown into three programmes for students aged 3 to 19.

The IBO works with 3,333 schools in 141 countries to offer the three IB programmes

to approximately 994,000 students aged 3 to 19 (figures provided by IBO, February

2012). These three programmes are: the Primary Years Programme (PYP), the

Middle Years Programme (MYP) and the Diploma Programme. The programmes can

be offered individually or as a continuum (International Baccalaureate Organisation,

2012a).


The IBO works with universities in nearly 140 countries to promote recognition of the

International Baccalaureate (IB) Diploma. The IB Diploma is now accepted by

universities around the world, including those in North America, the UK, Australia and

continental Europe. The majority of IB Diploma graduates enter higher education.

The latest statistics from the IBO suggest that 120,000 IB Diploma Programme

graduates enter university each year (International Baccalaureate Organisation,

2012b).


Ofqual 2012 56

The Universities and Colleges Admissions Service (UCAS) which manages

applications for courses at universities within the UK accepts both the IB Diploma

and the Diploma Programme Courses in support of applications. In addition, students

who register for an IB Diploma but do not achieve all elements or do not achieve the

pass mark of 24 points can gain Tariff points from their achievement in individual

courses of the IB Diploma. These include core requirements of: extended essay;

theory of knowledge (TOK) and creativity, action, service (CAS) (UCAS, 2012a).

Within the UK nearly 2 per cent of full-time degree entrants hold an IB Diploma

(figures provided by IBO, February 2012).

Netherlands

The Kingdom of the Netherlands consists of the Netherlands itself and six islands in

the Caribbean Sea: Aruba and the Netherlands Antilles (Dutch Embassy, 2012). The

Netherlands has a population of 16.7 million (Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek,

2011).

The Dutch education system combines a centralised education policy with

decentralised administration and management of schools. The involvement of the

provincial authorities mainly takes the form of statutory supervisory and judicial

duties, while the municipal authorities have certain statutory powers and

responsibilities towards both public and private schools. All schools receive funding

from the national government through the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science

and are subject to review by the Dutch Inspectorate of Education.

Full-time school education is compulsory from the age of 5 for at least 12 full years,

and is expected to continue until a basic educational qualification has been obtained

(Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap, 2012a).

After completing their primary education, students choose one of the available

secondary programmes based on the advice of their school and the outcomes of the

Primary School Leavers examination. The secondary programmes available are:

Voorbereidend wetenschappelijk onderwijs (vwo): a six-year programme of

study in preparation for university

Hoger algemeen voortgezet onderwijs (havo): a five-year programme of study in

preparation for higher education in technical subjects

Voorbereidend middelbaar beroepsonderwijs (vmbo): a four-year programme of

general secondary education intended to prepare students to enter the

workplace (with or without further training).

The havo and vwo qualifications have a common programme or primary phase for

the first three years of secondary school which allows students to delay the final


Ofqual 2012 57

choice of programme until they are about to enter the second phase of the

programmes in their fourth year of secondary school.

The programmes of study and examinations leading to vwo, havo and vmbo

qualifications are defined in regulations by the Minister of Education, Culture and

Science.

Whilst there are no overall graduation rates available, 39 per cent of the Dutch

population have graduated from a general upper secondary education, with 58 per

cent completing a vocational programme at the equivalent level (OECD, 2011a).

College Voor Examens (CVE) is an independent administrative body responsible for

national examinations in the Netherlands. It provides all the services of a national

examination board including publishing the examination syllabus and specifications in

accordance with the current regulations. The syllabus sets out in detail the topics

which will be examined in the national examinations.

CVE contracts the Central Institute for Test Development (Cito) to develop the

assessment materials and provide other services (College Voor Examens, 2012).

Cito was founded by the Dutch government in 1968 as one of the earliest national

institutes for education measurement, and became fully privatised in 1999. In

addition to developing the test materials used in the secondary havo, vmbo and vwo

national examinations, Cito also produce the Primary Leavers Examination (Cito,

2012).


University admissions and student grants are managed by the Dienst Uitvoering

Onderwijs (DUO), or Learning Implementation Service. Students who have obtained

the vwo are eligible to apply to universities to follow academic programmes of study;

those with the havo may apply for technical programmes or complete a further year

of study in order to qualify for academic programmes.

Some courses have specific requirements and may also have a proportion of places

allocated by the institution using their own selection processes. For centrally

administered admissions, where the number of eligible applicants exceeds the

number of places on a specific course, these are assigned at random.

Single-subject courses of full-time study after students complete the vwo are typically

three years for a Bachelor degree. Courses in technical subjects (for students with

havo qualifications) are typically two years for an Associate degree and four years for

a Bachelor degree (Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap, 2012b).


Ofqual 2012 58

The Netherlands has ten universities considered to be amongst the best 200 in the

world. These include Eindhoven University of Technology, Leiden University,

VU University Amsterdam and Utrecht University (Times Higher Education, 2010).

New Zealand

New Zealand is an island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean with a

population of 4.37 million (Statistics New Zealand, 2011).

The Ministry of Education in New Zealand is the central government agency

responsible for guiding the education sector to deliver New Zealand’s education

system. The aim is to equip all children in New Zealand with the knowledge, skills

and values to be successful citizens. The New Zealand Qualifications Authority

(NZQA) coordinates all qualifications in post-compulsory education and training. It

sets and reviews qualification standards, manages national examinations and

accredits post-secondary programmes (New Zealand Qualifications Authority,

2012a).

The education system in New Zealand is structured in three levels – early childhood

education, schooling, and tertiary education. All school education is free in the state

system, as is most early childhood education (New Zealand Ministry of Education,

2012a).

The majority of schools in New Zealand use English as the main language of

instruction. Some, however, use te reo Māori (the Maori language) as the principal

language of instruction. These schools are known as Kura kappa Māori (Maori-

language immersion schools) and Wharekura (secondary schools). Education in

these schools is based on Maori culture and values. Most kura kaupapa provide

education for students from Years 1 to 8, whilst wharekura cater for students up to

Year 13 (New Zealand Ministry of Education, 2012b).

In New Zealand education is compulsory for students aged between 6 and 16 years,

although the majority of students begin school at age 5. Primary school education

lasts for eight years and is for students aged 5 to 13. It covers Year 1 to Year 8 and

is compulsory. Primary education is offered by primary and intermediate schools.

Secondary education lasts for five years and is for students aged 13 to 18. It covers

Year 9 to Year 13. It is compulsory until age 16. Secondary education is offered by

secondary schools, high schools and colleges.

Post-compulsory upper secondary education lasts for three years in New Zealand. At

this level, students study towards National Certificate of Educational Achievement

(NCEA) qualifications. These are composite qualifications made up of credits gained

from a wide range of subjects, school curriculum learning areas and other

programmes.


Ofqual 2012 59

There are three levels of NCEA: 1, 2, and 3. Generally students complete level 1

standard subjects in Year 11, level 2 in Year 12 and level 3 in Year 13.

The NCEA system is administered by the NZQA. The NZQA are responsible for

managing the secondary school assessment system and quality assuring non-

university education providers. They also manage the New Zealand Qualifications

Framework (NZQF),

In total 90 per cent of the New Zealand population have completed some form of

upper secondary education (77 per cent of those aged 25 years and under). The

highest graduation rates are from general programmes (71 per cent), compared with

19 per cent from vocational programmes (OECD, 2011a).


There are eight universities in New Zealand, teaching approximately 182,000

students (part- and full-time) and employing around 19,500 staff. Of these providers,

the University of Auckland is listed amongst the top 200 universities in the world

(Times Higher Education, 2010). The Tertiary Education Commission has

responsibility for Higher Education. Approximately 40 per cent of universities’ annual

income comes from government grants. The remaining income is split evenly

between student fees and other sources such as principal research contracts and

trading income (Universities New Zealand, 2011a).

The common entrance standard in New Zealand (also known as the University

Entrance, or UE), or its equivalent, may be met in a number of ways. The main

qualification in New Zealand which meets the common entrance standard is a level 3

NCEA.

There is a range of other qualifications that are also deemed equivalent to the

common entrance standard, including the International Baccalaureate, and

Cambridge International A levels. Older qualifications that pre-date the NCEA can

also be considered (Universities New Zealand, 2011b).

Norway

Norway is a constitutional democracy in northern Europe with a population of

4.9 million (Statistics Norway, 2011).

In Norway, the Ministry of Education and Research has the overall responsibility for

all areas of education including pre-school provisions. The Ministry is supported by

county governors who form the links between the Ministry of Education and

Research and the Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training (an executive

subordinate agency for the Ministry) on the one hand, and the education sector in

municipalities and counties on the other (OECD, 2007). The municipalities “are

responsible for operating and administering primary and lower secondary schools,


Ofqual 2012 60

whereas the county authorities are responsible for upper secondary education and

training” (Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research, 2007).

School education is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 16 (Grades 1 to 10). In

total it comprises 19 years, including the non-compulsory kindergarten for 1- to 5-

year-olds prior to Grade 1 and three years in senior secondary. A parallel system

exists in Sami districts. Here separate curricula for primary and secondary education

in Sami has been developed in collaboration with the Sami parliament (the

Sameting).

Once students complete their basic education (primary and lower secondary stages),

they are entitled to attend upper secondary school (videregående skole) between the

ages of 16 and 19. The certificate of completion of this phase of education is known

as the Vitnemål fra den Videregående Skole (Certificate of Upper Secondary

Education), although the exact nature of the qualification gained varies depending on

the education programme taken. Upper secondary education and training is

organised in 12 different education programmes; three programmes for general

studies and nine vocational education programmes. Around half the students attend

the programmes for general studies, the other half attend the vocational education

programmes (Eurypedia, 2011c).

The general studies programme takes three years to complete. If successful students

gain the generell studiekompetanse (General University Admissions Certification),

which qualifies them to access higher education at undergraduate level. The

vocational programmes typically comprise two years in school education followed by

one year in service training in an enterprise. These programmes mainly lead to a

craft or journeyman’s certificate, usually after two years in school and a further two

years in service training in an enterprise. It is possible for students who have finished

their vocational education at Vg1 and Vg2 (the first two years of upper secondary

education) to take a year-long supplementary programme for General University

Admissions Certification in Vg3 class (Norwegian Ministry of Education and

Research, 2012).

A total of 91 per cent of the Norwegian population have completed some form of

upper secondary education (78 per cent of those aged 25 years and under). The

highest graduation rates are from general programmes (58 per cent), compared with

23 per cent from vocational programmes (OECD, 2011a).


The Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research made regulations in 2007 which

specify the qualifications necessary for admission to a Norwegian university, specific

course requirements and the ranking process which institutions must follow when

considering applicants (Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research, 2012b).


Ofqual 2012 61

The Norwegian Universities and Colleges Admission Service, NUCAS (Samordna

opptak) coordinates admission to regular undergraduate studies at all 48 of the

universities, university colleges, state colleges and private colleges in Norway.

The NUCAS admission system is primarily for applicants who have successfully

completed the general studies programme of the Vitnemål fra den Videregående

Skole or an appropriate combination of other Norwegian qualifications. NUCAS

allocates points for specific courses which have been completed; additional points

are added if students meet specific course requirements and also for performance in

an interview or other admission test.

Single-subject courses of full-time study are typically three years for a Bachelor

degree.

One Norwegian institution (the University of Bergen) is considered to be amongst the

best 200 universities in the world (Times Higher Education, 2010).

People’s Republic of China

Located in East Asia, the People’s Republic of China is the most populous state in

the world with a population of 1334.74 million (China Statistics Press, 2010). It

consists of four municipalities, five autonomous regions, two Special Administrative

Regions (SARs) and over 20 provinces. Education policy and provision is managed

by the Ministry of Education (MoE) through local government education committees.

The MoE is actively seeking to develop the provision of education across the

People’s Republic of China under the long-term education reform and development

plan (2010‒20). This is a wide-ranging programme which seeks to improve the

quality and provision of education across the whole of China (Ministry of Education,

2011) and includes international partnerships; for example the eChina‒UK eLearning

Programme currently being undertaken at Nottingham University (eChina‒UK

eLearning Programme, 2012).

School education comprises nine compulsory years, usually between the ages of 6

and 15 (Years 1 to 9) plus the non-compulsory preparatory year prior to Year 1 and

upper secondary academic and vocational options.

This upper secondary phase represents three years of post-compulsory education

and is for students aged between 15 and 18. Students may participate in the upper

secondary phase at general (academic), vocational or technical senior secondary

schools. Students are selected from lower secondary schools by way of locally

administered entrance examinations.

Once they have completed the upper secondary phase, students may choose to take

the Gāokăo, or National Higher Education Entrance Examination. High scores in this

examination facilitate entry to university. The total first-time graduation rate from


Ofqual 2012 62

senior secondary education in China is 65 per cent (OECD, 2011a). At 38 per cent,

the graduation rate from general programmes is slightly lower than from vocational

programmes (45 per cent).

The National Education Examinations Authority (NEEA) of the People’s Republic of

China (including the State Office of the Self-taught Higher Education Examinations

and the Office of the Self-taught Higher Education Examinations of the Ministry of

Education), reports to the Ministry of Education (MoE). It is appointed by the MoE to

“exclusively undertake educational examinations and to practise some administrative

authority” (National Education Examinations Authority, 2012). The NEEA was

founded in 1987. In 1994 it was merged with the State Office of the Self-taught higher

education examinations and the Office of the Self-taught higher education

examinations of the Ministry of Education (National Education Examination Authority,

2012a).

The NEEA is the awarding organisation for the Gāokăo (or National Higher Education

Entrance Examination), which it manages through local examination authorities.


Admission depends primarily upon taking the annual Gāokăo administered by the

NEEA (National Education Examination Authority, 2012a). Colleges may set different

score requirements for different cities and regions. Exceptionally talented students

may be excused the examination and recruited directly by university departments.

An Associate degree course is typically two to three years while a Bachelor degree

course is four to five years (CUCAS, 2012).

Six of the universities in the People’s Republic of China are ranked amongst the best

200 in the world. Of these Peking University, University of Science and Technology

of China, and Tsinghua University all rank within the top 60 internationally (Times

Higher Education, 2010).

Republic of Ireland

The Republic of Ireland is a sovereign state in north-western Europe with a

population of 4.6 million (Central Statistics Office Ireland, 2011).

The Department of Education and Skills has overall responsibility for education in the

Republic of Ireland. The department is advised by the National Council for

Curriculum and Assessment (NCCA). The NCCA’s role is “to lead developments in

curriculum and assessment and to support the implementation of changes resulting

from this work” (National Council for Curriculum and Assessment, 2007).

The Irish education system is structured into three levels: primary (lasting eight

years), secondary (lasting five or six years) and higher education (including


Ofqual 2012 63

undergraduate and post-graduate degrees, post-secondary courses, and vocational

and technical training).

Education is considered a fundamental right under the Irish constitution and is free in

most schools (as is undergraduate third level). Full-time education is compulsory

from the age of 6 to 15 (Education in Ireland, 2011a).

In the senior cycle of secondary education, students (aged 15‒18) may choose one

of three Leaving Certificate programmes. The most popular is The Leaving Certificate

(Established). Students take at least five subjects including Irish. Access to third-level

courses is dependent on the results achieved on this programme. The other two

options are The Leaving Certificate Vocational programme (similar to The Leaving

Certificate (Established) but with a vocational element) and The Leaving Certificate

Applied (a two-year programme with a strong vocational emphasis) (Education in

Ireland, 2011b). The State Examination Commission (SEC) acts as the awarding

organisation for the Leaving Certificate. It is responsible for the qualification’s

development, assessment, accreditation and certification (Department of Education

and Skills, 2012).

In Ireland, 91 per cent of the population have completed some form of upper

secondary education (90 per cent of those aged 25 years and under). The highest

graduation rates are from general programmes (68 per cent), compared with 48 per

cent from vocational programmes (OECD, 2011a).


There are seven universities in Ireland (Education in Ireland, 2011c). Trinity College

Dublin and University College Dublin are both ranked amongst the top 200

universities in the world (Times Higher Education, 2010). Applications to these and

other higher education institutes in Ireland are managed centrally by the Central

Applications Office (CAO) (Central Applications Office, 2011).

A number of qualifications can be used to gain entry to higher education, including

the Irish Leaving Certificate Examination, Further Education and Training Awards

Council (FETAC) ) qualifications and GC(S)E Examinations (England, Wales and

Northern Ireland qualifications) (Central Applications Office, 2011).

Students who have taken Leaving Certificate examinations gain points for the results

they achieved in their six best subjects. The points are allocated based on the grade

that they achieved in these subjects.

The number of points required for entry to any course depends on the number of

places and the number of applicants for those places. Entry requirements therefore

fluctuate from year to year. In general, a minimum of C3 is required in English,

mathematics and Irish (Courses.ie, 2006).


Ofqual 2012 64

In 2010, the CAO received 78,199 applications to higher education. Of these, 45,623

were accepted (44.5 per cent at universities, 55.5 per cent at other higher education

institutes) (Central Applications Office, 2010).

In 2012 a four-year pilot scheme will begin. The seven universities, Dublin Institute of

Technology and the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland will allocate extra bonus

points for Higher level mathematics.

Republic of Korea

The Republic of Korea (also known as South Korea) occupies the southern half of

the Korean peninsula situated on the Pacific coast of East Asia. It has a population of

48 million (UNESCO Institute of Statistics, 2012).

The national Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MEST) is responsible

for school education, vocational education and lifelong learning. The Ministry

delegates a number of its functions to a local level. Many budgetary and

administrative decisions in particular are passed to the seven municipal and nine

provincial district offices of education, known as Municipal and Provincial Education

Authorities (MPEAs) and Metropolitan and Provincial Offices of Education (MPOEs)

(International Review of Curriculum and Assessment Frameworks Internet Archive,

2010).

Education in the Republic of Korea is compulsory for nine years from age 6 to 15.

Middle school became free and compulsory across the country in 1985.

Post-compulsory upper secondary education is taken by students aged 15‒18 years.

Most students take the general academic route (including the specialist high schools

for gifted students). There is also a vocational route leading to a Vocational High

School Diploma.

There is a mixture of assessment types used during secondary (high school)

education:

entrance examinations

SATs (annual national Scholastic Achievement Tests)

Su-neung (College Scholastic Ability Tests, or CSATS) in the main areas of

Korean language, mathematics, foreign language (English), science, social

studies and second foreign languages / Chinese characters and classics; all are

optional (students select subjects required by the colleges they wish to attend)

continuous teacher assessment.


Ofqual 2012 65

According to OECD statistics, the total first-time graduation rate from upper

secondary education in the Republic of Korea is 89 per cent. The graduation rate

from general programmes (66 per cent) is higher than for vocational programmes

(23 per cent) in the Republic of Korea (OECD, 2011a).

The main entrance qualification for higher education is the College Scholastic Ability

Test (CSAT). This is designed to measure the student’s scholastic ability required for

college education. The CSATs are developed and administered by the Korea

Institute for Curriculum and Evaluation (KICE) (Korea Institute for Curriculum and

Evaluation, 2012a).

KICE is a government-funded educational research institute, established in 1998. Its

educational research activities include research into curriculum and assessment,

improvement of teaching and learning methods and the development of textbooks

(Korea Institute for Curriculum and Evaluation, 2012a).


There are seven types of higher education institutions in the Republic of Korea.

These are: colleges and universities, industrial universities, universities of education,

junior colleges, broadcast and correspondence universities, technical colleges, and

other miscellaneous institutions. Courses typically last for four to six years.

There is no central office for university applications; students apply directly to the

university they wish to attend (Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, 2012).

Universities judge applicants based on a range of factors including: students’ high

school records, their CSATs results and their involvement in any extra-curricular

activities. Some universities also use essays, interviews and practical skills tests to

screen students. Originally universities were mandated to give more than 40 per cent

weighting to high school records when considering students for entry. This is no

longer compulsory and universities may now vary the importance they attach to any

of their entry criteria (International Review of Curriculum and Assessment

Frameworks Internet Archive, 2008).

Four of the universities in the Republic of Korea (Seoul National University, Korea

Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Yonsei University and Pohang

University of Science and Technology) currently rank amongst the world’s top 200

universities (Times Higher Education, 2010).

United States of America (New York State and the ACT)

The USA is a federal republic with a population of 313 million (US Census Bureau,

Population Division, 2011). The country is situated mostly in central North America

and consists of 51 administrative divisions (50 states and one district) with 14

dependent areas (Central Intelligence Agency, 2011). The US Department of

Education is the agency of the federal government that “establishes policy for,


Ofqual 2012 66

administers and coordinates most federal assistance to education” (US Department

of Education, 2010). The responsibility for education policy and provision is devolved

through state legislatures to the 14,000 school districts and their 125,000 public and

private schools.

Each state operates an independent education system which can include specialist

and technical schooling as well as charter and private schools. Students may also

complete a college readiness test, which is not state specific, in their final year of

secondary school to assist in gaining a place in further education. The ages of

compulsory school education vary between states but students usually start Grade 1

at age 6 and must stay in school until the age of 16 or older. However, there are a

number of initiatives to coordinate and improve educational standards across the

whole country.

According to OECD statistics, 76 per cent of the US population have completed

some form of upper secondary education (76 per cent of those aged 25 years and

under) (OECD, 2011a). President Obama has established this as a key area for

progress, setting a goal that, by 2020, the USA will have the highest proportion of

college graduates in the world.

In April 2009, governors and state commissioners from across the USA signed up to

a state-led process to develop a common core of state standards in English language

arts (ELA) and mathematics from Kindergarten to Grade 12. One of the main goals

was to develop a “common core of standards that are internationally benchmarked,

aligned with work and post-secondary education expectations, and inclusive of the

higher order skills that students need” (New York State Education Department,

2011a).

The Common Core State Standards (CCSS) for mathematics and English language

arts and literacy in history / social studies, science and technical subjects were

published in June 2010. States began to implement them immediately, many as part

of their commitment to the federal “Race to the Top” reforms (National Governors

Association, 2009). In this study we have looked at assessment materials from New

York State. New York State is the third largest by population, with 19.5 million

residents (US Census Bureau, Population Division, 2011).

The Board of Regents is responsible for the supervision of education in New York

State, including presiding over the University of the State of New York and the New

York State Education Department. The Board comprises 17 members elected by the

state legislature for five-year terms: one from each of the State’s 13 judicial districts

and four members who serve at large.

It is the school districts which are responsible for developing curricula. They must do

this based on the New York State learning standards. These set out what all students


Ofqual 2012 67

should know and be able to do as a result of skilled instruction. Within each of the

state’s school districts, young people from the age of 6 to 16 must attend full-time

education. The Regents examinations are the end of course examinations in New

York State and are aligned with New York State learning standards. These

examinations may be taken by students from 8th to 12th Grade depending on their

progress through the course. If students obtain passing scores in Regents

examinations in English, mathematics and social studies, they are awarded the

Regents Diploma.


The USA does not have a centralised body responsible for administering admissions

to tertiary education. Institutions act independently to select students and may use

interviews and admissions testing. There are over 3,800 institutions offering two-year

associate degrees or certificates or four-year Bachelor degrees of which almost

1,700 accept all applicants who graduated from high school (primarily on to two-year

courses). Of these institutions, 72 are listed as being amongst the top 200

universities in the world. Indeed, the top five in this ranking are all US universities:

Harvard University, California Institute of Technology, Massachusetts Institute of

Technology, Stanford University and Princeton University (Times Higher Education,

2010).

In addition to graduating from high school by fulfilling their home state’s requirements

for the completion of senior secondary education, a student can also choose to take

college readiness tests, for example the SAT (College Board, 2010a) and the ACT

(ACT, 2010b) in support of their applications. Some schools also offer recognised

study programmes such as the College Board’s Advanced Placement (AP)

programme, which includes nationally recognised subject assessments (College

Board, 2010b). Almost 1,800 institutions offer credit for AP because the course

content overlaps with their first-year course content.

Over 3 million students graduated from high school in the USA in 2009 (Stillwell et

al., 2011).

University of Cambridge International Examinations

University of Cambridge International Examinations (CIE) is part of the not-for-profit

organisation Cambridge Assessment. Cambridge Assessment was formed in 1858

by the University of Cambridge (University of Cambridge International Examinations,

2012a). It is now the world’s largest provider of international education programmes

and qualification for 5‒19 year olds (University of Cambridge International

Examinations, 2012d).

CIE provides a range of programmes and qualifications for primary, secondary and

pre-university schooling as well as the Cambridge Professional Development

qualifications for teachers.


Ofqual 2012 68

Across the world, more than 9,000 schools offer CIE programmes and qualifications.

Programmes are available in 160 countries across the Americas, Asia Pacific,

Europe, the Middle East and North Africa, South Asia and Southern Africa.

At upper secondary level, CIE provides AS and A level qualifications. These are

taken in over 125 countries worldwide. In some of these countries (such as

Singapore), CIE examinations are the main state qualification for students in

secondary education (University of Cambridge International Examinations, 2012b).


CIE qualifications are recognised by universities in many different parts of the world

(University of Cambridge International Examinations, 2012c). For example, UCAS,

which manages applications for courses at universities within the UK, accepts both

the Cambridge International AS and A levels, and the Cambridge Pre-U in support of

applications (UCAS, 2012a).


Ofqual 2012 69

3 Descriptions of qualifications and assessments

Within the education systems outlined above this study focuses upon senior

secondary assessments, in particular those in which a satisfactory result is accepted

in support of an application for a place on a degree course at a university-level

institution.

The qualifications and assessments in this study are either specifically university

entrance examinations or have a more general purpose in recognising the

completion of a course of upper secondary study. Those with the more general

purpose can be divided further between specific stand-alone qualifications and those

which form part of a composite certificate of achievement (such as a diploma).

Table 2 in the Full Report Table Supplement summarises some key features from the

qualifications and assessments included in this study.

There are differences in the number of subjects studied as part of each qualification

or assessment at senior secondary level. A level students typically study the fewest

subjects at around three to four. In contrast, students in Denmark, Finland and

New York State study at least 10 subjects. Whilst the guided learning hours for each

qualification are not available in a comparable format, it is evident that as the number

of subjects studied increases, the time spent on each is necessarily reduced.

Of the qualifications included in this study, A levels in England, the New Zealand

NCEA and the two CIE qualifications are the only assessments for which there are

no compulsory subjects. The number of compulsory subjects varies widely from one

in New South Wales and the Republic of Ireland (English and Irish respectively) to 13

in Denmark. An indication of this range is demonstrated in Table B.


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Typical

number of

subjects

studied

Qualifications and examinations Number of

compulsory

subjects

Compulsory

mathematics

element?

3 or 4 England: A levels 0

3 or 4 Cambridge International A levels 0

4 USA: the ACT* 4

5 Australia: New South Wales HSC 1

5 Hong Kong: HKALE (outgoing

qualification)

2

5 Republic of Korea: CSAT 5

5 Cambridge International Pre-U

Diploma+#

2

5 plus Republic of Ireland: Leaving

Certificate (Established)

1

5 or 6 New Zealand NCEA Level 3 0

6 People’s Republic of China: Gāokăo* 3

7 Canada: Alberta Diploma 6

7 IB Diploma# 6^

8 Hong Kong: HKDSE (incoming

qualification)

4

8 or 9 Netherlands: havo 7

9 or 10 Netherlands: vwo 9

9 or 10 Norway: Vitnemål 9

9 to 12 France: baccalauréat général# 9

10 Finland: Matriculation Examination 4

10 USA: New York State Regents

Diploma

10

13 plus Denmark: STX 13 # number of compulsory subjects include an independent research project or portfolio

submission which may cross over traditional ‘subject’ boundaries.

* assessment is independent of the school syllabus

+ students can gain Cambridge International Pre-U qualifications on a subject by

subject basis, however, to gain the Cambridge International Pre-U Diploma they must

take three subjects along with a mandatory independent research report and global

perspectives portfolio.

^ This total excludes the theory of knowledge and extended essay.

Table B: Examples of the balance of compulsory subjects and total subject areas

covered by qualifications included in this study


Ofqual 2012 71

There are differences in the level to which the compulsory language must be studied

and there is a wide range of approaches from the functional use of English in Hong

Kong through to the more comprehensive language acquisition in the IB Diploma

which includes the study of literature and culture.

In several education systems both teaching and assessment are offered in more than

one language, recognising the cultural heritage of the country’s population. The

curriculum in New Zealand has been developed jointly in English and te reo Māori

(the Maori language) to meet the needs of all students. Similarly in Finland education

is provided in the official languages of Finnish and Swedish, and the significant

minority language of the Sami peoples. Finland also recognises mother tongue

languages including Roma and Finnish sign language.

In all systems with more than two compulsory subjects, for example, Alberta, Finland

and France, mathematics is compulsory. Where it does not feature in the senior

secondary assessments, students are expected to have studied mathematics in

lower secondary school.

The way that students gain their qualification, or are graded as part of their studies,

varies widely. For example, in New York State and New Zealand there is a threshold

of a certain number of “credits” that have to be achieved before students become

eligible to gain the qualification.

Beyond the distinction of gaining or not gaining the qualification, there are different

ways that student performance is described, or graded. These take essentially three

forms: those based on performance descriptors (for example A levels and both the

HKALE and HKDSE in Hong Kong), those based on a percentage of marks achieved

in the qualification (for example the Republic of Ireland Leaving Certificate), and

those based on norm referencing (for example the Finland Matriculation Examination

and Republic of Korea CSAT). Grades are usually described in a numerical scale,

and there is a wide range of bands of performance, from six in A levels and the HSC

in New South Wales, to 13 in the Republic of Ireland, as Table C below

demonstrates.


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Education system:

qualification

Number of grades

(excluding any for

no grade given)

How they are described

Australia: New South

Wales HSC

6 Performance bands: 1−6 with 6 being

the highest

Band 2 is the minimum standard

expected.

England: A levels 6 Grades: A*−E with A* being the

highest

Below E grade is a fail.

Norway: Vitnemål 6 Grades: 1−6 with 6 being the highest

A grade of 2 is considered a pass.

Republic of Korea:

CSAT

9 Stanine scores: 1−9 with 1 being the

highest

Republic of Ireland:

Leaving Certificate

(Established)

13 Grades: A1−F with A1 being the

highest

Table C: Examples of grading structures of some of the qualifications analysed in this

study

In the Alberta Diploma, grades are not used. Instead, results are displayed as a

percentage, and 50 per cent is considered a pass. A student gaining a percentage

lower than this would not receive credit towards their diploma.

None of the qualifications we looked at included a ranking of a student against all

others. However, the scores provided by examinations such as the People’s Republic

of China Gāokăo, the Republic of Korea CSAT and the USA ACT play a similar role.

The specific purpose of the Gāokăo, the CSAT and the ACT is to provide a score for

students to inform their selection for degree-level courses. The Gāokăo and the

CSAT are compulsory for any students applying to universities in the People’s

Republic of China and the Republic of Korea respectively. However many higher

education institutions do consider each student’s high school achievement record in

addition to their test score. These two assessments are unlike all others considered

by this study in that the results are only valid for university applications in the current

year. Students who defer their applications or wish to delay taking up a place on a

degree course have to retake the assessments.

The ACT is one of a number of commercially provided tests accepted by universities

in support of student applications. The ACT specifically assesses college readiness

in terms of the student’s ability to process information and solve problems rather than

testing subject knowledge. The remainder of the assessments in this study all include

tests of subject knowledge.


Ofqual 2012 73

The Gāokăo and the ACT operate separately from the programmes of study provided

by schools. The ACT organisation carries out considerable research to ensure that

the subject content of its assessments will reflect the taught syllabus across all the

United States. In contrast, the National Education Examinations Authority (NEEA)

produces syllabus documents for the Gāokăo, defining the specific subject content

that the tests will cover.

The other university entrance qualification included in the study is the Finland

Matriculation Examination. However this assessment has evolved from its origins as

an entrance examination for Helsinki University to providing the final assessment of

all Finnish senior secondary school students in the academic or general studies

programme. Therefore, although the Finnish Matriculation Examination Board is

independent from the Ministry of Education and Culture the examination is designed

to assess the school syllabus content.

In addition to Finland, senior secondary education in Denmark, England, France, the

Netherlands, Norway and the Republic of Ireland provides distinct programmes of

study for academic or general studies and for vocational studies. The assessments

or qualifications included in this study from these countries are those which are

recognised for university admission, generally those with academic content. This

includes the Netherlands havo, described as a vocational study programme, but

actually designed to prepare students for degree-level studies in technical and

applied subjects.

Other distinctly academic qualifications included in this study are the HKALE, the IB

Diploma, Cambridge International A levels and the Cambridge Pre-U Diploma. The

systems which offer these assessments do not provide equivalent vocational

programmes of study and although these are not exclusively university entrance

examinations they do set out to prepare students for further study at degree level.

In other education systems, the completion of senior secondary school is recognised

by a certificate or diploma which records student achievement across a range of

possible subjects including both academic and applied or vocational courses. For

example in New South Wales a student achieves their HSC by passing HSC courses

in five subjects including English, but this can include applied or vocational courses.

The new HKDSE qualification, which will be completed by the first cohort of students

in 2012, includes a considerable range of applied learning subjects, while in New

Zealand students can complete courses at different levels within their NCEA although

they do need sufficient credits at NCEA Level 3 to apply for degree-level studies.

To obtain their diploma in Alberta and New York State students must pass

examinations in a specific selection of academic subjects but both education systems


Ofqual 2012 74

do include vocational courses, and these contribute to the school-assessed element

of high school graduation.

Alberta and New York State are also distinct in their provision of additional study

resources for students intending to apply for degree-level studies. Both education

systems actively encourage those who are academically capable to complete their

diploma ahead of the expected age and offer college preparation courses leading to

qualifications which provide additional support to applications for degree-level

studies.

In all cases except for the Netherlands, senior secondary education is not

compulsory. Almost all assessments are usually taken after 12 years of schooling,

although in England and Norway it is 13 years and in Alberta up to 14 years.

Additionally in the People’s Republic of China and the Republic of Korea students

may complete senior school and then follow extra study courses before taking the

assessments. Most students tackle their senior secondary assessments at about

18 years old. Havo students are the youngest at about 17 and those in Finland and

Norway are the oldest, at about 19.

Although students complete their studies at similar ages there are some differences

in the length of the programmes they follow, as illustrated in Table D.

Expected years

of study

Education system: qualification

2 Australia: New South Wales HSC

England: A levels

France: baccalauréat général

Hong Kong: HKALE (outgoing qualification)

IB Diploma

Republic of Ireland: Leaving Certificate (Established)

Cambridge International A levels

Cambridge Pre-U

3 Denmark: STX

Finland: Matriculation Examination

Hong Kong: HKDSE (incoming qualification)

New Zealand: NCEA Levels 1, 2 and 3

Norway: Vitnemål

3–5 Canada: Alberta Diploma

4 USA: New York State Regents Diploma

5 Netherlands: havo

6 Netherlands: vwo

Table D: Usual time taken to complete qualifications included in this study


Ofqual 2012 75

Students in the Netherlands make a commitment to their programme of study at the

beginning of their secondary education (12 years of age) while under other systems

this choice is taken later.

There is also a variety of assessment models in use amongst the qualifications and

assessments included in this study. These relate to both the style and nature of the

examination, and the timing of the assessments. In New York State, for example, the

Regent Examinations are designed to be taken as students progress through their

four-year senior high school study programme. The current A level programme in

England is designed so that the assessments can take place at intervals through the

two-year course, or all at the end.

The Gāokăo and the ACT operate separately from the programmes of study provided

by schools. The ACT organisation carries out research to ensure that the subject

content of its assessments will reflect the taught syllabus across all the United

States. In contrast, the National Education Examinations Authority produces syllabus

documents for the Gāokăo, defining the specific subject content which the tests will

cover and students expect to take additional courses to prepare for the examination.

3.1 Qualification profiles

In this section we outline some of the key features of the qualifications included in

this study. These include a brief outline of the profile of students who undertake the

qualification, the structure of the qualification and how students are assessed. These

profiles are supported by information contained in Table 2 in the Full Report Table

Supplement.

Australia – New South Wales High School Certificate

Total students: 68,409; achieved: 63,518 (Board of Studies NSW, 2011)

The Higher School Certificate (HSC) is awarded to students who successfully

complete senior high school level studies (Years 11 and 12 or equivalent). It is

developed, managed and awarded by the Board of Studies NSW. Typically, the

qualification is studied over two years by students aged 17‒19.

To be eligible to study for the HSC, students must first complete the NSW School

Certificate. This is awarded by the Board of Studies NSW to eligible students at the

end of Year 10.

All courses in the HSC have a unit value. Most courses are worth two units. In order

to gain an HSC, students “must have completed a minimum of 12 units of Preliminary

courses and ten units of HSC courses. Students must satisfactorily complete the

Preliminary course (usually studied during Year 11) before they are eligible to

commence the corresponding HSC course (usually studied during Year 12)” (Board

of Studies NSW, 2012c).


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Students can study a great number of possible courses in a wide range of subject

areas. English is the only compulsory component of the HSC.

There are two main types of course: Board Developed and Board Endorsed courses

(Board of Studies NSW, 2012b).

Board Developed courses are set and externally examined by the Board of Studies

including courses in the areas of English, mathematics, science, technology, creative

arts, personal development, health and physical education, human society and its

environment, languages and vocational education and training (VET) curriculum

frameworks. The raw marks from these courses may contribute to the calculation of

an Australian Tertiary Admission Rank (ATAR).

Board Endorsed courses include courses that may have been developed by schools,

by the vocational educational and training provider NSW Technical and Further

Education Commission (TAFE NSW), or by universities. They contribute to the HSC

but do not contribute to the calculation of the ATAR (Board of Studies NSW 2012b).

The HSC does not report a single, overall score. Instead, on completion of the

required courses students are issued with their HSC Record of Achievement which

includes the following information for each course taken:

Assessment mark: Students must complete a number of school-based

assessment tasks for many of the HSC courses. These may include “tests,

written or oral assignments, practical activities, fieldwork and projects” (Board of

Studies NSW, 2012d). Based on the outcomes of these tasks, schools submit

an HSC assessment mark for each student in every course. Following a

moderation process, the Board converts all the students’ individual raw scores

on to the 0 to 100 performance level scales (Board of Studies NSW, 2012d).

Examination mark: this mark shows a student’s performance in the Board’s

HSC examination for that course. The examination typically consists of a written

paper. For some courses it may also include oral examinations and practical

examinations. Achievement is assessed and reported against set performance

standards and a judgement panel is appointed to identify the cut-off point for

each performance level. This is then used to convert all the students’ individual

raw scores on to the 0 to 100 performance level scales. The judgement process

is designed to maintain consistent standards of achievement from year to year

(Board of Studies NSW, 2012d).

HSC mark: the HSC mark is a straightforward 50:50 combination of a student’s

converted marks for the external examination and school-based assessment for

each course.


Ofqual 2012 77

Performance band: a student’s HSC mark for each course will fall within one of

six performance bands, where the highest achievement is Band 6 (90–100).

The minimum standard expected is Band 2 (50‒60 marks). Band 1 is given for

HSC marks below 50.

Canada – Alberta Diploma

Total students: 45,286; achieved: 30,689 (Government of Alberta, 2010b)

The Alberta Diploma is the main qualification awarded to students completing their

high school education in Alberta. It is developed and administered by the

Government of Alberta. In order to gain the Alberta Diploma, students take part in the

Grade 12 Diploma Examinations programme. This takes place at the end of the

three-year course when students are typically aged 17‒18 years. Established in

1984, the Diploma Examinations programme has three main purposes:

to certify the level of individual student achievement in selected Grade 12

courses

to ensure that province-wide standards of achievement are maintained

to report individual and group results”

(Government of Alberta, 2011a)

To receive the Alberta Diploma a student must achieve the minimum requirement of

100 credits including:

one English language arts course at 30 level (5 credits), and

one social studies course at 30 level (5 credits), and

one mathematics course at 20 level (5 credits), and

one science course at 20 level, or a specific combination of 10 level courses (5

credits), and

physical education at 10 level (3 credits), and

career and life management (3 credits).

Students can gain credits from a range courses taught under the Alberta Education

curriculum or otherwise. These include special projects, the Registered

Apprenticeship Programme, work experience courses, Green Certificate

specialisation courses, Advanced level Career and Technology Studies (CTS) and

other locally developed / acquired / authorised courses. High school courses within

Alberta schools are generally available at three levels (10, 20 and 30) and are usually

worth 5 credits each. 30 level is the most demanding and the 30 level courses, in

eight subjects (applied mathematics, biology, chemistry, English language arts,


Ofqual 2012 78

physics, pure mathematics, science and social sciences) lead to the Diploma

examinations (Government of Alberta, 2011b).

The Alberta Diploma does not report a single overall score. Instead, on completion of

the required courses students are issued with their High School Diploma supported

by the official transcript which includes the school mark, examination mark and final

mark for each course. These are as follows:

School mark: school-based assessment is expected to measure student

achievement against the full range of outcomes specified for the course

resulting in a school-awarded mark. The individual student school marks are

reported by schools to Education Alberta at the end of every course. The school

mark is reported as a percentage.

Examination mark: the examination mark for each course (also given as a

percentage) shows the student’s performance in the Alberta Diploma

examination for that course. Examinations are available for 30 level courses in

applied mathematics, biology, chemistry, English language arts, physics,

science, pure mathematics and social science. They consist of a minimum of 50

per cent machine-scored / multiple-choice questions. The remainder of the

paper may be machine scored, or consist of short, long or essay-type answers

dependent upon the subject. Within every examination around 20 per cent of

the machine-scored items are anchor items11 and the cohort performance on

these items is used to inform the equating process used by Education Alberta to

adjust all the students’ total scores to the same metric or standard found in the

baseline examination (Government of Alberta, 2008).

Final mark: the final mark is generally a straightforward 50:50 combination of a

student’s school mark and examination mark, although alternative

arrangements exist for students outside of the normal school-based system.

Performance standards: to receive the course credit (pass the course) or to

receive the Alberta Diploma a student must obtain a final mark of 50 per cent or

more. Students who score 50‒79 per cent have reached an Acceptable

Standard as defined for the course, students who score 80 per cent or more

have reached the Standard of Excellence.

Higher education institutions within Alberta typically quote a minimum average mark

of 60 per cent across the Diploma for admission to undergraduate courses. The

11 An anchor item is an item which is included in two or more tests. Anchor items have known

characteristics, and form one section of a new version of a test in order to provide information about that test and the candidates who have taken it. This enables the calibration of a new test to a measurement scale.


Ofqual 2012 79

University of Alberta quotes a minimum of 70 per cent with higher scores for specific

courses (Government of Alberta, 2012b).

Denmark ‒ Studentereksamen (STX)

Total candidates: 51,178; achieved: 35,897 (Statistics Denmark, 2011)

The Danish Gymnasium (senior secondary school) offers a three-year general

academically-oriented upper secondary programme leading to the upper secondary

school examination (the Studentereksamen, or STX). Successful completion of the

STX qualifies students for access to university education. Typically, students start

this programme at the age of 16 and complete it at the age of 19. In order to qualify

for entry to the first year of the Gymnasium, students must complete nine years of

Danish basic education and must have passed the compulsory final examination

(Ministry of Children and Education, 2012i).

The STX begins with a six-month general or foundation programme during which

students agree their course combinations and learn general study skills alongside

academic subjects. After this, each student chooses a specialised study programme

to take alongside the compulsory subjects (Ministry of Children and Education,

2012i).

The Ministry of Children and Education draws up curricula for subjects and multi-

subject courses and all subjects are placed in a system of levels, C, B and A, where

a level A course covers a subject with the greatest scope and depth.

The compulsory subjects and levels within the STX are: Danish A, English B, second

foreign language B or A, history A, classical studies C, physics C, physical education

(PE) C, an artistic subject C, mathematics C, religion C, social science C, and in

addition at least two of the subjects biology, chemistry and natural geography at C-

level.

In addition to the compulsory subjects, students select a specialised study

programme and electives, and take part in a specialised study project in the third

year within two or three subjects of their choice. The number of different

programmes, as well as the specific content, varies from school to school (Ministry of

Children and Education, 2012i). In addition to this, each student selects a number of

elective subjects. The number varies according to the study field subjects taken by

the student (Ministry of Children and Education, 2012f).

The grading standards for course work and the final examinations are the same for

both programmes. There is an expectation that students will study independently for

around 25 per cent of the courses and some learning will be structured across the

curriculum rather than by individual subjects.


Ofqual 2012 80

The final overall STX award is calculated as a weighted average of the course marks

which reflects the level and number of courses studied. The method of reporting the

outcome is changing but achievement continues to be recognised on a seven-point

scale where the third point or grade is considered to be a pass.

The overall mark is calculated as a combination of a student’s school marks for work

completed during the courses and for internal assessments, plus the final

examinations administered by the Ministry; these may be for all students or for a

particular sample to support national moderation (Ministry of Children and Education,

2011b).

Finally, it is usual practice in Danish schools for students to have access to reference

materials during their examinations. In addition to testing subject knowledge the

assessments are also intended to test research abilities, data handling and analytical

skills. As a development of this Denmark is running a pilot study in which students

can use their own computers to access the internet during examinations (Ministry of

Children and Education, 2012j).

England – A levels

782,584 subject entries; approximately 250,000 students (Department for Education,

2011d)

Advanced Level General Certificates of Education (A levels) are “usually taken by 16-

to 18-year-olds in schools and colleges across the country, but they are available to

anyone who would like to gain a qualification in a subject in which they are

interested” (Ofqual, 2009). A levels are intended to be studied over a two-year period

and are the primary pre-university qualification in England. In many cases, students

need to have gained at least five GCSEs at grades A*–C in order to study A levels.

A levels are available in over 45 subjects and can be studied alongside other

qualifications. There is no compulsory subject element – A levels can be taken in any

combination desired to reflect the interests (or intended progression) of the student. It

is accepted that a typical A level student will take three or four A levels at the upper

secondary phase.

Schools, colleges and individuals can currently choose between five qualifications

providers, or awarding organisations, which we allow to offer A levels: the

Assessment and Qualifications Alliance (AQA), the Council for the Curriculum,

Examinations and Assessments (CCEA), Edexcel, Oxford, Cambridge and RSA

Examinations (OCR), and the Welsh Joint Education Committee (WJEC). All five

organisations are members of the Joint Council for Qualifications (JCQ).

An A level is made up of both AS (advanced subsidiary) and A2 units. In the first year

(usually Year 12), students can normally choose to study up to four A level subjects


Ofqual 2012 81

and sit AS level examinations in these subjects. After the first year of study students

can choose (for each subject) to:

take an AS level only and gain a recognised qualification (an AS level is half the

size of a full A level course), or

continue with the course for a second year studying the A2 units and go for the

full A level.

Like other regulated qualifications, AS and A levels have clear guidelines (or criteria)

setting out “how the qualification should be set up, what students need to learn and

what skills they need to develop” (Ofqual, 2009). All awarding organisations must

make sure that the syllabus that they offer in each subject meets these criteria before

it can be offered to students.

Assessment arrangements differ between subjects, but all include some form of

externally set and marked examinations, usually sat at the end of each school year.

Overall scores are subject to quality assurance processes to ensure consistent

rewarding of all students’ achievements within cohorts and over time. This includes

individual awarding organisation internal processes, JCQ activities and our regulatory

processes.

The A level is a graded qualification. The passing grades are A*, A, B, C, D and E.

The A* grade was introduced in September 2008 for higher education entry in 2010,

and is awarded to students who achieve an A in their overall A level, with a score of

at least 90 per cent at A2. In order to set the grade boundaries each year, awarding

organisations consider “examination papers from previous years and papers from the

current year, as well as expert judgement and technical and statistical information”

(Ofqual, 2009).

Finland ‒ Ylioppilastutkinto or Studentexamen (Matriculation Examination)

Total students: 37,315; achieved: 32,324 (Statistics Finland, 2010b)

General upper secondary education consists of a three-year course ending in the

Matriculation Examination. Courses are typically taken by students from age 16 to 19

years. In order to enter general upper secondary education, students must have a

school leaving certificate of basic education. Applications to general and vocational

education are made via a joint application system. In situations where applicant

numbers exceed the intake, selection is made based on a student’s school report

(Ministry of Education and Culture, 2012a).

General upper secondary education is primarily provided by local authorities. Of the

435 upper secondary schools in Finland, the majority are run by local authorities

(Ministry of Education and Culture, 2012b). Some of these upper secondary schools

may specialise in certain subjects, such as sports, art or music.


Ofqual 2012 82

The Matriculation Examination was initially conceived as the entrance examination

for Helsinki University. It was first offered to students in 1852. Nowadays, the

purpose of the examination is to “discover whether students have assimilated the

knowledge and skills required by the curriculum for the upper secondary school”

(Finnish Matriculation Examination Board, 2007). Passing the Matriculation

Examination entitles the student to continue on to undergraduate study at university.

The Matriculation Examination Board (Ylioppilastutkintolautakunta) is responsible for

designing, administering and delivering the Matriculation Examination. The Board

develops guidelines on the contents, the arrangements and the assessment of the

tests. The Matriculation Examination Board is led by a board made up of members

which represent the various subjects covered by the Matriculation Examination.

These board members are nominated by the Ministry of Education and Culture on

the suggestion of universities, institutions of higher learning and the National Board

of Education. About a further 330 associate members assist with preparing and

marking the Matriculation Examination (Matriculation Examination Board, 2007).

Entrants take a minimum of four tests (including at least one for an advanced course)

as follows:

mother tongue test (usually Finnish, Swedish, Sami or sign language)

three from:

second national language

foreign language

mathematics

one from the general studies suite, which includes some cross-subject

questions, for example: evangelical Lutheran religion, orthodox religion,

ethics, philosophy, psychology, history, social studies, physics, chemistry,

biology, geography, and health education.

The student may choose to take additional tests, but only one test per subject is

allowed (Finnish Matriculation Examination Board, 2007). Tests are tiered (that is,

organised by two different levels of difficulty) and include both written and oral

examinations.

The Matriculation Examination Certificate shows the compulsory and the optional

tests passed, together with their levels and grades. The grade boundaries are set

with the intention of maintaining the standard or value of the grades from year to

year. There are seven grades from Laudatur, or L (outstanding), to Improbatur, or I

(below satisfactory). It is generally anticipated that approximately the following


Ofqual 2012 83

proportions of students will achieve each grade: L = 5 per cent, E = 15 per cent,

M = 20 per cent, C = 24 per cent, B = 20 per cent, A = 11 per cent, I = 5 per cent

(Finnish National Board of Education, 2011).

France ‒ baccalauréat général

Total students: 328,467 (Ministère Éducation Nationale Jeunesse vie Associative,

2011b)

French students can chose to take one of three types of baccalauréat; a general

academic baccalauréat (baccalauréat général), or specialist technical (baccalauréat

technologique) or professional baccalaureates (baccalauréat professionnel), which

are more vocational.

Within the baccalauréat général a student can follow three séries (streams). These

include the série scientifique (S), série économique et sociale (ES) and série littéraire

(L) – sciences, economics and social sciences, and literature respectively.

All of these streams are designed to take three years to complete and are typically

taken by students aged 15‒18. Within each, students study a minimum of nine

subjects (if they select a compulsory subject as their speciality) but up to 12 subjects

leading to national external examinations. They also work in small groups to produce

their travaux personnels encadrés (TPE), an independent project expected to cross

over between two or more subjects (Eduscol, 2011).

Depending on the specific stream of baccalauréat général being followed, the final

assessments include written examination papers, practical tests and, potentially, oral

tests, depending on the subject. These final assessments are taken during the month

of June in third year (terminale) of the baccalauréat général. Tests taken during

continuous assessment count towards the final score in each subject, and account is

also taken of student performance during the course.

Each subject assessment is scored out of 20.

The overall baccalauréat score is calculated using subject coefficients to produce a

weighted average of the individual examination scores with optional subjects

included only if the student achieves more than ten points. The overall grade is

reported out of 20, again with a score of ten considered as a minimum pass.

If a student scores between 8 and 10 points for their baccalauréat général they have

the option to sit for the épreuve de rattrapage which is a supplemental oral

examination in two subjects of the student’s choice. If they are successful then the

overall weighted grade is raised to a 10 and a baccalauréat général qualification is

granted.


Ofqual 2012 84

Students who pass the baccalauréat général continue as follows (Ministère

Éducation Nationale Jeunesse vie Associative, 2011c):

Sciences (S) Economics and

social sciences

(ES)

Literature (L)

preparation for the

Grande École

20% 6% 6%

university 54% 67% 70%

institutes of

technology

20% 22.5% 13%

other 6% 4.5% 11%

Hong Kong Advanced Level Examination (HKALE)

Total students: 39,774 (Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority, 2012b)

The HKALE is a legacy qualification in Hong Kong, modelled strongly on the English

A level, which acts as the university entrance qualification. It will be replaced by the

Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education (HKDSE) from 2012 and the last

HKALE will be held in 2013, for private students only. Responsibility for both the

HKALE and HKDSE lies with the Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment

Authority (HKEAA).

The HKALE is typically taken by a student at around age 19 near the end of their

two-year sixth form courses (Year S7), although in 2010 over 22 per cent were

private students and almost 25 per cent were resits (Hong Kong Examinations and

Assessment Authority, 2011).

There are 17 A level and 18 AS level subjects in the HKALE. AS level subjects are

taught in half the number of periods required for A level subjects, but they require the

same level of intellectual rigour. Most students take five subjects in the HKALE. With

a few exceptions (AS Chinese Language and Culture, AS Use of English and other

language-related subjects) all subjects can be taken in either language. Marking and

grading standards are the same in either language, and the language medium is not

recorded on the results certificates.

The HKALE is a graded qualification with six grades A–F (where grade A is the

highest and F is the lowest). Below grade F, results are designated as “unclassified”

(UNCL). According to the HKEAA, grade E of an A level or AS level result is


Ofqual 2012 85

equivalent to grade E in their English A level counterparts (Hong Kong Examinations

and Assessment Authority, 2011).

The grading of large-entry subjects is calculated using a control group which makes

up about one third of schools. These schools must all have a certain level of

performance along with relatively stable examination results over the past few years.

The main assumption of the control-group approach is that the performance of these

stable control-group schools, taken as a whole, should provide a reasonable norm for

setting grading policies. This allows the HKEAA to maintain standards over time even

accounting for changes in the demand of the examination or the content of the

examination syllabus.

Once the grade boundaries (or cut scores) have been determined, they are applied

to the whole candidature regardless of the district where the students take the

examination, the schools they come from, or whether they are private students.

To maintain the grading standards of HKALE, Cambridge Assessment assures the

grading standards of different HKALE subjects every year (Hong Kong Examinations

and Assessment Authority, 2012c).

In 2010 just over 47 per cent of students achieved results which satisfied the general

entrance requirements for first degree courses in tertiary institutions (Hong Kong

Examinations and Assessment Authority, 2012b).

Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education (HKDSE)

Following the recent reforms, all students who entered Secondary Year 1 in

September 2006 will sit the first HKDSE examination in 2012, after completing six

years of secondary education. Unlike the HKALE, the HKDSE is therefore aimed at

all students. Like the HKALE, however, it will serve as the university admission

examination under the Joint University Programmes Admissions System (JUPAS).

As part of the HKDSE, school students are typically required to take four core

subjects (Chinese language, English language, mathematics and liberal studies), as

well as two or three elective subjects (Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment

Authority, 2012a). The elective subjects are offered in three categories (Hong Kong

Examinations and Assessment Authority, 2012d):

category A: 24 new senior secondary subjects

category B: approximately 30 applied learning subjects

category C: six other language subjects (French, German, Hindi, Japanese,

Spanish and Urdu).


Ofqual 2012 86

School-based assessment (SBA) is a salient feature of the HKDSE examination to be

introduced from 2012 by phases. To enable schools and teachers to familiarise

themselves with the new senior secondary curriculum as well as the SBA

requirements and procedures, a strategic implementation strategy will be adopted in

introducing SBA (Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority, 2008b).

The HKDSE will be graded using standards-referenced reporting. This is the

reporting of results against a set of pre-defined levels of achievement. At each of

these levels, a series of performance descriptors set out what a student should be

able to demonstrate at this level. This system enables stakeholders to understand

what students know and can do when they have gained a certain level of

performance (Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority, 2012a).

The results for category A subjects will be expressed in terms of five levels of

performance, of which 5 is the highest and 1 the lowest. The level 5 students with the

best performance will be awarded a 5**, and the next highest group awarded a 5*. A

performance below level 1 will be labelled as “Unclassified”.

For the first years of standard setting in the HKDSE, levels 4 and 5 will be set with

reference to the performance standards achieved by students awarded grades A–D

in the HKALE. This is important for ensuring a degree of continuity with past practice

and for facilitating selection for higher education (Hong Kong Examinations and

Assessment Authority, 2012a).

For category B, applied learning subjects, assessment will be undertaken by the

course provider. After moderation by the HKEAA, the final results will be recorded on

the HKDSE certificate. The results will be reported as “Attained” and “Attained with

Distinction”.

For category C, other language subjects, marking and grading will be conducted by

Cambridge international Examinations (CIE). Results will be reported in five grades

(A–E), with grade E being the lowest and grade A the highest. Achievements below

grade E will be designated Ungraded (Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment

Authority, 2012d). Six language subjects (French, German, Hindi, Japanese, Spanish

and Urdu) are offered to students in the HKDSE Examination. Question papers at the

Advanced Subsidiary (AS) level from CIE will be used for the examinations of these

six subjects (Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority, 2012a).


Ofqual 2012 87

International Baccalaureate Diploma

Total students: 49,049; achieved: 41,509 (2011 figures provided by IBO in February

2012).

The International Baccalaureate (IB) Diploma programme started in 1968 with first

examinations in 1970, and is now offered by 2,311 IB World Schools. The

programme is normally taught over two years at senior secondary phase, culminating

in final examinations. Its aim is to prepare students, normally aged 16 to 19 “for

success at university and life beyond” (International Baccalaureate Organisation,

2012e).

During the two-year course students:

study six subjects; one chosen from each of the six subject groups: studies in

language and literature, language acquisition, individuals and societies,

experimental sciences, mathematics, the arts.

complete an extended essay. This enables students to engage in independent

research through an in-depth study of a question relating to one of the subjects

they are studying.

follow a theory of knowledge course (TOK). This encourages each student to

“reflect on the nature of knowledge by critically examining different ways of

knowing (perception, emotion, language and reason) and different kinds of

knowledge (scientific, artistic, mathematical and historical)” (International

Baccalaureate Organisation, 2012c).

participate in creativity, action, service (CAS). This helps students to learn

through experiencing real tasks beyond the classroom. Students can combine

all three components or do activities related to each one of them separately

(International Baccalaureate Organisation, 2012c).

Subjects other than languages may be taught and examined in English, French or

Spanish and there are pilot projects taking place in German and Chinese.

Three of the six subjects are studied at higher level (each course representing 240

teaching hours) and the remaining three subjects are studied at standard level (each

course representing 150 teaching hours).

Students take written examinations at the end of the programme, which are marked

by external IB examiners. Students also complete assessment tasks in the school,

which are either initially marked by teachers and then moderated by external

moderators or sent directly to external examiners.


Ofqual 2012 88

Each element of the IB Diploma is graded. There are seven grades, with 1 being the

lowest and 7 being the highest. Students may be awarded up to 3 additional points

for their combined results on TOK and the extended essay. Therefore, the highest

total that a Diploma programme student can be awarded is 45 points (International

Baccalaureate Organisation, 2012d).

The Diploma is awarded to students who gain at least 24 points, although this is

subject to minimum levels of performance across the whole diploma including CAS.

Each year, around 80 per cent of students taking the IB Diploma programme are

awarded the Diploma. Less than 1 per cent of students gain the maximum 45 points

(International Baccalaureate Organisation, 2012d).

Netherlands – hoger algemeen voortgezet onderwijs (havo)

Total students: 54,450; achieved 44,300 (Cito, 2010)

Since 1998, the havo has consisted of a five-year programme of study in preparation

for higher education in technical subjects. The first three years or primary phase have

common content and structure with the vwo primary phase. This is followed by a two-

year upper secondary phase typically taken by students aged 16–18. The core

curriculum includes: Dutch language, foreign languages, mathematics, history,

science, and other subjects. The attainment targets prescribe what skills and

knowledge students must have attained by the end of the third year.

The last two years of the havo programme consists of:

a common component: Dutch, English, social studies, physical education,

culture and the arts

a specialised component: one of the following subject combinations including an

independent project: culture and society (history and modern language),

economics and society (mathematics A or B, history and economics), science

and health (mathematics A or B, biology and chemistry), or science and

technology (mathematics B, physics and chemistry)

an optional component selected from: social studies, philosophy, management

and organisation, information technology, physical education 2, a modern

language, or further options available through the school.

The havo assessment is in two parts:

the school examination. Each year schools submit their own detailed school

examination syllabus to the Inspectorate of Education. The assessments, which

form part of the school examination, must be completed and the results

submitted to the Inspectorate before the national examinations begin in May.


Ofqual 2012 89

the national examination. External examinations are offered in all subjects

although students are not required to take them for all their optional subjects.

The final mark in each subject is the average of the marks for the school and the

national examinations. For subjects with only a school examination, the mark

obtained is the final mark.

Marks are awarded on a scale from 1 (very poor) to 10 (excellent); 6 is a pass.

Students can still be awarded an overall pass even if they get a lower mark in up to

two subjects (two 5s or a 4 and a 5 are acceptable). Students who get a mark of 3 or

lower in any subject have failed and in addition, students must have no more than

one mark of 4 or 5 in their specialised subjects. From 2011/2 there will also be an

additional requirement that students have no more than one mark of 5 in Dutch,

English and mathematics.

Students who achieve the havo can apply for higher professional education, or study

for a further year before applying to university.

Netherlands – voorbereidend wetenschappelijk onderwijs (vwo)

Total students: 40,000; achieved 36,500 (Cito, 2010)

Since 1998, the vwo has consisted of a six-year programme of study in preparation

for higher education in academic subjects. The first three years or primary phase

have common content and structure with the havo primary phase. This is followed by

a two-year more specialised upper secondary phase typically taken by students aged

16–18. The core curriculum includes: Dutch language, foreign languages,

mathematics, history, science, and other subjects. The attainment targets prescribe

what skills and knowledge students must have attained by the end of the third year.

The last three years of the vwo programme consist of:

a common component: Dutch, English, a second modern language, social

studies, physical education, general science, culture and the arts or classical

culture

a specialised component: one of the following subject combinations including an

independent project: culture and society (mathematics A, B or C and history),

economics and society (mathematics A or B, history and economics), science

and health (mathematics A or B, biology and chemistry), or science and

technology (mathematics B, physics and chemistry)

an optional component selected from: biology 1, economics 1, social studies 2,

management and organisation, information technology, physical education 2,

classical culture, Latin, Greek, or further options available through the school.


Ofqual 2012 90

The vwo assessment is in two parts:

the school examination. Each year schools submit their own detailed school

examination syllabus to the Inspectorate of Education. The assessments which

form part of the school examination must be completed and the results

submitted to the Inspectorate before the national examinations begin in May.

the national examination. External examinations are offered in all subjects

although students are not required to take them for all their optional subjects.

The final mark in each subject is the average of the marks for the school and the

national examinations. For subjects with only a school examination, the mark

obtained is the final mark.

Marks are awarded on a scale from 1 (very poor) to 10 (excellent); 6 is a pass.

Students can still be awarded an overall pass even if they get a lower mark in up to

two subjects (two 5s or a 4 and a 5 are acceptable). Students who get a mark of 3 or

lower in any subject have failed and in addition, students must have no more than

one mark of 4 or 5 in their specialised subjects. From 2011/2 there will also be an

additional requirement that students have no more than one mark of 5 in Dutch,

English and mathematics.

Students who achieve the vwo can apply for places at university or in higher

professional education.


Total students: 36,371, achieved 22,000 (New Zealand Qualifications Authority,

2010)

National Certificates of Educational Achievement (NCEA) function as New Zealand’s

main secondary school qualifications. Introduced between 2002 and 2004, they grew

out of a long-term intention to “establish standards for national qualifications and

recognise a wider range of skills and knowledge” (New Zealand Qualifications

Authority, 2012d) The Ministry of Education is responsible for the development of the

NCEA and the New Zealand Qualifications Authority (NZQA) is responsible for

delivery.

According to the NZQA, the NCEA was designed to “challenge all students, including

the most able and highly motivated. It was also designed to give schools the flexibility

to develop a range of programmes to suit the specific needs of their students” (New

Zealand Qualifications Authority, 2012d).

There are three levels of NCEA: 1, 2, and 3. At each level, students must achieve a

minimum of 80 credits to gain an NCEA. Generally students complete level 1

standard subjects in Year 11, level 2 in Year 12 and level 3 in Year 13, although


Ofqual 2012 91

credits can be gained over more than one year. In most cases 1 credit represents ten

hours of learning and assessment. A typical course generates between 18 and 24

credits – so over five subjects, a student could aim for up to 120 credits.

There are no compulsory subjects, only a minimum number of credits required to

gain a certificate at each level. Each year, students study a number of courses or

subjects. In each subject, skills and knowledge are assessed against a number of

standards. For example, a mathematics standard could be: “Apply numeric reasoning

in solving problems”.

Students are assessed against the standards using a variety of internal and external

assessments. High-achieving students are recognised for their performance at each

level by gaining an NCEA with Merit or NCEA with Excellence (New Zealand

Qualifications Authority, 2012b). If a student performs consistently above the

“Achieved” level, result(s) can be “endorsed” to reflect their exceptional achievement

(New Zealand Qualifications Authority, 2012e).

NZQA quality assures the NCEA through a formal process known as the Managing

National Assessment Review (MNA). This ensures that the process is fair and

consistent across all schools (New Zealand Qualifications Authority, 2012b).

For most subjects, all the externally assessed standards are assessed through an

examination at the end of a school year. These are taken at the same time and date

by all students. Some subjects (such as technology, visual arts) are assessed

through submission of a portfolio. Unless specifically excluded by the assessment,

students can present their answers in te reo Māori (the Maori language). In most

subjects, students can request the examination booklet in te reo Māori (New Zealand

Qualifications Authority, 2012c).

The Ministry has introduced a new curriculum for schools in 2010, which has resulted

in a re-alignment of the NCEA achievement standards. These will be implemented

fully in 2013 with new standards at NCEA Level 3. The analysis and findings in this

study are based on the outgoing standards which will be examined for the last time in

2012.

Norway ‒ Vitnemål fra den Videregående Skole (Certificate of Upper Secondary

Education)

Total students: 26,394; achieved: 20,000 (Norwegian Directorate for Education and

Training, 2010a)

Upper secondary education in Norway consists of 12 different education

programmes. Completion of any of these earns students the general Vitnemål fra den

Videregående Skole (Certificate of Upper Secondary Education), although depending

on the programme taken, more specific qualifications are awarded alongside this.


Ofqual 2012 92

Three of the 12 programmes are general studies programmes. These programmes

take three years and normally serve the 16–19 age group. They lead specifically to a

General University Admissions Certification (generell studiekompetanse) which

qualifies students for general university admissions. Around half of those students in

upper secondary education in Norway attend the programmes for general studies;

the other half attend vocational education programmes (Norwegian Ministry of

Education and Research, 2012a).

Common core subjects for general studies during the three-year programme include:

religion and ethics, Norwegian / first language, mathematics, natural science,

English, foreign languages, social sciences, geography, physical education and

history. Students also study additional subjects from those available within their

specialism.

Specialisation in general studies (also includes physical education as a core

subject):

natural science and mathematics subjects: biology; physics; geosciences;

information technology; chemistry; mathematics; technology and theory of

research

languages, social sciences and economics subjects: ancient language and

culture; English; entrepreneurship and business development; foreign

languages; history and philosophy; communication and culture; business

economics; politics; the individual and society; psychology; tourism and

languages; law; economics; Sami history and society

arts, crafts and design subjects: design and architecture; visual arts; Sami

visual culture; scenography and costumes; printing and photography;

visual culture and society

Sports and physical education subjects: activities; sports and society; training

management; theory of training; recreational sports; outdoor life; management

development; top level sports.

Music, dance and drama

music subjects: ergonomics and movement; direction and management;

instrument, choir and ensemble

dance subjects: dance in perspective; basic training in dance; scenic

dance; movement; dance techniques


Ofqual 2012 93

drama subjects: drama and society; theatre and movement; theatre in

perspective; theatre production; movement; Sami music and stage; theatre

ensemble.

The course materials define the number of hours of teaching and learning for each

element of the programme (Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training,

2010b).

The student’s progress is assessed by the teachers and this provides the information

for the overall achievement marks on the student’s school leaving certificate.

Examinations are prepared by the Directorate for Education and Training and are

held in most subjects each year. These examinations are intended to provide a final

assessment of the competence of each individual student. The subject curricula

define the type of examination in each subject and whether this examination will be

set locally or centrally The only compulsory examination is the third year (Vg3)

assessment in Norwegian (or Sami, if that is their first language). Examinations in all

other subjects are only taken by a sample of students as determined by the subject

curricula. Students are not able to influence in which subjects they take their

examinations. The results of the examinations are entered on students’ school

leaving certificates. At the end of a general studies programme leading to the

General University Admissions Certification (generell studiekompetanse), “a student’s

school leaving certificate will contain just over 20 overall achievement marks and five

or six examination marks” (OECD, 2011c, p.46).

Examination results are given as grades from 1 (fail), 2 (pass) up to 6 (highest) and

students are expected to pass all courses.

People’s Republic of China –Gāokăo (National Higher Education Entrance

Examination)

Total students: 9.57 million (Xinhua, 2010).

The Gāokăo (or National Higher Education Entrance Examination) is an annual

academic examination which has the purpose of selecting students for university

admission. This examination is a prerequisite for entrance into almost all higher

education institutions at undergraduate level. It is usually taken by students in their

last year of high school, although there are no age restrictions on entry. To take part

in the entrance examination, students must have a senior middle school graduation

certificate (Gaozhong). Students with a vocational middle school certificate are

officially also allowed to take the Gāokăo.

Gāokăo examinations are set by provincial-level examination authorities under the

control of the National Education Examinations Authority (NEEA).


Ofqual 2012 94

As part of the Gāokăo, students are required to take examinations in a range of

subjects over a three-day period. In most provinces students take the three core

subjects, Chinese, mathematics and a foreign language (generally English) and

either the humanities suite (politics, history and geography) or the science suite

(biology, physics and chemistry). In some provinces there is an additional test, for

example in Shadong province students take an additional basic skills proficiency test.

A maximum of 750 points are available from the examinations. Chinese, mathematics

and a foreign language are worth up to 150 points each, and there are a further 100

points for each subject (up to three subjects) in the humanities and science

combinations. The overall mark received by the student is generally a weighted sum

of their subject marks.

Each province sets the lower limiting marks for each category of achievement. A

student’s category then determines for which higher education courses they are

eligible to apply. Some provinces award additional points for non-educational

achievements, for example in 2010 Shanxi recognised specific sporting

achievements with additional points. There are also allowances for ethnic minority

groups, for example, in 2010 Tibet set the lower limiting marks for ethnic Tibetans

more than 150 marks lower than for Han (the Chinese majority ethnic group), while

Xinjiang made smaller allowances for native Uyghur and Mongolian speakers.

Republic of Ireland – Leaving Certificate (Established)

Total students: 38,885 (Department of Education and Skills, 2010)

The Leaving Certificate (Established) (Ardteisimeireacht) is the most widely taken

programme in the Republic of Ireland at upper secondary level. It is intended to

provide “a broad and balanced education while allowing for some specialisation”

according to the interests of a student (State Examinations Commission, 2009). The

certificate is used for the purposes of selection into further education, employment,

training and higher education. The Leaving Certificate (Established) is a two-year

programme and typically students are aged 16 to 18. It is developed, assessed and

certified by the State Examination Commission.

As part of the Certificate, subjects are normally studied at either Ordinary or Higher

level. However, two subjects, Irish and mathematics, can be studied at Foundation

level. Foundation level is geared to the needs of students who might have difficulty

with those subjects at Ordinary or Higher level.

Students normally study six or seven subjects during the senior cycle, but must take

a minimum of five subjects (unless they have entered the system after 11 years of

age). Irish is the only core component of this, with students free to choose the rest of

their programme. When choosing their subjects, students are advised to consider

what subjects they will need to progress to their choice of further or higher education.


Ofqual 2012 95

The Department of Education and Skills publishes syllabus and curriculum

information for 35 subjects taken as part of the Leaving Certificate (Established). In

addition some schools offer students the option to take the Junior Certificate

programme in continental languages as part of their approved senior cycle course.

At the end of the two-year programme, the Leaving Certificate (Established) is

assessed through a series of written examinations. Some subjects also have

practical examinations and project work, for example in art, construction studies and

engineering. There are oral examinations in Irish and continental languages. The

practical and oral tests take place during the final year of the programme. The written

examinations are held in June each year.

The results of the Leaving Certificate examination subjects are given in the form of

grades. Each grade represents a percentage range of marks as follows (State

Examination Commission, 2009):

Percentage range Grade

90 or over A1

85 but less than 90 A2

80 but less than 85 B1



65 but less than 70 C1



50 but less than 55 D1



25 but less than 40 E

10 but less than 25 F

less than 10 no grade


Ofqual 2012 96

Republic of Korea – Su-neung (College Scholastic Ability Test, or CSAT)

Total students: 712,227

The College Scholastic Ability Test (CSAT) is a standardised test accepted by all

South Korean universities. The CSAT is designed to measure students’ scholastic

ability as required for college education. It is developed and administered by the

Korea Institute for Curriculum and Evaluation (KICE).

Prior to the CSAT, students complete their General or Vocational High School

Diploma. Almost all high school students complete their three years of study and a

high proportion continue on to university study. In 1998, 64 per cent of high school

graduates progressed to higher education, with two-thirds of these pursuing

traditional four-year degrees (International Review of Curriculum and Assessment

Frameworks Internet Archive, 2008).

Each year, around 800,000 to 900,000 students take the CSAT. The majority of

these are Year 12 students, however, a proportion are made up of students who are

retaking the test having failed to gain a place at a higher education institution in the

previous year.

Students can choose subjects of the CSATs to take according to their own needs

and interests. The test “aims at evaluation based on thinking skills focused on cross-

curricular issues in the subjects of language and foreign language (English) and the

specific characteristics of each subject in the subjects of mathematics, social

studies / science / vocational studies and foreign languages / Chinese classics”

(Korea Institute for Curriculum and Evaluation, 2012b).

During the CSATs, students select all or some of five tests: language, mathematics,

foreign language (English), social studies / science / vocational education, second

foreign language / Chinese characters and classics.

All examinations are based on multiple-choice papers with five possible answers for

each item. Marking of the examination papers is carried out using a technique called

optical mark recognition (OMR) under the supervision of KICE and results are

reported using stanine (standard nine) scores. Stanine scores are grades ranging

from 1 to 9 and are based on a normal distribution – the top 4 per cent of students

receive a grade of 1, the next 7 per cent receive a grade 2, the next 12 per cent a 3,

the next 17 per cent a 4, the next 20 per cent a 5, the next 17 per cent a 6, the next

12 per cent a 7, the next 7 per cent an 8 and the bottom 4 per cent a 9 (International

Review of Curriculum and Assessment Frameworks Internet Archive, 2008).


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United States of America – ACT

Total candidates: 1.6 million (ACT, 2012a).

The ACT (originally an abbreviation of American College Testing) is a “curriculum-

and standards-based educational and career planning tool that assesses students'

academic readiness for college” (ACT, 2012b). It is one of the college entrance tests

available to high school students in the USA. The test assesses high school students’

general educational development and their readiness for entry-level college course

work. The ACT is made up of a multiple-choice test and an optional Writing Test. The

multiple-choice components cover college readiness skills in four content areas:

English, mathematics, reading, and science. The ACT Writing Test measures skill in

planning and writing a short essay (ACT, 2012a).

The content covered by each of the five tests “is drawn from the domain of each

content area that educators agree is important to that content area and that is

prerequisite to successful performance in entry-level college courses” (ACT, 2010a).

Tests are offered up to six times per year within the USA and five times a year at

locations outside the USA. A student wishing to improve their score may take the test

up to 12 times, subject to specific conditions (ACT, 2010b).

Therefore each year, multiple forms of the ACT tests are developed. Both the

individual test forms and the entire battery of tests are subjected to a thorough quality

control process before being released for use (ACT, 2010a).

There are five tests (the first four are multiple choice, the Writing Test is optional):

The ACT English Test measures understanding of the conventions of writing

through usage and mechanics (punctuation, grammar and usage, sentence

structure) and rhetorical skills (strategy, organisation, style)

The ACT Mathematics Test measures algebra, geometry and trigonometry skills

over four cognitive levels (knowledge and skills, direct application,

understanding concepts, integrating conceptual understanding)

The ACT Reading Test measures reading comprehension in the content areas

of prose fiction, humanities, social studies and the natural sciences

The ACT Science Test measures the interpretation, analysis, evaluation,

reasoning and problem-solving skills within the context of biology, chemistry,

Earth / space sciences and physics

The ACT Writing Test measures skills with a 30-minute persuasive essay task

(ACT, 2010a).


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For each of the four multiple-choice tests, the raw scores are converted to scale

scores through statistical equating procedures. This ensures that scores reported

across test forms have a constant meaning. Scale scores range from 1 (low) to 36

(high) for each of the four multiple-choice tests and the composite score. The

composite score is the average of the four multiple-choice test scores; fractions of

0.5 or higher are rounded up to the nearest whole number.

Sub-scores are reported for the English, Mathematics, and Reading Tests. The

scales for these sub-scores range from 1 (low) to 18 (high).

Two scores are reported for the optional Writing Test:

a combined English / writing score on a scale of 1–36

a writing sub-score on a scale of 2–12.

ACT also provides comments from one of the trained readers who scored each

student’s essay (ACT, 2010b).

United States of America ‒ New York State Regents Diploma

Total students: 224,744; achieved: 146,000 (New York State Education Department,

2011b)

The Regents Diploma is aimed at all students completing high school. It provides

students, parents, counsellors, administrators, college admissions officers, and

employers with objective and easily understood achievement information for use in

making sound educational and vocational decisions (New York State Education

Department, 2012a). For students to be awarded the Regents Diploma, they first

need to pass a series of Regents examinations. These examinations are

achievement tests that are aligned with New York State’s Learning Standards. They

are prepared by teacher examination committees and New York State Education

Department (NYSED) subject and testing specialists.

Regents examinations are available in English, mathematics (Integrated Algebra,

Geometry and Algebra 2/Trigonometry), Global history and Geography, US history

and Government, living environment and science (Living Environment, Earth

Science, Chemistry, Physics).Unlike many of the qualifications in this study, the age

at which students take examinations depends very much on the students

themselves, and the progress of their study. Some students may take certain

examinations as early as Grade 8 (age 13 or 14). Others may take them at age 17.

Overall the high school course is scheduled to last four years, from Grade 9 to

Grade 12.

Students need to complete a total of 22 credits and pass the Regents examinations

(with a score of 65 or higher) in English, mathematics, science and social studies in


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order to earn the Regents Diploma. To receive an Advanced Regents Diploma,

students must also pass an additional Regents science examination (Earth Science,

Biology, Chemistry or Physics), one or two additional mathematics examinations

(geometry and algebra 2 / trigonometry if they have taken integrated algebra, or a

choice of mathematics B or algebra 2 / trigonometry if they have taken

mathematics A). The credit requirements for the standard Regents Diploma

programme are as follows:

English: 4 credits

social studies: 4 credits (including a half-credit each in economics and

government)

science: 3 credits (including at least one credit each in both physical and life

sciences)

mathematics: 3 credits

physical education: 2 credits

visual arts, music or performance arts: 1 credit

foreign language: 1 credit

health: half-credit.

In addition to the credit requirements, all students must fulfil state requirements for

education in technology and parenting. These mandatory requirements can be

combined with other available courses in order to fulfil the 22 credit quota.

NYSED involves teachers from state schools in every stage of the test development

process. This includes writing test items, pre-testing, quality controls and standard

setting (New York State Education Department, 2012b).

Assessment takes place in June, August and January, and students can sit the

examination once they have completed the appropriate course of study. The multiple-

choice items are either machine-marked or marked by hand in schools, and the

open-ended questions are marked by school scoring committees in accordance with

the NYSED guidance. All raw marks are converted into scores at a local level using a

conversion chart provided by NYSED.


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University of Cambridge International Examinations A levels

University of Cambridge International Examinations AS and A level qualifications are

provided by University of Cambridge International Examinations (CIE). They are

available in a choice of 60 different subjects and are intended to provide good

preparation for university entrance (University of Cambridge International

Examinations, 2012d).

Cambridge International AS and A levels are designed to be flexible. Learners have

the freedom to select the subjects that they would like to study based on their needs

and interests.

Cambridge International AS levels can be offered either as a qualification in their own

right, or as an element of the full Cambridge International A level. The AS level has

half the content of a Cambridge International A level and is designed to be completed

in one year. A full Cambridge International A level should take two years to complete

and the course is aimed at students aged 16–19 years.

Assessment is designed to be flexible, with students able to take examinations in a

“staged” fashion, or all in one examination season (usually at the end of the second

year). Examinations sessions occur twice a year, in June and November, with results

issued in August and January. As well as written examinations, orals, practicals,

projects and coursework of differing types are all used in various subjects where they

are the most effective and appropriate means of measuring attainment (University of

Cambridge International Examinations, 2012d).

Cambridge International AS levels and A levels are graded qualifications. A student

receives a separately certificated grade for each of the subjects that they take. The

Cambridge International A level is reported on a grade scale from A* grade, awarded

for the highest level of achievement, to E, indicating the minimum required

performance. There is no A* grading in the certification of Cambridge International

AS Levels, which report from grade A to grade E.

University of Cambridge International Examinations Pre-U Diploma

The University of Cambridge International Examinations Pre-U Diploma, or

Cambridge Pre-U, has recently been developed by CIE specifically for students aged

16‒19 who intend to progress to university studies. The Cambridge Pre-U aims to

“prepare learners with the skills and knowledge they need to make a success of their

subsequent studies at university” (University of Cambridge International

Examinations, 2012e).

Cambridge Pre-U principal subject syllabi are linear courses. Students study each

subject over a two-year course leading to final examinations which result in individual

qualifications. However students may achieve a Cambridge Pre-U Diploma


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comprising three individual subject courses with a mandatory independent research

report and a global perspectives portfolio.

The qualification is intended to provide schools with an alternative to the A level and

IB Diploma qualifications frequently used for admission to UK universities. It is

currently available in 27 subjects.

The first examinations were taken by a small number of students in June 2009 (short

course only) and June 2010 (for all short course and principal subjects) (University of

Cambridge International Examinations, 2012e).


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4 Findings: Mathematics

4.1 Summary

All the qualifications reviewed as part of this study share some common content

ground, for example, all require the study of pure mathematics. They also hold similar

aims and desired qualities that students would gain from taking the courses such as

the development of thinking skills and analytical ability. However, there are notable

differences between them.

For example:

Many systems typically offer a variety of different mathematics courses (at

different levels of demand and / or focusing on different aspects of

mathematics) available to learners at senior secondary level.

The balance between breadth of application and pursuit of complex and deep

study. Many qualifications emphasise one over the other, and while either

emphasis may result in a demanding qualification, overall it was found that

having a broader range of applications allows students more flexibility in the

pathways they can follow in higher education.

Few qualifications offer students the opportunity to study mechanics in depth.

Some allow calculators, while others do not. The use of graphic calculators in

the Alberta Diploma and of more sophisticated technology as part of the NCEA

Level 3 in New Zealand was of particular note.

The number and depth of topics does significantly affect the level of demand of

the qualification. For example, A levels are amongst a very small number that

cover mechanics as part of the subject. In qualifications where the study of

calculus and trigonometry are not studied to some significant level then demand

is reduced.

The requirement to study abstract and technically difficult mathematics

generally make a qualification higher in demand. In particular A level Further

Mathematics, both qualifications reviewed from Hong Kong, the IB Diploma, the

Republic of Korea CSAT and the NSW HSC all fall into this category.

Many differences come down to the purpose of the qualification – is it intended to

assess content and technique only or to address the need for students to solve

problems and investigate? In many cases, the need to solve problems in context

raises the demand but this is offset against lower technical demands. However, the

place of mathematics in the qualification as a whole was not found as important in

determining its demand, as there is no clear relationship between whether


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mathematics was part of a baccalaureate-style qualification or a stand-alone

qualification with its demand.

Other key findings include:

There are different approaches to how the assessments are conducted: some

qualifications have terminal examinations while others examine in a modular

fashion.

Some are based on closed written examinations and others on school-based

assessment, and within this difference, the nature and style of the questions

vary greatly and have a direct effect on demand.

The time demand of the examination papers varies greatly as does the time

allocation of the examinations.

A table summarising the key features of the assessments for each education system

included in the study and a summary of what each course covers appear in Tables 6

and Table 10 of the Full Report Table Supplement.

Content, coverage and depth

All of the courses reviewed had a common aim: to provide a summative assessment

at the end of secondary education which could be used to gain access to higher

education or which could be used by employers to indicate the ability of the individual

to carry out mathematical tasks and to solve problems. In addition to this many of the

courses included a statement of philosophy regarding mathematics and its use to the

individual and society.

Some of the courses concentrate much more on testing “college readiness”. In

particular the ACT and the New York State Regents Diploma focus entirely on

standardised testing for the pure purpose of college transfer.

A level Mathematics is a stand-alone qualification which serves to provide a

summation of an individual's progress and achievement in mathematics. It can be

studied alone and does not contribute towards a leaving certificate or a diploma.

Other qualifications similar to this are: A level Further Mathematics, Hong Kong

HKALE, CIE A level, Cambridge Pre-U and USA ACT.

Many of the qualifications reviewed are part of a leaving certificate or diploma. In

these cases the study of mathematics is usually compulsory post-16, although not at

a level comparable with A level for all students. The qualifications that require some

form of mathematical study are the Alberta Diploma, Denmark STX, Finland

Matriculation Examination, France baccalauréat, Hong Kong HKDSE, the IB

Diploma, Netherlands havo and vwo, New Zealand NCEA Level 3, Norway Vitnemål,

the People’s Republic of China Gāokăo, the Republic of Korea CSAT and the New


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York State Regents Diploma. For some of these qualifications it is necessary to gain

a pass at some level in mathematics in order to achieve the certificate but for others,

which are credit-based, it is not necessary to gain a pass in mathematics.

Although these differences between the qualifications are significant they do not, of

themselves, appear to affect the level of demand of the mathematics qualification.

Generally, the wider the remit of the diploma or certificate, the lower the demand of

the mathematics required for successful completion.

The most striking difference between the objectives of the qualifications is that

between content and process. Many of the qualifications such as Denmark STX,

Hong Kong HKALE, Netherlands havo and vwo, New Zealand NCEA Level 3,

People’s Republic of China Gāokăo, Republic of Korea CSAT, USA ACT and New

York State Regents Diploma have content-based assessment objectives or similar

whereas A level, A level Further Mathematics, the CIE A level, the France

baccalauréat, the IB Diploma, New South Wales HSC, Norway Vitnemål and the

Republic of Ireland Leaving Certificate (Established) have process-based objectives.

This is however not indicative of demand or indeed of the level of process or

problem-solving required of students by the assessments. For example, the two

qualifications from the Netherlands have content-based assessment objectives but

the written assessments involve students in process-based mathematics. In addition

several of the other courses stress the need to address problem-solving as part of

the learning of mathematics. For example the France baccalauréat général, the

People’s Republic of China Gāokăo and the Republic of Korea CSAT général all

stress the need to engage in problem-solving as a mathematical activity.

Some of the courses do not specify the teaching time required for the qualification.

These included the USA ACT, the New York State Regent’s Diploma, Denmark STX

and Finland Matriculation Examination. A level Mathematics and Further

Mathematics advise 360 guided learning hours as do the CIE A level and the New

South Wales HSC courses. The Netherlands havo has 320 hours guided learning

hours, Norway Vitnemål and Republic of Korea CSAT around 280 hours, the Alberta

Diploma, the French baccalauréat général science specialism and the IB Higher

around 250 hours and the Republic of Ireland Leaving Certificate 180 hours, whereas

the Cambridge Pre-U suggests 380 hours, the Hong Kong HKALE 416 hours and the

Netherlands vwo 600 hours, over three years. Again the number of hours

recommended for course delivery does not seem to have a direct impact on the

demand of the examination.

All of the courses reviewed require the study of pure mathematics. The number and

depth of topics does significantly affect the level of demand of the qualification,

notably where a course does not require the study of calculus and trigonometry to

some significant level. The courses which do not require either or both of these topics

are the Alberta Diploma, the Hong Kong HKDSE, the Netherlands havo and the USA


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ACT and New York State Regents Diploma. At the other extreme the requirement to

study abstract and technically difficult mathematics was judged to raise demand. In

particular A level Further Mathematics, Hong Kong HKALE, the IB Diploma, the New

South Wales HSC and the Republic of Korea CSAT all fall into this category. Topics

which are common to these qualifications are the in-depth study of complex

numbers, advanced algebraic techniques used to prove results and identities and the

study of topics such as group theory. These five courses in particular provide

students with a sound introduction to mathematical analysis.

The depth to which a topic was studied was significant in the judgement of demand.

For example the ACT tests complex numbers but only superficially and this in itself is

not enough to raise demand, whereas the in-depth knowledge required by the

IB Diploma and A level Further Mathematics does significantly raise the demand of

those courses. Depth of study more than number of topics was judged to be more

important in raising the demand of the course.

A level Further Mathematics was the broadest and the deepest qualification

reviewed. It is unusual, in that the study of three application disciplines, statistics,

decision mathematics and mechanics, are offered. The next broadest qualification is

A level Mathematics with two applications, statistics and mechanics, being most

commonly studied. While some other qualifications come close, such as the Higher

Level IB Diploma by requiring a significant amount of statistics and probability, only

the Cambridge International A level, the Cambridge Pre-U and to some extent the

New South Wales HSC require the study of a significant amount of applied

mathematics. The requirement to adapt one’s approach and mindset to different

applications of mathematics was considered to raise the demand of the qualification.

On the other hand qualifications such as the Hong Kong HKALE, the Netherlands

vwo, the People’s Republic of China Gāokăo, and the Republic of Korea CSAT study

a much narrower range of topics, often to a greater depth.

The balance between breadth of application and pursuit of complex and deep study

was a major consideration when comparing the demands of different mathematics

qualifications as part of this study. Both lead to a rise in demand; however having a

broader range of applications allows students more flexibility in the pathways they

can follow in higher education. Within the A level structure in England there is the

option for students to study in depth by taking further mathematics and 15 per cent of

students who study A level Mathematics take this up. Similarly the Hong Kong

HKALE, the IB Diploma and the New South Wales HSC also have options within

which students can increase their level of study.

It is marked that very few courses allow for the study of mechanics and decision

mathematics. Only A level Mathematics and Further Mathematics allow students to

study these areas in depth. The IB Diploma has an option in decision mathematics

available to students. It is surprising given the significant role of decision


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mathematics in the modern world that it does not appear in any other courses to any

significant extent. However it must be said that many countries regard mechanics as

a part of physics and that may be why it is absent from many of the mathematics

courses.

Lastly there is the consideration of functionality in mathematics. As stated previously

many of the courses listed process and functionality in their assessment objectives.

The need to be functional with either a mathematical or a real-life context was

considered to raise the demand of an assessment. However the assessment

objectives are not always a clear indication of the type of questions faced by students

in examinations.

Some courses such as Hong Kong HKALE and the People’s Republic of China

Gāokăo study some topics which would be covered in first-year university

mathematics in the UK; these topics tend to be very abstract and analytical, often

relying on formal proof. They are undoubtedly challenging and difficult but are

included by omitting the more applied options which enhance students’

understanding of the role that mathematics plays in the world. They also do not

recognise the change in the nature of mathematics which has come about through

the use of sophisticated calculators and computers.

Many of the courses offer choices in their programmes of study. In the qualifications

in which mathematics is compulsory post-16 often it is the ability of the student that

determines which of the routes they will follow. In these countries there is a wide

range of usually three or four programmes of study. In nearly every case the most

challenging programme of study has been chosen to compare against A level

Mathematics and Further Mathematics. The exception is the further mathematics of

the Hong Kong HKALE and the IB Diploma but as student numbers for both these

qualifications are so low they can be omitted from the study. In the UK, although

post-16 mathematics is not compulsory, there is a huge range of qualifications which

students can study of which A level Mathematics and Further Mathematics are only

two.

A level Mathematics is unusual in that it offers six different routes of study. By

choosing a different combination of applied units a student can tailor their course

towards their chosen career path or higher education course. A level Further

Mathematics offers students even more choice and courses can be tailored to a

student's chosen career path. To a certain extent the Cambridge International A level

offers a narrower but similar choice, as does the New Zealand NCEA Level 3. Other

courses offer a limited choice of one module. This choice usually contains the option

of doing more statistics and probability or more pure mathematics with a choice from

topics such as group theory, differential equations and geometry. Such qualifications

are the IB Diploma (Higher level), Hong Kong HKALE and, to a certain extent, New

Zealand NCEA Level 3, where extra courses can be studied for extra credits.


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Assessment

Two issues were judged to make a difference to the level of demand: examination

timing and the presence or absence of coursework.

Several of the qualifications involve teacher or school-based assessment where up to

50 per cent of the final grade is made up of such assessment tasks. Such

assessment can broaden a qualification and allow students to be tested on the

application of IT, extended problem-solving and the use of mathematics as a tool for

modelling that cannot be tested in an examination environment.

The examinations also fall into two categories: those which have terminal papers at

the end of the course and those which are modular with papers that can be sat at

various intervals during the course. On the whole the terminal papers raise demand

as the students have to be tested on the whole course at once and these papers tend

to be longer and more demanding. In particular the Cambridge Pre-U, the Hong Kong

HKALE, the IB Diploma, the New South Wales HSC, the People’s Republic of China

Gāokăo and the Republic of Korea CSAT Mathematics A are clear examples of this

rise in demand. In these qualifications the terminal papers are demanding, with few

questions that would act as a lead-in for the less able students and as the

examinations are placed at the end of the course there is little testing of the work that

came earlier in the course.

There is also less of an opportunity to re-sit examinations and improve grades with

terminal examinations. It is clear that a modular examination requires less knowledge

to be tested in one sitting as the course is broken up into modules and testing is

carried out at the end of each section. This can lower demand. However, modular

systems tend to have a longer overall assessment time and offer more opportunities

for thorough testing which can increase demand.

The written question papers reviewed varied greatly in length and style. Individual

questions also varied greatly in style, structure and demand. However, there were

also many qualities shared by all of the papers:

On the whole the question papers followed their courses closely and students

would not be faced with any unexpected topics or processes. In A level

Mathematics the assessment objectives were however not met, although the

content requirements were represented well. The questions did not reflect the

problem-solving required by the assessment objectives. Some awarding

organisations wrote more balanced papers than others, for example in the IB

Diploma, the A level, the Cambridge International A level and the Republic of

Ireland Leaving Certificate the papers were designed to give comprehensive

coverage of all the topics in the course, with no topic being over-represented,

whereas in the Hong Kong HKALE papers there was a strong bias towards the

analytical topics with, for example, proof by induction being tested four times


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whilst other topics remained untested; this also occurred in the People’s

Republic of China Gāokăo where a narrow band of content was tested.

Nearly all of the questions reviewed were well written and students would have

had no problems understanding what was required. When there was any doubt

regarding this aspect it was usually due to the problems encountered in

translation.

Question papers were well designed with good clear diagrams, good use of

white space and a reasonable level of literacy demand.

Most of the papers gave students an opportunity to show what they knew,

understood and could do, especially in the areas of mathematical techniques

and methods.

Some of the papers consisted partially or wholly of multiple-choice questions. Often

these questions did not stretch students as much as other types of questions, for

example, in both the USA ACT and the Hong Kong HKDSE the options themselves

gave students some help in reaching the correct answer. This style of question

restricted the opportunity for students to show that they could communicate

mathematically and did not allow students to demonstrate extended mathematical

arguments. This is one reason why the ACT paper was judged to have a lower level

of demand for students. This was also prevalent in the New York State Regents

Diploma, the compulsory part of the Hong Kong HKDSE and in the pure mathematics

and applied mathematics papers of the Alberta Diploma. Some courses, however,

such as Republic of Korea CSAT and the People’s Republic of China Gāokăo also

used multiple-choice questions but these tended to be very stretching for students.

These questions were often worth a significant number of marks but there was no

facility for part-marks and students lost just as many marks for one arithmetical slip

as for a non-attempt of the question or a wild guess.

Many of the papers contained short-answer questions. These were used to test a

limited range of mathematical methods or techniques where often the technique

required was stated in the question. These were judged to be useful questions as

they allowed students to show their ability to master mathematical techniques. The

level of demand in these questions came from the technique or method being

assessed, for example, carrying out a complex integration by substitution was

regarded as more demanding than the integration of a simple polynomial. This sort of

question was present in nearly all courses but particularly so in A level Mathematics,

the Alberta Diploma, the Cambridge International A level, parts of the IB Diploma,

New Zealand NCEA Level 3, the Republic of Ireland Leaving Certificate, the France

baccalauréat général and part of the New York State Regents Diploma. They tended

to be less prevalent in courses which had terminal rather than modular examinations.


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Longer questions were found in the majority of the assessments reviewed; however

they differed greatly in their nature:

Some of the questions were not multi-part. They presented a significant

problem and students were required to work out how to tackle the problem and

select which mathematical methods were appropriate for solution. These

questions were judged to have a high level of demand. They were most often

found in the questions papers of A level Further Mathematics, Denmark STX,

the Finland Matriculation Examination, the Hong Kong HKALE, the Netherlands

havo, the People’s Republic of China Gāokăo and the Republic of Korea CSAT,

where they were optional questions and were flagged as more demanding, and

in one of the papers for the New South Wales HSC.

Many questions were multi-part with the examiner leading the student through

the solution of a significantly complex problem. This was done by structuring the

earlier parts of the question to ensure that the student worked out the relevant

identities, equations or information, hence giving clues as to what was expected

in the final part of the question. Whilst the overall problem being tackled could

be extremely complex, this level of structuring lowered the demand of the

overall task. Some questions were more structured than others. These

questions were often to be found in the papers of A level Mathematics, A level

Further Mathematics, the Cambridge International A level, the Cambridge Pre-

U, the France baccalauréat, the New Zealand NCEA Level 3, the Norway

Vitnemål (R paper) and the Republic of Ireland Leaving Certificate.

Lastly there were questions which were a combination of both the points above.

The question was multi-part with up three small sub-parts leading the student

into a context or mathematical context but without giving a significant degree of

structure. The last part of these questions, usually with a high mark allocation,

required the student to problem-solve and select further methods and

techniques required for solution. These questions were regarded as having a

high level of demand. They were particularly prevalent in the IB Diploma and

this question style is the dominant factor in judging the high level of demand of

this assessment. Similar questions could be found in the Cambridge Pre-U, the

France baccalauréat général (S stream) and the Hong Kong HKALE.

The two Netherlands courses, the havo paper A and the vwo paper B, also contained

extended questions which required students to engage significantly with a context

either from real life or a more abstract mathematical context. Here the level of

mathematical demand could be lower than in other questions but the student was

required to interpret the context and select information and techniques to reach

solution. These questions were regarded as having a high level of demand and were

different from most of the other questions reviewed. It was disappointing to see that

very few of the courses made any attempt to relate mathematics to real-life contexts


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or situations. The only courses which attempted to do this were A level Mathematics

and Further Mathematics, the France baccalauréat général (ES stream), Norway

Vitnemål (S papers) and Republic of Korea CSAT.

This increase in demand regarding context was also recognised in the questions

which required application of mathematics in fields such as statistics, mechanics and

very occasionally discrete mathematics. In mechanics, although the mathematics

was not as complex as in some of the pure mathematics topics the need to apply

techniques within context and to solve problems raised the level of demand. This

relates directly to the breadth of the course and questions of this type were found

most often in A level Mathematics and Further mathematics as these are significantly

the broadest qualifications.

The questions often rated as the most demanding mathematically tended to come

from courses such as A level Further Mathematics, the Hong Kong HKALE, the

IB Diploma (Higher level), Extension 2 Paper in the New South Wales HSC, the

People’s Republic of China Gāokăo and the Republic of Korea CSAT. These often

tested topics commonly found at the beginning of mathematical analysis and while

they were technically demanding they were often extremely abstract.

The demand of a question was judged to be a blend of the technical difficulty of the

mathematics required for solution and the strategy needed by the student in tackling

a problem. Straightforward but technically difficult questions could be regarded as

having a similar demand to those requiring less technical expertise but needing more

problem-solving skills.

Using and applying mathematics in a real-life or mathematical context or via problem-

solving was not just restricted to the most demanding courses overall and many good

examples were found in A level Further Mathematics, the IB Diploma (Higher and

Standard), the Netherlands havo and vwo, the New South Wales HSC, some of the

papers from the New Zealand NCEA Level 3, the Republic of Korea CSAT (both

Mathematics A and B), and the People’s Republic of China Gāokăo.

Questions were graded for complexity and strategy which broadly represent these

two categories. In addition, the balance of the different types of question discussed

above was also important in determining the overall demand of a paper.

Duration of assessments was also a factor. While a three-hour paper could be

demanding in terms of the level of concentration required over time it also allowed

students time to “settle into” the paper and to recover if a question did not go well.

Some of the qualifications with short examination times such as New Zealand NCEA

Level 3 and in particular the USA ACT were regarded as demanding because a lot of

information has to be processed in a short space of time, allowing students very little

time to settle or develop their thinking.


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Some of the papers had very generous time allowances, such as the Denmark STX,

France baccalauréat and Norway Vitnemål This was in contrast with the People’s

Republic of China Gāokăo, the Republic of Korea CSAT and four of the A level

Further Mathematics modules where students have to complete a significant amount

of challenging mathematics in a relatively short space of time.

A level Mathematics and Further Mathematics had the longest examination time

which allows the course to be thoroughly assessed but it should be noted that many

of the other courses also require a significant amount of school-based assessment.

In most cases the mark schemes were clear, detailed and should lead to consistency

in marking. Some, such as the Hong Kong HKALE, were not available to students

and teachers to discourage rote learning. This implies that there is likely to be a high

predictability to the questions over time if learning solutions is considered to be

possible. In courses such as the Alberta Diploma and the USA ACT all marking was

carried out by computer as questions had either multiple-choice answers or were

numerical response questions, requiring a digital answer only. In some qualifications

such as the People’s Republic China Gāokăo and Republic of Korea CSAT marks

were awarded in blocks and no part-marks were awarded for part solution or working

out. Students were penalised as much for a small slip as for not attempting the

question.

4.2 Mathematics findings by education system

Australia – New South Wales Higher School Certificate, or HSC

The Higher School Certificate (HSC) in New South Wales is designed to be studied

by the full range of students, rather than only those planning to continue to university.

Mathematics is an optional subject within the HSC. But around three-quarters do at

least some mathematics as part of their qualification. There are three options within

mathematics: to undertake mathematics alone (a two-unit course), to undertake

Mathematics and Extension 1 (an additional unit) or to undertake Mathematics,

Extension 1 and Extension 2 (another additional unit). Taking the HSC mathematics

course and the extension 1 course uses about 30 per cent of HSC course time. In

England a typical student takes three A levels using about 30 per cent of course time

per subject.

Mathematics consists mainly of pure mathematics along with Euclidean geometry,

probability and series and sequences. It is a subset of A level Mathematics with a

much narrower range of topics and a lower demand than A level. Extension 1

consists broadly of an extension of those in the mathematics course, mainly pure

mathematics with some probability and some content which could be classified as

mechanics. The combination of mathematics and Extension 1 is still a narrower

range of topics than A level but has a slightly higher level of demand. The additional

Extension 2 results in the study of mathematics in the HSC course being much


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higher than A level Mathematics (but lower than A level Further Mathematics) with

the topics studied being a relatively small subset of Further Mathematics.

The most direct comparison with the A level is the combination of Mathematics plus

Mathematics Extension 1. The purpose of this course is to allow students to progress

to science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) related courses in

higher education. The Extension 2 course is designed for students with a special

interest in mathematics who have shown that they possess a special aptitude for the

subject.

The topics within the syllabus fit well together and, with the applications in aspects of

mechanics and probability, allow for synoptic questions.

In addition to the written examinations there is also a level of teacher assessment for

each level of qualification. The teacher-assessed component is primarily concerned

with the student’s reasoning, interpretative, explanatory and communicative abilities.

There are no topic areas proscribed for the teacher-assessed component, only that

they must reflect those topics in the syllabus. The school-based assessment provides

teachers with the opportunity to give students tasks that are different in nature from

the HSC examinations, such as investigative tasks, tasks that use different

technologies and tasks over a longer timeframe. In addition, the school-based

assessment typically is spread over several school terms and consists of three to five

distinct tasks, each with a percentage weighting towards the total mark.

The Mathematics paper is three hours long with an extra five minutes for reading

time. The questions were judged to be very well constructed with clear and concise

language, good accurate diagrams and good use of white space. The time demand

of the paper was judged to be fair. The less able students would have been able to

access the paper and there were plenty of opportunities for them to show what they

understood, knew and could do. Many of the questions spanned more than one topic

but this usually meant that part (a) was one topic and part (b) a completely different

topic rather than the questions being synoptic.

The range of demand of the questions was wide with the most difficult providing

stretch and challenge for the most able students.

The Extension 1 paper is two hours long with five minutes’ reading time. The

questions were of a similar quality and nature to those in the mathematics paper.

Again there was more than one topic in a question and demand varied from a

methods question such as question 1 to problems which required more problem-

solving.

The demand of this paper in combination with that of mathematics was judged to be

above that of A level Mathematics. The increase in demand was due to two factors:

the fact that the papers were terminal; and the nature of the questions which were


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judged to have less structure than some of the A level questions. However this

increase in demand was not seen as significant.

The Extension 2 paper is a three-hour paper with five minutes for reading. Again the

questions were of good quality and this paper was considered to be much more

demanding than A level Mathematics but less demanding than Further Mathematics

A Level.


The Alberta Diploma is designed to be studied by the full range of students, rather

than only those planning to continue to university. Mathematics is a required part of

the senior high school programme in Alberta. In order to transfer to a STEM-related

course in higher education students have to study pure mathematics and applied

mathematics at levels 10, 20 and 30. There are other courses available to students

designed to help them become functionally mathematical and numerate outside of

these that would meet the requirements of the Alberta Diploma. This study has

reviewed Pure Mathematics 30 and Applied Mathematics 30 as a sample of what is

required.

Taking applied mathematics or pure mathematics 10, 20 and 30 courses within the

diploma programme uses about 15 per cent of Alberta Diploma course time. In

England a typical student takes three A levels using about 30 per cent of their study

time per subject. Pure mathematics emphasises mathematical theory and the testing

of mathematical hypotheses. The pure mathematics studied, and the approach to the

topics, contain little formal algebra and the use of graphical calculators play a key

role in the learning of mathematics. The course does not cover abstraction and

generalisation, and calculus is covered only in Mathematics 31 and even with the

extended content students would find it difficult to transfer to a STEM-related higher

education course in the UK.

Applied mathematics is a blend of approaches to everyday problems which is

intended to give students a clearer picture of why they are learning mathematics.

Whilst this functional approach is interesting it was considered that this programme

was not a coherent body of knowledge, unless it was taught concurrently to pure

mathematics. The topics within applied mathematics are: shape, space and measure;

aspects of financial mathematics; some aspects of decision mathematics, some

statistics and probability and one aspect of mechanics.

The assessment for the Alberta Diploma is 50 per cent school-based assessment

and 50 per cent modular examinations. Very little is known about what comprises the

school-based assessment and no comment can be made on the standard or benefit

of this part of the Diploma.


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Pure Mathematics 30 and Applied Mathematics 30 are each examined by a two-hour

written examination, although another 30 minutes are available to students if they

require the extra time. The examinations may be attempted in April and November

with re-sits available in January, June and August. No information regarding the

percentages of students re-sitting was available.

Both courses follow the same pattern of assessment. The first part of each paper is

made up of 33 multiple-choice questions. Until recently the second part of the paper

was made up of numerical answer questions and written answer questions; however

the written answer questions have recently been dropped and now the second

section consists entirely of numerical answer questions. All of the examination

papers are now machine-marked. This means that there is now no opportunity for

students to show what they know, understand and can do in the use of mathematics

as a means of communication, of development of arguments and as a means to

interpret statistical and other problems. It is assumed that this aspect of mathematics

is assessed within the 50 per cent teacher-based assessment. The multiple-choice

questions make up 82 per cent of the total marks with the remaining 18 per cent

being numerical response.

The questions are drawn from a task bank. There are anchor items that appear in

every session, which help to standardise the papers, and these are not released after

the examination. The remainder of the items are unique items and these are used

once only and then released into the public domain. The papers released for review

are specimen papers consisting of multiple-choice, numerical response and written

response questions. They are therefore from the old style of examination. A new

style paper was not available for review.

The questions were clear, unambiguous and well laid out, with detailed and accurate

diagrams. The wording was good and should cause no literacy issues. However

there were a lot of questions and a considerable amount to read in the time given

and it was felt this would raise the time demand of the assessment.

The demand of the questions was judged to be significantly lower than that of A level

Mathematics. However, some of the material that would have increased the demand

of mathematics study for the most able student may have been covered in

Mathematics 31.


The Studentereksamen (STX) is designed to be studied by students intending to

continue their academic studies at university. Students must do well in their lower

secondary courses in order to be accepted for the STX. Mathematics is a compulsory

part of the STX programme and may be taken at three different levels: A, B and C.

A student may make up his or her STX from a range of subjects at different levels.

For preparation for higher education in a STEM-related subject or a subject that


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requires any form of statistical analysis it is necessary to study the STX level A in

mathematics. This programme requires 325 guided learning hours which is roughly

equivalent to A level.

Taking Mathematics A, B and C courses within the STX uses about 15 per cent of

STX course time. In England a typical student takes three A levels using about 30

per cent of course time per subject.

The assessment of the subject includes teacher marks which are awarded both

during and at the end of the course, an extended project, an oral examination and a

written examination. No information was available regarding the weightings of the

different parts of the mathematics assessment which made a meaningful comparison

difficult to achieve. The only information available to this review was that pertaining to

the written examination.

Much of the content of the course is devoted to the basic mathematical topics in

algebra, coordinate geometry and differential and integral calculus. The most notable

absence is that of an in-depth study of trigonometry. There is a suggestion that

modelling plays a significant part in the curriculum and this, it is assumed, is

assessed via the class-based work. There is some mention of statistics but none of

mechanics. The syllabus was much more limited than the A level.

Information was available on the written terminal paper only and therefore the

judgements have been based upon this. Clearly there is some project component

and an oral examination but no information was available regarding these

assessments.

The five-hour paper is split into two parts: a non-calculator paper lasting an hour

which needs to be completed first and then a written calculator paper which runs

concurrently with the non-calculator paper.

The less able students would have been able to tackle at least half of the paper

reviewed, and there were some unstructured questions which would test the most

able. The questions had equal weighting but varied greatly in the level of demand.

There was no gradient of difficulty as question 14 was much easier than question 1.

However as the time given for the examination is very generous this should not

present an issue.

There is no typical question as both demand and style vary enormously.

The questions exhibit roughly the same level of demand as A level Mathematics but

as students in Denmark have significantly more time to complete the examination,

this would overall make it less demanding than A level Mathematics.


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The Edexcel A levels in Mathematics and Further Mathematics are designed to be

studied by students who were successful in level 2 mathematics qualifications and

wish to continue their studies although not necessarily to study mathematics at

university. In both Mathematics and Further Mathematics after completing half the

course, students may claim a qualification called the AS level, with the second half of

the course being called A2. Together they make up the A level. A levels are offered

by five different organisations in England, and they contain some variation although

they are based on a common set of criteria set by us, as the regulator.

Taking Mathematics A level typically uses about 30 per cent of a student’s A level

course time. However around 15 per cent of students taking Mathematics A level

also study A level Further Mathematics as a fourth subject, using about 50 per cent

of A level course time for the combined subjects.

A level Mathematics

The Edexcel A level qualification is made up of four pure mathematics core units

C1‒C4 plus two applied units. There is a choice of two applied units from the six

available: decision mathematics D1 and D2, mechanics M1 and M2, and statistics S1

and S2. D2, M2 or S2 may only be studied in the second year as a follow-on to their

partner unit. The most popular combination is C1–C4 plus M1 and S1, and therefore

this was used as the basis for comparison within this study.

The pure content consists of calculus, trigonometry, algebra and functions, series

and sequences, vectors, logarithms and exponentials and curve sketching. The

requirement to study a diverse range of mathematics, combined with the different

approaches required for both mechanics and statistics, raises the level of demand of

this qualification. It was found that the ability to apply the pure mathematics studied in

different contexts was an important part of the qualification.

Each of the six modules is assessed by a one-and-a-half-hour closed examination.

There is no coursework and the examinations all follow the same format, a question

paper containing seven to eleven questions of varying length and mark allocation, all

of which are compulsory. There are no optional routes within the papers. The module

assessments may be taken in January or June. It is possible to re-sit these modules

during the second year of study.

The statistics and mechanics papers allow students to show that they are able to

apply pure mathematics to practical situations and both would be very helpful for

students whose choice of higher education takes them into science, social science or

engineering and technology degrees.


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A level Further Mathematics

A level Further Mathematics is designed to be taken alongside A level Mathematics.

In order to achieve A level Further Mathematics students need to complete a further

six modules of study beyond those studied for A level Mathematics. The core is

Further Pure 1 and either Further Pure 2 or 3 with another four modules being

selected from the pure and applied options. For the purpose of this study the most

common option pattern was selected: Further Pure 1, 2 and 3 and Mechanics 2,

Statistics 2 and Decision 1. The further mathematics modules contain advanced

calculus, vectors, an in-depth study of complex numbers and matrix algebra. The

mathematics at this level is amongst the most demanding in this study, similar to

Hong Kong HKALE and the IB Diploma Higher. In addition the Mechanics 2 module

requires extensive problem-solving at this level and the Statistics 2 and Decision 1

modules serve to increase the diversity of the qualification.

This specification provides the broadest range of mathematics and its applications

and the A2 modules in particular provide significant technical and problem-solving

challenges for students, making this the most demanding programme of study

reviewed.

Each of the six modules which comprise further mathematics is assessed by a one-

and-a-half-hour closed examination. There is no coursework and the examinations all

follow the same format, a question paper containing seven to eleven questions of

varying length and mark allocation, all of which are compulsory. There are no

optional routes within the papers. Some of the module assessments may be taken in

January or June but some of the modules are only available in June.

The papers reviewed varied greatly in levels of demand. The AS (first year of study)

modules such as Further Pure 1 and Decision 1 were comparable with the A level

modules; however the modules such as Further Pure 2 and Further Pure 3 were very

demanding, some of the most demanding assessments seen in the whole of the

study. The questions were not only technically difficult but also required a degree of

problem-solving strategies to reach a solution.

The coverage of the specification was good and most topics were assessed to some

depth. The range of mathematics required by students was extensive and required

considerable levels of expertise in pure mathematics combined with high levels of

expertise in statistics and probability, mechanics and decision mathematics.


The Matriculation Examination is designed to test students’ level of achievement in

their upper secondary studies. An overall pass entitles them to continue their studies

at university. Mathematics, either at basic or advanced level, is a compulsory part of

the Matriculation qualification. The purpose of the basic mathematics course is to

provide students with the capabilities to acquire process, to understand mathematical


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information and to use mathematics in different life situations and for further study.

The purpose of the advanced mathematics course is to provide students with the

mathematical capabilities required in vocational studies and higher education.

Taking both the compulsory and specialised additional mathematics courses within

the upper secondary school programme uses about 20 per cent of Matriculation

Examination course time. In England a typical student takes three A levels using

about 30 per cent of course time per subject.

The basic level covers a range of topics in mathematics and its applications. The

advanced level covers a similar range of topics to the modules C1–C4 of the A level;

there are no significant application topics at this level. There are ten core modules in

the advanced syllabus and six in the basic syllabus. In addition there are three

supplementary modules in the advanced level and two in the basic which can be

studied on top of the core modules. Not all modules would take the same time to

teach.

Students sit the examinations in either the spring of autumn of their final year. They

are allowed to re-sit and about 14 per cent of students do so. The numbers sitting

both the basic and the advanced level have remained relatively constant over the last

ten years.

Both the basic and the advanced level papers were reviewed. Students sit only one

terminal paper. Students choose 10 from 15 questions all of which are worth 6 marks

but with two optional questions on the advanced paper being worth 9 marks – these

are the “star’ questions. Despite the other questions all being worth the same number

of marks there is a deliberate gradient of difficulty in the papers: “The Matriculation

Examination Board shall endeavour to rank the test questions in an approximate

order of difficulty from the easiest to the most difficult” (Matriculation Examination

assessment materials). The students’ choice of question will therefore be very

important in determining the standard of the questions that they face.

Many of the basic level questions are closed and require limited strategy, however

some of the later questions are of a more open nature allowing students to select

appropriate strategies. Later questions at the advanced level also contain more open

and less scaffolded questions and these are regarded as challenging.

The basic paper reviewed was less challenging than the benchmark A level but some

of the questions in the advanced level were more challenging owing to their less

scaffolded nature. However without a time for the paper or a mark scheme it is

difficult to make a final judgement. In addition, the level of demand would vary

according to the choice of questions that students made.


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France – baccalauréat général

The baccalauréat général is designed to be studied by students who were successful

in the Diplôme national du brevet and may be planning to continue their studies at

university.

The baccalauréat général is divided into three streams: literature, economic and

social sciences and sciences. Each has an element of mathematics.

Taking both compulsory and specialisation courses for mathematics within the

baccalauréat général série S uses about 25 per cent of baccalauréat général course

time. In England a typical student takes three A levels using about 30 per cent of

course time per subject.

In the literature stream mathematics is a minor part of this strand and the

course is heavily focused on basic algebra, statistics, arithmetic and geometry,

in particular constructive geometry. This syllabus was judged to be significantly

below the demand of A level.

In the economic and social sciences stream the mathematics is broader than

the literature strand, covering continuity of functions, differentiation, sequences,

geometry and probability and statistics.

In the sciences stream the mathematics contains significant calculus,

trigonometry, functions, geometry, analysis and statistics. The content is not as

broad as A level and contains no mechanics and less statistics but the pure

mathematics content goes beyond the content of A level with topics such as

complex numbers, proof by induction and aspects of 3D geometry.

In each stream students can elect to do mathematics or take it as a specialisation.

The mathematics in the science stream is clearly the most demanding of the three

with the mathematics being more demanding than A level but less diverse in its

content.

An ethos for the course can be summarised as “research and study of speculation,

resolving problems, argumentation, reasoning, demonstration”, which clearly expects

the use of an investigative approach to mathematics teaching involving problem-

solving and reasoning, together with rigorous mathematical proof. In contrast, content

is listed in a formal, dry manner with few examples of real-life applications.

Each of the strands’ mathematics content has a terminal paper for mathematics and

each paper has a weighting or a coefficient which counts towards the final certificate.

There is no coursework element.


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The time allocation, four hours for the science paper and three hours for the

economic and social science and literature papers, appears to be very generous and

it is assumed that students would finish well before the end of the time allocation.

The questions on all the literature and economic and social science programmes

were scaffolded and the method of solution was clearly indicated. The questions in

the science strand were more challenging and required more problem-solving.

The literature stream paper was judged to be well below the demand of A level

Mathematics and the match between the questions and the syllabus was not good

with the questions being concentrated on a relatively small part of the content.

The science stream paper was judged to be more demanding in technical difficulty

than A level Mathematics but significantly less demanding than A level Further

Mathematics. This is the closest comparator to A level Mathematics. The content is

very abstract with only one question being set within a context. There was only one

applied question in the paper – probability.

Hong Kong Advanced Level Examination, or HKALE

The HKALE is designed to be studied by students who were successful in Hong

Kong Certificate of Education Examinations (HKCEE) sciences and wish to continue

their studies at university. Mathematics is an optional subject within the HKALE, and

there are three subjects in the suite: pure mathematics; applied mathematics and the

advanced supplementary level mathematics and statistics. The first two are intended

to develop higher mathematics in preparation to taking a STEM degree in higher

education. The HKALE in Pure Mathematics was reviewed in this study as it has the

biggest entry of the three.

A typical HKALE student taking mathematics A level alongside four AS subjects uses

about 30 per cent of their A level course time for the A level. In England a typical

student takes three A levels using about 30 per cent of course time per subject.

The HKALE in Pure Mathematics is closest in content to the Edexcel A level in Pure

Mathematics. The topic range is much narrower than the A level but reaches much

higher levels than the A level reviewed, which includes mechanics and statistics. The

topics in the syllabus are very analytical and extremely algebra-based. There is very

little in the way of coordinate geometry and almost no vectors. There is no form of

application whatsoever. The qualification is basically an introduction to mathematical

analysis which would provide students with an excellent range of analysis

techniques.

The emphasis is on conceptual understanding rather than method and applicability

and there is a wide range of set proofs contained within the topics, some of which are

examined. There is a clear emphasis on working with generality and many of the


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topics contain work on general functions rather than techniques which can be applied

in the transformation of mathematics.

There are two terminal papers of three hours each which are sat at the end of the

course. However it should be noted that around 16 per cent of entries per year are

re-sits. This is roughly in line with the number re-sitting modules in A levels.

Both papers have a similar design: section A, which consists of six compulsory

questions and constitutes 40 per cent of the marks, and section B which offers

students a choice of four out of five questions. The questions in section A are more

straightforward than those in section B. These are challenging papers, with a

relatively shallow gradient of difficulty which offer few concessions to students at the

lower end of the ability range.

The questions are structured to enable students to work with a good flow through

each large question. There are different access points to many of the questions,

which means that if a student cannot access the first part then all is not lost. Several

of the questions contain set proofs which appear in the course supporting materials

and it is imagined that these could be learned by students and then repeated.

There is more than enough to test the most able students. Many of the large

questions in section B go well beyond the mathematics available in A level

Mathematics but it must be recognised that the range of topics is much smaller and

the testing further narrows this range, for example vectors are not tested at all, but

proof by induction comes up four times over the course of the two papers.

Both papers were found to have a significantly higher level of challenge than the

present A level; however several factors should be taken into account when

comparing levels of challenge:

the relatively narrow range of mathematics and mathematical analysis tackled

the absence of any mathematical applications

the number of students passing at each level.

Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education, or HKDSE

The Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education (HKDSE) programme will replace

the Hong Kong Advanced Level Examination (HKALE) from 2012. It is designed to

be taken by all students. Students who secure good results in the HKDSE

examination should be able to gain admission to overseas tertiary institutions.

Mathematics is part of the HKDSE and comprises of a Compulsory Part and an

Extended Part. All candidates must follow the Compulsory Part of the syllabus. The

study of Compulsory Mathematics within the HKDSE uses between 10 per cent and

12.5 per cent of the total course time. If students elect to study the Extended Part as


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well as the Compulsory Part, this uses around 15 per cent of the HKDSE course



Compulsory Part

The HKDSE Compulsory Part will be assessed through a combination of external

examinations and School-based Assessment (SBA). There are two external

examinations; Paper 1 with a weighting of 55 per cent and a duration of two hours 15

minutes; and Paper 2 with a weighting of 30 per cent and a duration of one hour 15

minutes. The SBA will have a weighting of 15 per cent although during transition

years the subject mark will be based entirely on the public examination results.

Paper 1 consists of three sections. Section A (1) consists of highly structured tasks

assessing content that is deemed to be a pre-requisite to A level study (including

indices, changing the subject of a formula, factorising quadratic expressions,

percentages, problem-solving, volumes of solids, circle geometry, rotations and pie

charts). Section A (2) and Section B consist of predominantly structured questions

assessing a narrow sample of the content of the A level syllabus content.

Paper 2 consists of two sections and all tasks are multiple-choice questions.

Section A contains 30 questions and assesses content that is deemed to be a pre-

requisite to A Level study including algebraic manipulation, solving linear and

quadratic equations, percentage change, algebraic formulae and substitution, ratio,

direct and inverse proportion, area, circle geometry and sampling methods. Section B

contains 15 questions assessing a narrow band of AS content. The nature of the

questions in Paper 2 (multiple choice, correct answer amongst a choice of four) leads

to a judgement that these questions are less demanding than the nature of the

questions set in the A level assessments.

The SBA constitutes two assessment tasks. These tasks will be more extended in

nature than the questions in traditional tests and examinations, and should provide

opportunities for students to demonstrate their competence in the following skills and

abilities:

• applying mathematical knowledge in solving problems

• reasoning mathematically

• handling data and generating information

• using mathematical language to communicate ideas.

Candidates submit two tasks. In terms of demand these are equivalent to material

that is deemed to be a pre-requisite to A level study. The nature of these


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assessments falls into three categories, a problem-solving task, a mathematical

investigation and a data handling project.

Extended Part

The Extended Part features two modules, module 1 Calculus and Statistics, and

module 2 Calculus and Algebra. Candidates can choose to take a maximum of one

of these modules. Module 1 assesses a subset (calculus and statistics) of the content

of modules C1, C2, C3, C4, S1 and S2 from the A level syllabus. Module 2 assesses

a subset (calculus and algebra) of the content of modules C1, C2, C3, C4, FP1, FP2

and FP3 from the Mathematics and Further Mathematics A level syllabus.

Module 1 and module 2 are both assessed by a single paper of two hours 30

minutes’ duration. Each of the papers consists of 14 questions which are highly

scaffolded and are mostly in the form of multi-part tasks. These papers are

significantly more demanding than the assessments in the compulsory part because

the content, skills and techniques tested are significantly more complex. Additionally

module 2 is more demanding than module 1 mainly because the algebra content of

module 2 is more demanding than the statistics content of module 1.

The aim of the extended part is to allow candidates with good results to gain

admission to overseas tertiary institutions. Whilst the Extended Part is more

demanding than the Compulsory Part, students studying either part would struggle to

access a mathematically-based UK degree course. Students of Extended Part

module 1 would not have the breadth of knowledge required across all relevant

strands of mathematics. Students taking the more challenging module 2 will have

had the opportunity to demonstrate robust mathematical skills at pre-university

entrance level in two strands of mathematics. However the lack of breadth in their

knowledge would make it difficult to access a mathematically-based UK degree

course, without further preparatory study of a mathematical application.


The International Baccalaureate (IB) Diploma programme is designed to prepare

students to continue their academic studies at university. Within the IB Diploma

students must complete one subject within the mathematics and computer science

group. Within the mathematics group there are four individual subject choices. Two of

these are at standard level, Mathematics and Mathematical Studies, and two at

higher level, Higher Level Mathematics and Further Mathematics. This study

reviewed three of these: Higher Level Mathematics, standard level Mathematics and

Mathematical Studies. Taking Higher Level Mathematics within the IB Diploma uses

about 20 per cent of the course time. In England a typical student takes three

A levels using about 30 per cent of course time per subject.


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Higher Level Mathematics

The specification is very full and comprises a wide range of topics, with a strong

emphasis on pure mathematics. There are seven core topics, one of which is

statistics and probability with the rest being based in pure mathematics. Several of

these IB Diploma core topics are located in the A level Further Mathematics units. No

part of the syllabus offers mechanics, although vectors are included as a core topic.

Students also have to study one further optional topic from: statistics and probability;

sets, relations and groups; series and differential equations; and discrete

mathematics. The option chosen for detailed review was statistics and probability as

this most closely resembled the Edexcel A level. The statistics in this option would

cover most of statistics units S1, S2 and some of S3 in the A level. All of the topics

are developed to some depth and few, if any, tackle a branch of mathematics in a

superficial way. The topics in this programme of study are more demanding than

A level Mathematics but less demanding, when taken as a whole, than A level

Further Mathematics.

In addition to two papers on the compulsory topics and one on the optional topic

there is a requirement for coursework. Students are expected to submit two projects,

one on mathematical investigation and one on mathematical modelling. These

projects comprise 20 per cent of the final grade.

The three papers are taken at the end of the two-year course of study. Papers 1 and

2, focus on the compulsory topics. They are both two hours long whereas Paper 3

which focuses on the optional topic is only one hour long. In addition two projects

must be submitted and these are worth 20 per cent of the final grade.

Papers 1 and 2 are split into two sections each worth 50 per cent of the marks. The

questions in section A tend to be more straightforward, concentrating on methods

and these questions allow access to the paper for the less able students. Section B

comprises three large multi-part questions. There are some smaller part questions

which lead students into the context before the last part, which tends to be a less

structured problem. This part of the questions, worth at times from 7 to 9 marks, was

considered to be challenging.

The questions reviewed were well written and well constructed and would provide

excellent differentiation of students. It was found that the IB Diploma is more

challenging than the A level benchmark. This is partially due to several factors:

the extended, unstructured nature of many of the questions which require

substantial arguments

the increased technical level of the content when compared with A level

the time demand of the papers which was considered to be very challenging.


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Higher Level Mathematics was judged to be of a similar technical standard to A level

Further Mathematics; however the A level encompasses a much wider range of

mathematics and so is judged to be more demanding overall.

Mathematics

Mathematics (standard level) caters for students who possess good knowledge of

basic mathematical concepts and who are already able to apply mathematical

techniques to their daily lives. The majority of these students will expect to need a

sound mathematical background as they prepare for future studies in subjects such

as chemistry, economics, psychology and business studies. The syllabus is a subset

of the higher level and does not cover as many topics as A level. Although statistics

and probability are addressed there is no mechanics and many of the more

advanced aspects of calculus and trigonometry, found in A level, are absent.

Although there are a few simple topics such as matrices present, overall the

programme of study was judged to be considerably less demanding than A level.

This level also contains two projects which comprise 20 per cent of the marks for the

qualification.

The standard level has the same format as the higher level. Papers are of a similar

quality and mark schemes follow a similar format. Standard level was judged to be

less demanding than A level Mathematics but the less structured questions of the

higher level are repeated in standard level which raises the demand of the papers.

These questions raise demand by asking students to think for themselves and solve

problems within mathematical contexts. In addition the level of difficulty ramps up

within whole questions, allowing access for less able students but stretching the most

able in the final part.

Mathematical Studies

Mathematical Studies (standard level) caters for a wide range of students. Its

purpose is to build confidence in, and an appreciation of, mathematics. Although

students who study this course will progress to higher education it is not anticipated

that they will need mathematics for their future studies. The course covers a fairly

narrow range of topics, with the emphasis being placed on the application of

mathematics to topics that relate to home, work and leisure situations. The intention

is to introduce the basic concepts of number, algebra, functions, geometry,

trigonometry, statistics and differential calculus, so they can be applied to solving

problems. As in the two other levels clear emphasis is placed on the use of the

graphical calculator to solve problems. This level also contains a project worth 20 per

cent of the qualification.

The Mathematical Studies assessment has the same format as both the higher and

standard levels. It was judged to be a much less demanding set of papers than the

A level, between GCSE and AS level. Papers are of a similar quality and mark

schemes follow a similar format. Questions tend to be extremely structured.


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Netherlands – hoger algemeen voortgezet onderwijs, or havo

The hoger algemeen voortgezet onderwijs (havo) programme is designed for

students intending to continue their studies in technical subjects at higher education

institutions. There are three possible options within the havo. Students who study the

Culture and Society programme need not choose to do mathematics and many do

not. Students who undertake the Economics and Society and Nature and Health

programmes study Mathematics A and those who do Nature and Technology study

Mathematics B. As Mathematics A is the most popular option it was chosen for this

review.

Taking mathematics within the havo programme uses about 15 per cent of havo

course time. In England a typical student takes three A levels using about 30 per cent

of course time per subject. The main focus of the programme of study is the use of

mathematics within context and for functionality. The course includes a significant

amount of statistics, geometry and data transformation, including logarithms and

exponentials, but it does not include any significant calculus or trigonometric

techniques. The emphasis is very much on modelling and problem-solving. The

course resembles the UK AS level Use of Mathematics much more than it resembles

AS Mathematics. Like AS Use of Mathematics the technical demand is lower than AS

Mathematics but the ability to use mathematics in context is much higher than AS

Mathematics. It was considered that the topics for Mathematics A were much

narrower and much less demanding than those in A level Mathematics. The topics

were also considered to be less demanding than the combination of core units C1,

C2 and statistics unit S1 in the Edexcel AS Level Mathematics.

The assessment of the programme consists of 50 per cent written examination and

50 per cent school-based tests. Schools are given a fairly free hand in what

constitutes school-based tests. Some suggestions are open book tests, projects,

group tests, digital on-screen tests taken throughout the year, oral tests, practical

assignments and the National Mathematics Olympiad.

The examination is three hours long and students are allowed calculators for the

duration of the examination. The questions reviewed were of high quality, giving good

examples of contextualised question-setting. Success is process driven and students

have to develop problem-solving skills and need to be able to interpret the questions

and then apply and use techniques to answer them. They are a very different style of

question compared with the other qualifications reviewed. The questions appear to

be very wordy and some of the language is not straightforward but it was felt that

something was lost in the translation of the questions into English. There are five

developed contexts with three to six questions relating to each context.

The questions were judged to be excellent and relevant with the mathematics coming

naturally from the contexts. The overall demand was more consistent with that of

AS level Use of Mathematics than that of A level Mathematics.


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Netherlands – voorbereidend wetenschappelijk onderwijs, or vwo

The voorbereidend wetenschappelijk onderwijs (vwo) programme is designed for

students intending to continue their academic studies at university. Mathematics is

compulsory for all four sub-programmes at vwo. Students who follow the Culture and

Society programme will do Mathematics C although they can, if they are able, opt for

Mathematics A or B. Students who follow Economics and Society and Nature and

Health can choose to do either Mathematics A or B. Students who follow Nature and

Technology have to choose Mathematics B. It was therefore decided to review

Mathematics B.

Taking mathematics within the vwo programme uses about 15 per cent of vwo


of course time per subject.

The content of the syllabus is narrower than the UK A level, concentrating on

geometry, trigonometry, calculus and algebraic techniques. There is no statistics or

mechanics but there is an emphasis on geometry. The geometry context of cutting

with a height line is a significant exploration of Euclidean geometry and this is

unusual in the qualifications reviewed. As with the havo, the emphasis is on process

and modelling concepts and content in specific real and purely mathematical

contexts. The range of topics may be considerably narrower but the depth of

treatment and context-based mathematics makes this a rich course. However the

school-based tests can be devised by the school and this may well be an opportunity

to widen the range of topics. There was not enough information available on the

school-based work to make a judgement on this.

The assessment of the programme consists of 50 per cent written examination and

50 per cent school-based tests. Schools are given a fairly free hand in what

constitutes school-based tests. Some suggestions are open book tests, projects,

group tests, digital on-screen tests taken throughout the year, oral tests, practical

assignments and the Mathematics Kangaroo Tests (an international mathematics

competition).

The written examination is three hours long with 17 questions set within six

mathematical contexts and one real-life context. There are one to four questions

relating to each context. The questions are very demanding in both interpretation of

the context and in the degree of difficulty of the mathematics required. Overall,

despite the range of topics being narrower than the Edexcel A level it was judged that

the demand of the Mathematics B paper is significantly greater.


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3

The National Certificate of Educational Achievement (NCEA) is designed to be

accessible to the full range of students rather than only those planning to continue

their studies at university. Mathematics is an optional part of the NCEA. Taking

NCEA Level 3 mathematics uses about 20 per cent of NCEA course time, because a

student typically studies five subjects. In England a typical student takes three

A levels using about 30 per cent of course time per subject.

Students can study mathematics in three different areas:

Calculus: choice of up to five modules covering extensive calculus, conics,

complex numbers and graph sketching (up to 24 credits).

Calculus CAS: choice of up to four modules covering extensive calculus, conics,

complex numbers and graph-sketching. Note this covers the same ground but is

a project involving the use of technology (most notably, allowing the use of

algebraic calculators). These units cannot be done in combination with any of

the calculus units (up to 24 credits).

Statistics and Modelling: up to seven modules covering similar statistics and

probability topics as the A level Mathematics S1 and part of the S2 modules

plus internal assessment involving extensive use of technology, curve fitting and

numerical solutions of equations (up to 24 credits).

The Calculus CAS course in particular was found to be very interesting due to its use

of technology and was more demanding than doing the Calculus course. As students

are allowed to use algebraic calculators as a routine part of the course, they gain

experience in using technology they would use in higher education. Both the

Calculus and the Statistics and Modelling courses were judged to be more

demanding (but much narrower) than A level Mathematics, but less demanding than

A level Further Mathematics in combination with Mathematics.

There is no coverage of mechanics in the NCEA and while the pure mathematics

content extends into further mathematics at times, overall it is narrower than the

Edexcel A level Pure Mathematics content.

Each externally assessed unit is examined by a closed written examination varying

from 40 minutes’ to 65 minutes’ duration. All the examinations consist of two multi-

part questions. Each question provides an opportunity for demonstration of all grades

of performance. A single grade is awarded for each question and then an overall

grade is awarded for the paper. Showing working out is encouraged and students

who do not show where their answers come from can be heavily penalised.


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The questions in the calculus papers are very much technique driven and little

attempt is made to provide even a mathematical context. The calculus CAS papers

are more diverse and require the students to work within mathematical and

occasionally real contexts. The questions are structured so that students can achieve

the grade bands within each question. This means that although the questions are

multi-part, the parts are not developments of one another and so the questions are

not scaffolded but neither are they truly multi-part. It was judged that the demands of

these papers came from having to successfully tackle technically demanding

techniques in a limited amount of time.

The statistics and modelling papers follow the same two-question design as the

calculus papers. Here however the questions are context-based and the context

usually covers all the parts of the question, or even both questions. Once again the

separate parts of the question tend to be independent of one another and so the

questions cannot be said to be truly multi-part. It was judged that the demand of

these papers came from having to successfully process data and information in a

short time as well as having to work on some technically demanding statistical

processes.

Overall it was found that the demand of these questions was slightly higher than that

of A level Mathematics as the time demand was high; however the papers also cover

a much narrower range of mathematics than do the A level modules and this must be

taken into account in judging overall demand.

The ministry has introduced a new curriculum for schools in 2010, which has resulted

in a re-alignment of the NCEA achievement standards across all three levels. These

will be implemented fully in 2013 with new standards at NCEA Level 3. The analysis

and findings in this study are based on the outgoing standards which will be

examined for the last time in 2012.


Education)

The Vitnemål fra den Videregående Skole (Certificate of Upper Secondary

Education) general studies programme is designed to be studied by the full range of

students, rather than only those planning to continue mathematics at university.

Mathematics is a compulsory subject. There are two programmes of study,

Mathematics S (for social studies) and Mathematics R (for natural science and

mathematical studies). Both were reviewed as part of this study.

Taking both mathematics 1 and 2 courses within either the natural sciences or social

sciences upper secondary school programme uses about 10 per cent of the Vitnemål




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Mathematics S was judged to be below the demand of A level Mathematics and

roughly equivalent to C1, C2 and S1. Mathematics R has a strong emphasis on pure

mathematics with a small amount of probability included. Mechanics is not studied at

all, although vectors are included as a core topic. Students may study just the core

mathematics plus the R1 course, before choosing to either finish their mathematics

study at this point, pursue Mathematics X which is a course involving a significant

study of the history of mathematics, or continue to study for the R2 module. The

content of R2 is required in order to bring the course up to A level standard. The

course was judged as being much narrower in its curriculum than A level

Mathematics but there are some pure mathematics topics that are found in further

mathematics such as proof by induction, 3D geometry and some aspects of

differential equations.

Emphasis is placed on modelling and solving problems, particularly for R2; for

example: “interpret the definite integral in models of practical situations”; “formulate a

mathematical model with the help of central functions on the basis of observed data,

process the model and elaborate on and discuss the result and method”; and “model

practical situations by converting the problem to a differential equation, solving it and

interpreting the result”.

Students may study only for R1 or for R1 and R2. R1 was judged to be less

demanding than A level Mathematics while R2 was judged to have some demanding

questions in the paper. Taken together both papers were judged to be at a similar

demand as A level Mathematics, although the breadth of topics in A level

Mathematics meant that overall it was judged to be more demanding.

Both papers follow a similar format. They are attempted at the end of the course and

both are five hours long. Part 1 of the paper consists of two exercises and is handed

in after two hours have elapsed with part 2 consisting of five exercises which are

handed in after five hours have elapsed. The time allowance is extremely generous

and it is difficult to imagine that students would require the full five hours.


Examination)

The People’s Republic of China Gāokăo is designed to select students for study at

universities and other higher education institutions. The Gāokăo is taken by students

after they have successfully completed senior secondary education. Mathematics is a

compulsory section of the Gāokăo. The emphasis of the course is to achieve three

levels of attainment: knowledge, comprehension and mastery. There is an emphasis

on problem-solving in the qualification. Students study a range of topics with the

emphasis on pure mathematics. Calculus only covers the differential calculus and

this is very unusual amongst the qualifications that are part of this study. There is a

significant amount of geometry, with the main focus on geometric reasoning. The


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algebra and functions topics have a very analytical focus and there is an emphasis

on formal proof.

The topics are very demanding but the use of a calculator is not promoted and this

restricts the nature of the mathematics taught. As with the Hong Kong qualifications,

the syllabus is technically challenging but narrow.

The examination is a terminal paper comprised of four parts with a possible

maximum score of 150 marks and a time allocation of two hours.

The questions analysed for this study were translated and so little can said about

their clarity; however diagrams were clear and representative. The questions were

regarded as significantly more demanding than A level Mathematics and there is a

clear emphasis on formal proof, geometric proof and series and sequences.

Coverage of the syllabus is very narrow with little or no calculus, no vectors and very

little trigonometry. The questions cover a very narrow and formal range of

mathematics. Calculators are not allowed and this restricts some of the mathematics

that can be tested.

Overall the demand of the paper was judged to be higher than A level Mathematics

but lower than Further Mathematics and much narrower in its remit.


The Leaving Certificate (Established) is designed to be studied by the full range of

students in the senior cycle (upper secondary), rather than only those planning to

continue their studies at university. Mathematics is optional within the Leaving

Certificate, although most students opt to take some mathematics as part of their

study. Mathematics can be studied at three levels: foundation, ordinary and higher,

and there is a further subject in applied mathematics that can be taken alongside the

higher level mathematics course. Foundation level mathematics is geared towards

vocational and functional mathematics. Ordinary level mathematics is essentially a

service subject, providing knowledge and techniques that will be needed in the future

for the study of scientific, economic, business and technology subjects. This study

considered the higher level course.

Taking higher level mathematics within the Leaving Certificate uses about 20 per

cent of Leaving Certificate course time because a student typically studies five

subjects. In England a typical student takes three A levels using about 30 per cent of


The syllabus contains a wide range of pure mathematics topics with a small number

of discrete and statistical topics also being included in the core. Several of the core

topics can be located in the A level Further Mathematics AS specification. These

include proof by mathematical induction, complex numbers and matrices. Mechanics


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is not studied at all although vectors form part of the core content (vectors are,

however, included in applied mathematics).

Students are also offered a choice of four optional areas of study; usually one is

chosen by the school or college. These topics are: Further Probability and Statistics;

Groups; Further Geometry; Further Calculus and Series. Almost all students take the

Further Calculus and Series option. A school or college could extend the

mathematics curriculum by studying more of these topics and this in turn would allow

students a wider choice of questions in the terminal papers.

The ordinary and the higher courses are each examined by two terminal papers, both

worth 300 marks and both lasting two hours 30 minutes. The weighting of the two

papers appears to be equal but it is not stated in the supporting materials. Paper 1

offers students a choice of six from eight questions with each question being worth

50 marks. It was felt that not all of the questions had an equal level of technical or

time demand and choice of questions could alter the overall level of demand of the

paper.

The mark schemes are interesting in that each part of the question is usually worth 5

or 10 marks, with other parts worth 15, 20 or 25 marks and then marks are deducted

for a variety of errors. Mathematical error or omissions, called “blunders” cause a

deduction of 3 marks; “slips”, usually a numerical error, result in a deduction of

1 mark and “misreadings” also result in a deduction of 1. However detailed guidance

is given and the schemes should result in consistency of marking.

The demand of these papers was judged to be very close to that of A level

Mathematics; however the lack of mathematical applications, combined with the

narrowness of the syllabus, meant that overall the qualification was judged to be

marginally less demanding.

The Republic of Ireland has recently changed its Leaving Certificate Mathematics

course under an initiative called Project Maths, with teaching of the new syllabus

commencing in September 2010 and the first changed examinations scheduled for

June 2012. This new course comprises of three syllabus levels similar to those of the

present Leaving Certificate. The new syllabus is organised into strands of

mathematics and while it contains a greater proportion of statistics and probability it

remains predominantly pure mathematics. There are no optional topics in the course

and the content is roughly equivalent to the old syllabus core plus the further

statistics and probability option. The major change in the new course is a much

greater emphasis on the application of mathematics in context and in solving

problems. Two of the five strands in the course have been changed for teaching from

2010 with the remainder being changed in two further phases from 2011 and 2012.


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The Korean College Scholastic Ability Test (CSAT) is designed to select students for

study at South Korea’s universities and other higher education institutions.

Mathematics is compulsory within the CSAT and there are two options, A and B.

Mathematics B is a subset of Mathematics A. In both Mathematics A and B there is

an onus on the development of “the ideal person” as “someone who pursues own

identity, displays creativity, opens a direction, creates new values and contributes to

community development, and mathematics can play a significant role in realising this

ideal person model” (CSAT assessment materials).

Throughout the documentation reviewed, there is a balance in the approach adopted,

on the one hand promoting the development of students’ understanding of concepts,

principles and rules while, on the other, encouraging the development of

mathematical thinking, reasoning, problem-solving and a positive attitude towards the

subject. Setting problems in real-life contexts is an approach that teachers are

encouraged to adopt in order to engage students’ interest.

The syllabus for Mathematics A contains a wide range of topics, with a strong

emphasis on pure mathematics, although aspects of probability and statistics are

also included. There is no coverage of mechanics but vectors are covered as part of

the course. Some of core topics are located in the A level Further Mathematics units.

These include: proof by mathematical induction; solving systems of linear equations

with three unknowns; coordinate geometry of the parabola, ellipse and hyperbola;

equations of lines and planes in 3D; and matrices. This is a relatively narrow but

challenging programme of study.

There is an emphasis on calculators and computers but interestingly these are not

allowed in the examination, thus restricting the topics that can be thoroughly tested.

Both Mathematics A and Mathematics B are assessed by a terminal examination of

one paper lasting 100 minutes. These papers are examined on the same day as all

the other CSAT papers in the other subjects. There is no coursework and judging by

the question paper and answers, calculators are not allowed. The paper has an

emphasis on proof and algebra There are few questions set in context and probability

is the only application of mathematics tested. It was judged that time demand in this

paper would be very high.

Both papers consist of 70 per cent multiple-choice questions and 30 per cent short-

answer questions. Students transfer their answers on to an answer paper and

answers are marked right or wrong – there are no part-marks. A student making an

arithmetical slip is penalised as much as a student who does not attempt the

question or who guesses the answer.


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Mathematics B was judged to be less demanding than A level Mathematics but more

demanding than the AS component of A level Mathematics. The assessment topics

cover a narrow range, and questions vary from relatively straightforward (such as

question 2), to question 14 which is much more complex. The problem-solving in this

paper raises demand significantly. Question-setting was judged to be of a high

standard with imaginative use of mathematical contexts.

Mathematics A was judged to be more demanding than A level Mathematics but less

demanding than A level Further Mathematics. There are common questions between

Mathematics A and B and these would be the more accessible questions for students

of this paper. The level of demand in this paper comes from two sources: some

questions, which although they are not technically demanding, do involve a lot of

thought while others demand a combination of technical mathematics and

considerable problem-solving skills.

Although the range of mathematics is narrow compared with A level, with little in the

way of applications, it is the emphasis on problem-solving that raises the demand of

this paper. It was judged that this assessment, along with the Hong Kong

qualifications, had some of the most demanding questions.

United States of America – the ACT

The ACT is designed to assess how well prepared upper secondary students are to

study in higher education. Mathematics is a compulsory part of the ACT. The ACT

mathematics test adheres to test specifications that are informed by data and

research and confirmed every three to four years. There is no syllabus for these

tests; however the topics included in the test are based on USA curriculum units

Algebra 1, Geometry and Algebra 2.

The assessment consists of 60 multiple-choice questions which are completed in one

hour. Questions 1‒47 were judged to be similar to GCSE Mathematics. From

question 48 onwards there is a steep rise in the gradient of difficulty. The content in

this part of the paper is on a par with some aspects of A level C1 and C2 but the

questions are not developed in any way to test the ability of a student to tackle a

slightly extended problem. Time pressure would be a significant factor as there is a

lot to read and process in one hour.

The content of the test coverage was judged to be below that of A level Mathematics.

However the items included in the mathematics test are intended to cover four

cognitive levels: knowledge and skills, understanding concepts, direct application and

integrating conceptual understanding.


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United States of America – New York State Regents Diploma

The Regents Diploma in New York State is designed to be studied by the full range

of students, rather than only those planning to continue their studies at university.

Mathematics is a compulsory subject within the Regents Diploma All students study

at least integrated algebra which can be considered equivalent to studying GCSE

Mathematics in England. However to receive an Advanced Regent’s Diploma a

student must pass Algebra 2 / Trigonometry B which contains topics in algebra,

trigonometry and statistics and probability, similar in range to parts of C1 to C3 of the

A level. The Regents Diploma contains no calculus, limited trigonometry, a very small

proportion of statistics and no mechanics.

All students take mathematics within the diploma which uses about 15 per cent of

Regents Diploma course time. The mathematics courses delivers three of the 22

credits that students are expected to gain through their study within the high school

programme. In England a typical student takes three A levels using about 30 per cent

of course time per subject. Examinations are usually taken in January or June with

an opportunity to re-sit after summer school in August.

The examination paper is three hours long and is sub-divided into four parts. All parts

of the assessment are compulsory.

The range of demand of the questions is considerable. Some questions, especially

within the multiple-choice section, allow weaker students to show what they can do

and part 2 would also be accessible. Parts 3 and 4 allow the stronger students to

show what they can do and there is some stretch and challenge. However, overall,

the demand of the Regents Diploma is lower than A level Mathematics, which would

be expected given the age at which students typically take these examinations.

University of Cambridge International Examinations AS levels and A levels

Cambridge International A level qualifications are designed primarily for students who

intend to continue their studies at university. Mathematics is an optional subject

choice. As with the A level in England, a typical student takes three A levels using

about 30 per cent of their A level course study time per subject.

There are three options: Pure Mathematics with Mechanics and Statistics, Pure

Mathematics with Statistics and Pure mathematics with Mechanics. Further

Mathematics is also available. For this review the Pure Mathematics with Mechanics

and Statistics option was considered as this is the most common choice and the one

which most closely corresponds with the Edexcel qualification.

The need to study a diverse range of mathematics, combined with the different

approaches required for both mechanics and statistics serve to raise the level of

demand of this qualification.


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The content of the Cambridge International A level closely follows that of A level

Mathematics. However a few Cambridge International A level core topics are located

within the A level Further Mathematics units, including complex numbers. There is a

balance of content in each module and this allows opportunities to develop synoptic

teaching and learning. The modules may be examined in one sitting at the end of the

course or they can be taken when ready at either June or November sittings.

The assessments were considered comparable to A levels.


The Cambridge Pre-U is designed for students who intend to continue their studies in

science at university. Mathematics is an option within the Cambridge Pre-U. Both

mathematics and further mathematics are offered as subject disciplines. This study

reviewed the subject mathematics. Taking mathematics within the diploma uses

about 25 per cent of Cambridge Pre-U course time, because a student studies global

perspective and research in addition to their three chosen subjects. In England a

typical student takes three A levels using about 30 per cent of course time per

subject.

The subject is assessed at the end of the two years of study by a pair of closed

three-hour written papers. There is no choice within the syllabus. Two-thirds of the

topics are targeted at pure mathematics, with a further sixth of the topics being

focused on statistics and probability and the last sixth focused on mechanics. In this

aspect it is a very similar balance of topics to the most usual combination of subjects

in A level Mathematics.

The need to study a diverse range of mathematics, combined with the different

approaches required for both mechanics and statistics serves to raise the level of

demand of this qualification.

The range of mathematics studied is very similar to that of A level Mathematics but

there are one or two additional topics such as complex numbers which are covered in

further mathematics in the A level. The topics fit well together and would allow for

both synoptic teaching and learning and assessment.

The qualification is assessed by two three-hour papers at the end of the two years of

study. Paper 1 assesses half the pure mathematics content and all of the statistics

and probability content. There are 80 marks for pure mathematics and 40 marks for

statistics and probability. Paper 2 assesses the other half of the pure mathematics

and the mechanics content. The ratio of marks is identical to that of Paper 1.

The papers were found to be more demanding than A level Mathematics based on

three factors: first, the inclusion of several topics such as complex numbers which are

not on the A level specification; secondly the terminal nature of the examinations


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which require all the topics to be tackled within the two papers, with no possibility of

re-sitting within the time span of the course; and thirdly there is less scaffolding within

the examination questions than there is in the A level.

However, although the papers were judged to be harder than those of A level

Mathematics, this may change over time as the qualification matures. The examiners’

report for 2010 states that: “it became evident as soon as Paper 1 had been sat, that

the level of difficulty might have been too high, and this was confirmed after Paper 2

had been taken” (Cambridge Pre-U).

From June 2012 there will be three papers rather than the previous two. Each paper

is allowed two hours and contains 80 marks. The syllabus content, total assessment

time and the total marks available are unchanged. Papers 1 and 2 cover the pure

mathematics content and Paper 3 the applications of mathematics including

probability and mechanics.


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5 Findings: Chemistry

5.1 Summary

All of the chemistry qualifications included in this study have similar aims:

knowledge and understanding of chemical principles

application of knowledge and understanding

the importance of practical work and the acquisition of skills of carrying out,

recording, analysing and concluding

an appreciation of the role of chemistry in society.

However the balance between these elements varies between qualifications. There

are also differences in the way the aims are targeted or tested by the assessment

materials.

Most syllabuses have a core of compulsory content which may be specified in great

detail and forms the basis for teaching. The exception is the New Zealand NCEA

Level 3 which offers a number of “achievement standards”. These are individual

courses which students can complete to accumulate credit towards their final

certificate.

There is a wide variation in the number of topics covered within the syllabuses. The

content of the OCR A level and the Hong Kong A level Examination (HKALE) is

almost identical. The two University of Cambridge International Examinations (CIE)

courses and the International Baccalaureate (IB) Diploma Higher course contain a

few additional topics; nine syllabuses (including all of their options) contain less than

60 per cent of the topics in OCR A level. Details of the syllabus analysis can be found

in Table 3 of the Full Report: Table Supplement.

There is also variation in the depth to which topics are studied. The Cambridge Pre-U

has a similar range of topics to the OCR A level but students are expected to study

some of these to a level which matches the content in the first year of a chemistry

degree course. A number of countries do not go beyond the depth of study in the first

year of the OCR course (AS). Others relate more closely to the English GCSE

syllabus, the qualification typically taken in preparation for studying courses such as

the OCR A level included in this study.

The range and variety of chemistry which a student can study successfully is closely

related to their mathematical competence. This can range from plotting experimental

results on a graph to the formulation of algebraic equations used in rate calculations

and chemical modelling. All syllabuses appear to expect students to be able to carry


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out routine arithmetical calculations such as those in stoichiometry and empirical

formulae, but the actual requirements are sometimes not defined or not included.

The Denmark STX Chemistry A course specifically requires students to complete the

STX Mathematics B course in support of their studies. It does not specify which

mathematical knowledge and skills from that course students are expected to apply

to chemistry.

Alberta’s Chemistry 30 syllabus cross-refers directly to specific objectives within their

qualification’s Applied and Pure Mathematics 10 and 20 syllabuses. The most

detailed requirements are provided for OCR A level and the two CIE courses.

Eight of the other syllabuses offer some optional material. In France this is the

“specialism”, an extra course which extends their depth of study. Alternatively in

Denmark teachers and students are expected to supplement the compulsory content

by choosing topics to study more deeply or in different contexts. Most of the others

offer a choice from a number of optional topics; however in Finland students can

study all five specialised courses if their school and individual study programmes

allow.

All qualifications emphasise the importance of practical work as an essential

ingredient of chemistry at this level. Some provide very specific time and task

allocation; most give examples of expected or recommended practical experiments.

The Republic of Ireland syllabus lists 28 practical procedures for students to

complete within the Higher level chemistry course. An alternative approach is the IB

which emphasises the importance of practical chemistry as an investigation. This

includes students carrying out their own investigative project. In contrast the New

York State Regents Diploma has a requirement for students to complete minimum

laboratory time, but does not specify a practical programme.

All of the qualification providers offer a range of support materials for teachers and

students. These often direct users to suitable websites or reference books for further

information, some of which have been specifically developed for the course. Only

Alberta and the Republic of Korea actually authorise the textbooks which can be

used to support their courses.

All syllabuses have some form of course statements or assessment objectives.

These may be expressed in terms of content or generic skills which students can

learn or will demonstrate. There are marked differences in the way these assessment

objectives are then related to the assessment. Some assessments use them as a

basis for the assessment criteria used to measure student achievement. Others

allocate skills to individual questions. Some do not seem to relate directly to the

assessment materials.


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Most courses end with a single examination paper. The largest syllabuses, with the

most topics and in-depth study, have more papers. The individual examination

papers range in timing from the NCEA Level 3 individual achievement standard

assessments at 35 to 45 minutes up to the six-hour paper for the Finland

Matriculation Examination.

The examination papers reviewed were presented clearly. Most use International

Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) nomenclature and International

System of Units (SI units), except the qualifications reviewed from the Netherlands.

Questions are generally well presented with appropriate use of language. Diagrams

when used are helpful and clear.

A variety of question types are used by all qualifications. This includes multiple-

choice and numerical response; short-answer questions; interpretation of data;

calculations; evaluation and analysis; interpretation of data and use of graphs;

practical procedures and so on.

The nature of the questions reflects the rationale and aims of the course. For

example where a course emphasises the acquisition of knowledge, the questions

asked can only require recall. Questions are generally short, often heavily structured

into multiple parts. Therefore, many students do not have to create a strategy which

involves multiple stages to answer questions, except in complex calculations. The

exceptions to this are the Denmark STX largely unstructured final assessment and

the extended writing task in Hong Kong HKALE Paper 1.

Marking support, where available, is generally clear, providing markers with the detail

and definition needed to apply accurate consistent judgements. There are differences

between the detailed mark-based schemes used by several qualifications including

OCR A level, and the criteria-based approach used by others.

A summary of the key features of the assessments for each education system

included in the study and a summary of what each course covers appears in Table 3



All of the syllabuses reviewed intend to build upon students’ previous studies in

science and other subjects. In general there are no entry conditions set but most

syllabuses make recommendations about students’ prior learning. This will assist

teachers and parents in supporting a student’s choice of courses.

The number of chemistry topics covered ranges from around 25 to over 60, but the

information is organised and expressed in different ways.

The rationale for the syllabus is generally presented by identifying key concepts or

ideas, often in terms of their application. This ranges from the broad unifying


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statement provided by the New York State Education Department (NYSED) to the

very detailed courses provided for the OCR A level and CIE courses.

Similarly, the course syllabuses vary in length. This is due in part to the detail in

which the course content is explained. The Norway Vitnemål fra den Videregående

Skole and China Gāokăo essentially provide a simple statement of the chemistry

students must learn. In France the baccalauréat général materials contain highly

detailed aims and a preamble to set the scene of the qualification. The HKDSE and

Korean CSAT provide historical references explaining the development of the course.

All have common aims integrating the gaining and application of chemical

knowledge; demonstration of practical skills and processes; understanding and

processing data with broader social, environmental applications to everyday life.

However there are differing balances between theory, practice and application both

within the syllabuses and in the assessments.

The syllabuses reference the continuation of studies to higher education / university

and centre on the development of students who can make a positive contribution to

society by being scientifically literate and having enquiring minds. The China Gāokăo

focuses on the demonstration and application of knowledge of chemical principles.

The Hong Kong HKDSE refers to the importance of science in the pace of change in

society and identifies a role in integrating science and technology with increasing

appreciation and excitement for students through relevant learning experiences.

Norway uniquely integrates the historical development and links to cultural heritage

as part of its ethos for a holistic qualification, but in terms of the chemistry course

gives little in addition to the content. The Republic of Korea CSAT focuses on the

engagement and enjoyment of students in the realisation of the importance and

relevance of chemistry to everyday life.

Some syllabuses relate the aims to specific skills. The Denmark STX, Finland

Matriculation Examination, Hong Kong HKALE and HKDSE refer explicitly to

experimental skills. The STX, HKALE, HKDSE, International Baccalaureate (IB) and

the New South Wales HSC also detail the development of personal and

communication skills. Others include aims in terms of student attitudes. The China

Gāokăo, England OCR A level, Finland Matriculation Examination, Hong Kong

HKALE and HKDSE seek to develop student interest in the study of chemistry whilst

the Republic of Korea CSAT and NSW HSC frame this in terms of developing

positive attitudes towards the study of chemistry. The Alberta Diploma, Finland

Matriculation Examination and Republic of Ireland Leaving Certificate refer to the

importance of developing knowledge and understanding for students intending to

continue with sciences at university. The USA ACT, Republic of Korea CSAT and

China Gāokăo are very clear that they are assessment tools to establish students'

readiness for college-level work.


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The alternative threads reflect the purposes and societal contexts of the

qualifications. The Denmark STX and Canada Alberta Diploma syllabuses are driven

by more holistic applications and the development of science in support of society;

while the Hong Kong HKALE, the Hong Kong HKDSE and Republic of Ireland

Leaving Certificate clearly focus on the development of skills for further study or

employment. The New South Wales HSC is organised to emphasise skills teaching.

The People’s Republic of China Gāokăo highlights the applications of chemistry to

everyday life and industry; and the Hong Kong HKDSE, one of the newest

qualifications included in this study, purposefully integrates links between the

sciences, technology, society and environment in each topic to emphasise the

relevance and diversity of the subject.

All qualifications have external assessment at the end of the full course of study.

Only the OCR A level allows truly modular assessment with examination papers for

each unit which can be taken at separate times throughout the course, but only count

towards the qualification when all the assessments for AS or A level have been

completed. This does not necessarily reduce the opportunities to retake

assessments, but it may mean that students must repeat the entire course.

The OCR A level, Hong Kong HKALE and Hong Kong HKDSE, the IB Diploma and

both CIE syllabuses have multiple examination papers, dividing the course content

into key chemistry topics and their applications. This manages the testing of a wide

range of material within the six largest syllabuses, but restricts the opportunity for

synoptic assessment. Students are not tested on their ability to combine knowledge

from different areas of the syllabus in order to solve a new problem in a different

context.

There is a general separation of theoretical and practical skills. This is reflected in the

assessment structure, with these skill sets assessed separately in all syllabuses

except for the Denmark STX.

The STX provides the only fully integrated externally managed assessment. Students

are given a task for which they must conduct an experiment, observe and record their

results, before analysing, evaluating and interpreting their results for presentation

(orally and in writing) to the examiner.

Outside Denmark school assessment makes variable contributions to the final

qualification, but practical work is always assessed by the school. In many cases the

tasks, marking criteria and quality control are provided externally.

Those qualifications concerned only with university entrance, USA ACT, Republic of

Korea CSAT, Finland Matriculation Examination and People’s Republic of China

Gāokăo, do not include any practical assessment although the assessment may

include questions about experiments. Students in Finland must successfully


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complete the school chemistry course, including practical work, before they can take

the examination.

The organisation of the assessment burden was seen to be a significant factor. For

example, the chemistry section of the People’s Republic of Korea CSAT is

considerably shorter than other syllabuses with a similar range of topics but it is part

of a larger examination where all subjects are examined in one seven-and-a-half-

hour day. Students attempting the chemistry papers have already tackled papers on

Korean, mathematics and a foreign language plus up to two other sciences. The

Gāokăo is only slightly less burdensome, with chemistry, part of the science suite,

taken on the morning of the second consecutive day of testing (day 1 tests Chinese

and mathematics).

In sharp contrast, OCR A level examinations could be taken months apart across a

two-year period. These different approaches must have an impact on examination

preparation and the levels of demand and stress for students, as well as the depth

and breadth of the chemistry content which can be appropriately assessed.

The Norway Vitnemål has a distinct approach with students selected to sit external

examinations in only four of their subjects and Norwegian. A student is still assessed,

but this is managed within the school and the results are reported centrally.

Regardless of the timing or number of discrete assessments examined, the total

duration of the entire assessment burden is typically around three hours. Significant

outliers to this are the CSAT in the Republic of Korea at 30 minutes, and seven-and-

a-half hours for both the Cambridge Pre-U and the OCR A level.

The syllabuses for upper secondary chemistry included in this study describe

courses of varying lengths and structures. However in general all study programmes

expect students to spend upwards of 100 hours per year on chemistry. France, with

its unique physics‒chemistry combination is significantly below this at only 59 hours

of chemistry in the final-year course. The OCR A level (180 hours) and the

Cambridge Pre-U (190 hours) devote the most time, perhaps reflecting the narrower

range of other subjects typically studied.

The organisation of study is also diverse with some education systems offering a

range of study programmes or options. The choice is made early in the Netherlands

with students following the havo (technical) or vwo (academic) programmes to

prepare for higher education from the beginning of secondary school. Other

qualifications offer a series of courses, each building on the previous one, towards

the level of qualification included in this study. In many cases these earlier courses

can result in a qualification at a lower level such as the Republic of Ireland Ordinary,

OCR AS level, NCEA Level 1 or 2, and the Denmark STX C or B.


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Important differences were identified in how practical work is incorporated into the

course. For example, the OCR A level gives less importance to practical skills than

the Cambridge Pre-U, the Danish STX or the HKALE where practical skills and

testing knowledge of practical skills constitute a high proportion of the assessment

materials. By contrast the Republic of Ireland Leaving Certificate only tests

knowledge and understanding rather than practical application of experimental work.

There is varying emphasis on the nature of scientific investigation and evidence.

The majority of the courses have very detailed practical approaches, and specify

practical work as an essential ingredient of the qualifications. The People’s Republic

of China Gāokăo devotes one of its five units to the completion of practical work even

though this is not assessed. In France the baccalauréat général lists required

practicals with techniques and skills to be acquired and details of how the necessary

skills can be developed and then assessed. This practical assessment (which may

be in chemistry and / or physics) contributes up to 20 per cent of the total

chemistry‒physics score.

The Republic of Korea CSAT syllabus lists suggest practical work and teachers are

expected to monitor practical tasks to encourage skill development. However, this

makes no contribution to the CSAT score.

The importance of the social applications and implications is central to the STX in

Denmark, and to a slightly lesser extent to the Alberta Diploma, whereas it is

secondary to the content within the OCR A level and the Leaving Certificate in the

Republic of Ireland.

The linking of course material with this concept is very limited in Finland. However a

more integrated approach is adopted in the People’s Republic of China Gāokăo, the

Republic of Korea CSAT, the Hong Kong HKDSE, the Alberta Diploma and the New

York State Regents Diploma but they are less clear than that followed by the

Republic of Ireland Leaving Certificate (Established). The Danish STX qualification

emphasises application with no formal factual recall. This is evidence of a higher-

demand requirement, based on the assessment objectives. It also incorporates much

more extra-curricular contextualisation through supplementary materials and

research. This allows for coverage of topics that may exceed other courses in the

recent research and applications of chemistry.

Most qualifications reviewed cover the key ideas and concepts of chemistry but the

range, and in particular the depth of study within a topic differs greatly. Although

syllabuses generally have an intention to prepare students for university studies, the

actual range and depth of study are different. Within syllabuses aspects of physical

chemistry tend to dominate the chemistry content with relatively little attention paid to

inorganic chemistry.


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The Hong Kong HKALE, IB Diploma, OCR A level and the two CIE qualifications

have by far the greatest depth and range of content, with the People’s Republic of

China Gāokăo, Hong Kong HKDSE, Norway Vitnemål and Denmark STX fairly close.

The Alberta Diploma, Finland Matriculation Examination and New Zealand NCEA

Level 3 have the narrowest content. This again mirrors the purpose and cultural

context of the qualifications: stand-alone chemistry versus diploma or matriculation

contribution. That is, the OCR A level concentrates on the delivery of the chemistry

course itself, while the other countries discuss how education can prepare students

for life outside secondary school and for a life of learning. The IB Diploma stands in

the middle ground, being a diploma-style qualification with excellent content range,

but lacking the depth and application of the CIE syllabuses and the OCR A level in

particular.

The significant differences in the OCR A level are the inclusion of a number of

modern methods of analysis, the greater depth of treatment of rates of reaction and

the inclusion of entropy and free energy and their inter-relationship. OCR A level

students are taught content outside a context that links it to the real world. The

content of OCR A level seems broader and more balanced than the majority of other

courses, with content from organic, physical, inorganic and analytical chemistry being

studied in similar proportions, and the A2 course developing foundation knowledge

from the AS. The closest match on content is the HKALE. However, the range of

topics in the other courses is uneven with some key topics absent. For example, the

New South Wales HSC and Finland Matriculation Examination do not include

benzene chemistry or modern analytical techniques and the Denmark STX makes no

mention of transition elements, electrode potentials or polymers.

The breadth of content for the Alberta Diploma is narrower than that of the OCR

A level and the depth is substantially less than that defined for A level, being much

closer to that which would be expected for AS. However limited the range of topics

studied are, they are conceptually amongst the harder topics in the OCR A level.

The Hong Kong HKALE, OCR A level and the CIE syllabuses are content-led with

references to the contexts in which chemistry is important. Chemical knowledge and

ideas are collected together in traditional groupings which suggests that there is an

expectation that major topics will be fully covered before moving on to a different

topic rather than re-visiting the topic in several stages. The HKALE has a broad and

balanced range of topics similar to that of OCR A level, ensuring a comprehensive

coverage of physical, inorganic and organic chemistry together with modern

analytical techniques. The chemical kinetics section of the HKALE syllabus includes

greater depth and breadth in a number of aspects such as the Arrhenius equation,

rate determining step, transition states and energy profile. The equilibrium section

includes all of the OCR A level topics and goes beyond with secondary cells,

solubility product and partition coefficient. In the section on p-block chemistry the

topic of Group IV elements with a focus on silicon and silicates goes beyond the


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scope defined for Chemistry A level in England. Similarly, the “Chemistry in action”

section of the HKALE syllabus goes beyond the OCR A level by considering a far

wider range of synthetic polymers and the effect of structure on their properties; the

same section contains a topic on drugs which is also outside the English scope. The

Cambridge Pre-U extends the depth of content of some topics even further and for

some topics, for example organic mechanisms, takes the content to first-year degree

course level.

France uniquely, integrates physics and chemistry concepts into one syllabus

(similarly biology is integrated with geology, and geography with history). This

mandatory coupling of chemistry with physics, taught as an integrated course, offers

options to specialise in one or the other via additional study time. However, as a

result, the chemistry content has less depth and range in comparison with other

qualifications at this level, reflecting the narrow time allocation provided by the

baccalauréat général.

The Norway Vitnemål takes a similar conceptual approach to the teaching of

chemistry as the baccalauréat général, and therefore organises topics differently

from the stand-alone qualifications such as the OCR A level. The content covers

most of the traditional areas of chemistry to a reasonable depth, especially the

organic mechanisms. It lacks detailed coverage and depth in physical chemistry

topics such as kinetics and equilibrium; and makes little reference to instrumental

analysis.

The Gāokăo presents topics which require little quantification and mathematical

demand. Optional topics add depth and contextualisation, but because they are

optional students miss out on two of three knowledge bases which limits their organic

or analytical chemistry knowledge.

Assessment

Students studying the OCR A level would recognise the content of all of the

qualifications included in this study, because the topics are included by OCR.

However, the depth of study within other qualifications varies and is often

contextualised throughout the course. This approach in the Cambridge Pre-U

increases the level of difficulty beyond that of the OCR A level.

The content in the Netherlands havo and vwo has similarities with the OCR A level

but the courses have a different emphasis. There is more focus on biochemistry and

industrial processes, little inorganic chemistry and nothing about energetics. The

assessment for vwo would be more challenging for an OCR student because their

course does not require as much mental manipulation of complex molecular

architecture. This is also the case for the other qualifications incorporating

biochemical, industrial and material properties units, for example HKDSE. However

the remainder of the vwo assessment and the havo are far more familiar for OCR


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students. It is not clear how the demand of the qualification is affected by the number

of subjects students are expected to take alongside chemistry within some of the

composite qualifications. The New York State Regents Diploma has a lower

chemistry demand in terms of content, but this should be balanced by the burden of

all the other subject matter required to graduate with a Regents Diploma.

The New Zealand NCEA Level 3 assessment seems more equivalent to the

AS course, lacking coverage in several key areas such as rates of reaction.

Therefore although the NCEA Level 3 chemistry studied is of a similar standard, the

breadth of topics is far narrower than is expected in England for students finishing

upper secondary school. There is also a choice of which topics to study and as a

result students can miss significant topics. However, the demand is increased if

students take the option that includes an individual research project within the NCEA.

Mathematical content

The IB Diploma, Republic of Ireland Leaving Certificate, OCR A level and the CIE

syllabuses all have a clearly stated mathematical component that represents an

integral part of the course. For the OCR A level and both the CIE syllabuses these

are identical and the most demanding seen. In other courses mathematical

requirements can be inferred from the topics covered and questions asked in written

assessments. In most of the composite qualifications mathematics is a mandatory

subject for all students. However, this has a limited match with the demand for

mathematics within chemistry assessments. The exception is the Alberta Diploma

which clearly cross-refers the mathematical requirements of the chemistry course to

the mathematics syllabus.

The mathematical requirement within the Finland Matriculation Examination,

Cambridge Pre-U and Netherlands vwo assessments is extremely similar. New

Zealand NCEA Level 3 appears to have a lower level of mathematical demand than

all other assessments and does not exceed the level of competence required for

English GCSE mathematics.

The demand to be able to use, for example, logarithms in pH calculations is the same

for the NCEA as for the Alberta Diploma and the OCR A level, but there is a limited

depth of use of mathematics in NCEA assessments. The remaining syllabuses rely

much more on students learning the relevant material and being able to apply it in

relatively simple cases. The difficulty of calculations tends to follow the same pattern

as the range and depth of topics in the syllabus. Most composite qualifications

present mathematically undemanding assessments. The exception is once again the

IB Diploma with the wider range of content requiring more mathematics.

Students are allowed to use calculators within the assessment, with specific

exceptions, for example the IB Diploma Paper 1 objective test.


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The impact of mathematics upon the demand of the assessment can also be

measured in terms of the proportion of the assessment which relies upon correct

application of mathematical techniques and skills in support of chemical knowledge,

understanding, application and skills in order to complete a task or questions. This is

highest in the Denmark STX assessment at nearly half of the available marks, but

unsurprising given the intensely investigative nature of the assessment. Lowest is the

USA ACT which has no mathematical requirements in the science test, but does also

test mathematics separately. The Regents Diploma is dependent on mathematics for

less than 10 per cent of the assessment, but the remainder are grouped between 15

per cent and 30 per cent. This suggests a clear focus on chemistry, although it may

also reflect the prevalence of short-answer questions rather than unstructured tasks.

5.2 Chemistry findings by education system


The Higher School Certificate (HSC) in New South Wales (NSW) is designed to be

studied by the full range of students, rather than only those planning to continue

chemistry at university. Chemistry is an optional subject within the HSC. Taking the

HSC chemistry course uses about 20 per cent of the HSC course time because a

student typically studies HSC courses in five subjects. In England a typical student

takes three A levels using about 30 per cent of their course time per subject.

The syllabus emphasises the importance of chemical education in “developing

understanding of and about chemical reactions and processes, the history, nature,

and practice, implications and applications of chemistry for society and the

environment” (Higher School Certificate assessment materials).

The syllabus is context-led, with chemical knowledge and ideas collected together in

themed sections within modules. The majority of topics form the core syllabus, with a

variety of options available. Some topics are not covered to a significant depth, and

concepts such as some aspects of quantitative chemistry and analytical techniques

are not included or are limited in use.

The course materials do not provide an overview of the mathematical content;

however, within the syllabus it is clear that a sound if limited knowledge of skills in

mathematics is required throughout the course.

There is a choice from five options in the HSC course which are contextual in nature.

This allows students to show their chemistry knowledge and the application of their

skills. The options provide a natural extension of the core learning, have an attractive

balance and are written to the same depth of treatment. This means that not all

content is covered by all students, but the syllabus also presents some option topics,

for example biochemistry, not normally found in chemistry courses at this level.


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The HSC is one of very few qualifications offering significant options as a feature of

the course. If fully available these options enable choice of content to match

individual student interests. Including all the option topics the syllabus covers around

two-thirds of the topics included in the OCR A level syllabus.

The practical programme is extensive, set at a minimum of 80 hours (a third of the

teaching time) across the two courses. Students are expected to acquire a wide

variety of skills and knowledge. There is a clear focus on developing investigative

skills throughout the courses and most notably the completion of an open-ended

investigation.

The Board of Studies NSW provides support documentation for teachers and

students via its website12. For example, the syllabus includes a limited glossary

clarifying some terminology and an Appendix with a biochemical pathways flowchart.

A support document provides advice to assist teachers’ development of skills in

teaching, learning and assessment strategies. There is also a draft sample learning

unit for chemistry. The Board of Studies NSW does not endorse textbooks.

The HSC assessment objectives are very detailed and cover a broad range of

chemistry topics. The assessment materials are very clearly structured and questions

describe what is required in detail. The examination mapping grid matches question

parts to syllabus content and outcomes demonstrating that the examination covers

approximately 90 per cent of the content and therefore matches the assessment

objectives. However the assessments lack breadth when compared with the OCR

A level, reflecting the smaller number of topics covered in the syllabus.

The multiple-choice questions within the assessments are comparable with the

English GCSE. The short-answer questions largely require factual recall from the

syllabus but also require students to interpret the questions asked, then devise and

deliver an appropriate response. Most questions are straightforward but a few are

likely to stretch higher-attaining students. The time allocation seems appropriate for

the number of questions to be answered.

Around 20 per cent of the assessment relies upon mathematics, use of graphs, and

so on.

Marking guidelines are provided for the HSC examination which indicate the criteria

used when awarding marks rather than a detailed mark allocation. Sample answers

are also available for two of the three sections of the written paper. The information is

comprehensive and detailed, including expected answers as well as other acceptable

responses. The table format is very easy to follow. However it is not clear how much

12 www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au (accessed on 15

th May 2012).

http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/


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of an answer is required to satisfy each level of the marking criteria. The sample

answers themselves would be helpful for teachers and students preparing for the

examination.



than only those planning to continue chemistry at university. Chemistry is an optional

subject within the Alberta Diploma. Taking Chemistry 20 and 30 courses within the

diploma programme uses about 15 per cent of the Alberta Diploma course time. In

England a typical student takes three A levels using about 30 per cent of their course

time per subject.

The Alberta Diploma syllabus has an aspirational set of goals, including the

encouragement of students “to develop a critical sense of wonder and curiosity about

scientific and technological endeavour” (Alberta Diploma assessment materials).

Consideration is given to enabling students to acquire new knowledge and to

address critically science-related societal, economic, ethical and environmental

issues. This includes reference to scientific literacy and aims to present science in a

meaningful context. The full Alberta Diploma curriculum is highly integrated with

chemistry specifically linked to earlier science and mathematics course content and

to mathematical topics studied alongside chemistry at this level.

The syllabus identifies unit titles and provides specific content detail including

focusing questions, key concepts and outcomes. Detailed performance descriptors

for “acceptable standard” and “standard of excellence” are given for the internal

assessment of student progress throughout the course, which includes

communication, practical and knowledge skills. However the diploma syllabus makes

no reference to the periodic table and lacks a simple qualitative treatment of rates of

reaction. This is unusual in comparison with the other qualifications considered for

this study. It covers around a third of the topics included in the OCR A level syllabus

and therefore lacks exposure to some topics and analytical techniques.

There are links to specific mathematical units which include linear mathematical

calculations and graphical skills. However, when in kinetics calculations such as pH

and pOH from Ka are required there is no mention of using a graphical method.

There are performance criteria which define the expected investigative and practical

skills, and each unit contains a list of relevant experiments as “an illustration of how

the outcomes might be developed” (Alberta Diploma assessment materials).

Alberta Education provides support documentation for teachers and students via its

website13. This includes exemplar questions and an authorised resources database

13 www.education.alberta.ca (accessed on 15

th May 2012).

http://www.education.alberta.ca/


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which details appropriate textbooks, DVD / online courses and other support

materials.

Many of the multiple-choice questions require simple recall from the syllabus, logic

and analysis or recognition of simple organic species, with very little opportunity to

test higher-order thinking skills. The test also includes innovative numerical response

questions in which students solve problems by identifying relevant data and

independently processing two or three steps to formulate a numerical response. The

examination is machine-marked.

Less than 15 per cent of the assessment relies upon mathematics, use of graphs,

and so on.

Denmark – Studentereksamen, or STX (Upper Secondary School Examination)



secondary courses in order to be accepted for STX. Students must pick two subjects

from biology, chemistry and physical geography as part of their studies. The

chemistry courses build upon the knowledge, understanding and skills developed by

students earlier in school. Taking Chemistry A, B and C courses within the STX uses

about 15 per cent of a student’s STX course time. In England a typical student takes

three A levels using about 30 per cent of their course time per subject.

Aims for chemistry within the Danish STX qualification go beyond the straightforward

development of chemistry knowledge and skills. Students are specifically required to

consider chemistry in a wider context of other subjects. This is reflected in the

curriculum for all subjects.

The syllabus sets out academic aims which cover communication, calculation,

applications of knowledge and links between concepts as well as chemical

knowledge.

The syllabus is highly contextualised and sets out a complex system of study. The

core material is described in terms of theoretical knowledge and ideas to be delivered

in themed stages. The range of topics covered is very similar to the OCR A level

syllabus.

The syllabus does not provide an overview of the mathematical content. However

students are required to study the Mathematics B course in support of Chemistry A

and success in the assessments requires good mathematical skills.

There is no formal choice of options within the Denmark STX course. However

teachers, with their students, are expected to select and use additional materials

outside the defined syllabus. The purpose of this additional material is defined for

each course; broadly this is to develop students’ understanding of chemistry as part


Ofqual 2012 152

of daily life and in current debates. STX Chemistry A is the only qualification

considered as part of this study which includes study of recent chemical research

and developments. This additional material provides the opportunity for all students

to demonstrate their full capabilities.

There is a strong emphasis on practical work with teachers encouraged to

demonstrate chemical processes rather than rely upon textbooks. Students are

expected to acquire a wide variety of skills and knowledge. There is a clear focus on

developing investigative skills throughout the courses. Schools are also expected to

provide opportunities for students to use sophisticated technical equipment either in

school or by arranging visits to external laboratories.

The Danish Ministry of Children and Education provides support documentation for

teachers and students via its website14. For example the syllabus guide includes

suggested approaches for teaching and assessing the course. There are also

detailed support materials for the final examination, including exemplar student

responses with examiner comments. Laboratory courses are organised centrally to

prepare students for the final examination.

Each school must submit their assessment strategy to the Ministry of Children and

Education and publish it on the school website. The school is then expected to

assess and report a student’s achievement across the whole of the syllabus in line

with their strategy documents. The frequency and type of assessments is defined in

the general curriculum documents published by the Ministry. The Ministry decides by

lots if the assessment for a particular class will be written or oral.

For the oral examination each student chooses one task at random. The tasks are

issued to test centres from a bank held by the Ministry. The requirement of students

is to interpret the task set, carry out the necessary research during the two hours of

laboratory time, then devise and deliver a detailed logical response. This problem-

solving and practical approach to assessment is completely different from that of the

English A level.

Over 45 per cent of the assessment relies upon mathematics, use of graphs, and so

on. This is the highest proportion found in any of the qualifications included in this

study.

No mark scheme is provided for the STX and there are no mark allocations on the

task materials given to students. The examiners observe the students carrying out

the task and mark them against the academic goals of the STX which include

communication, calculation, applications of knowledge and links between concepts.

14 http://eng.uvm.dk (accessed on 15

th May 2012).

http://eng.uvm.dk/


Ofqual 2012 153

The emphasis is on whether the student is able to use their chemical knowledge to

solve new problems and produce a written explanation, using mathematical

equations and chemical formulae to demonstrate how they reached their

conclusions.


The A level is designed to be studied by students who were successful in level 2

sciences and wish to continue their studies, although not necessarily to study

chemistry at university. After completing half the course, students may claim a

qualification called the AS level, with the second half of the course being called A2.

Together they make up the A level. A levels are offered by five different organisations

in England, and they contain some variation although they are based on a common

set of criteria set by the regulator. Chemistry is a subject choice within A levels. This

study considered the course offered by OCR. Taking chemistry A level typically uses

about 30 per cent of a student’s A level course time.

The OCR A level syllabus aims to encourage students to: develop their interest in,

and enthusiasm for chemistry, including developing an interest in further study and

careers in chemistry; appreciate how society makes decisions about scientific issues

and how the sciences contribute to the success of the economy and society; develop

essential knowledge and understanding of different areas of chemistry and how they

relate to each other.

The syllabus is highly prescriptive of content but allows some flexibility of teaching

order. The materials are functional, detailed and supportive and pick out key areas of

course design that can be used by schools in constructing their course. There are

sections which require a higher level of understanding of chemistry, for example

Boltzmann distribution, redox potentials, and mathematical relationships involving

entropy and free energy. This syllabus covers one of the broadest ranges of topics in

comparison with the other qualifications considered for this study. All topics are

covered in depth.

Details about the range of mathematical skills that are needed to support the study of

chemistry are stated to enable students and their teachers to know with some

precision what is expected of them.

The practical programme is specified in the syllabus, including the identification of the

three different types of practical skills and ideas for practical work. The level of detail

provided and the use of separate practical assessments to test specific skills is

unique within the qualifications considered for this study.


Ofqual 2012 154

OCR provides a full range of support materials through its website15. This includes

the specification document with a full description of all the requirements of the

qualification, past papers with mark schemes and examiners’ reports. OCR also

offers training seminars for teachers.

OCR offers textbooks and revision guides for some subjects in association with a

publishing house, but currently only an AS revision guide is available for chemistry.

The OCR A level syllabus details three assessment outcomes covering recall,

application and evaluative skills. The assessment requires students to have a good

knowledge and understanding of the syllabus material. At assessment level, the OCR

A level is by far the more complex assessment model, comprises most units and

examinations, and is the only specification to use a modular approach. Each

assessment focuses on a specific topic, giving limited opportunity to link large

chemistry ideas across topics, especially in the AS (first year). However, there is

opportunity for students to demonstrate a considerable depth of knowledge.

OCR provides set tasks and detailed guidance for their use in the internal

assessment of practical work. The assessment is marked by teachers using OCR

mark schemes, and marked student work is sampled by OCR to ensure consistency.

The written papers contain a wide variety question types which contain an

appropriate level of information to support the student. Questions are structured

giving students direction, facilitating recall, and arguably reducing analysis or

synthesis particularly for single-word or number answers. The relatively short time

allowed may be insufficient for some students to demonstrate the range of skills

needed. However students are able to use past papers as preparation and learn to

use their time appropriately.


and so on.

Students may retake all modules including practical skills tests.

The mark schemes provide clear instructions including significant detail on what to

accept, ignore and not accept. Marks are clearly allocated to questions including

possible alternative correct chemistry. The guidance contains comments to ensure

consistency and precision in marking.

15 www.ocr.org.uk (accessed on 15

th May 2012).

http://www.ocr.org.uk/


Ofqual 2012 155




at university. Chemistry is an optional subject. Taking both the compulsory and

specialised additional chemistry courses within the upper secondary school

programme uses about 10 per cent of a student’s Matriculation Examination course


their course time per subject.

The upper secondary syllabus emphasises the importance of chemistry in supporting

the development of students’ scientific thinking and modern world view as part of an

all-round education. It describes chemistry as one of the key natural sciences, which

studies and develops materials, products, methods and processes in order to

promote sustainable development. The overall goal is that instruction will help

students to understand everyday life, nature and technology and the significance of

chemistry to the well-being of humankind and nature.

The focus of chemistry in upper secondary is application and the subject content is

described in themed groups of topics. Each group includes references to the

applications and environmental impact of chemistry and a brief list of core content.

Teachers are encouraged to develop the students’ depth of knowledge and to teach

them to apply this knowledge in unique situations.

The syllabus does not provide an overview of the mathematical content.

There are five specialised chemistry courses which students may choose to study in

addition to the compulsory course on the chemistry of man and of the living

environment. This allows students to develop a much wider knowledge of chemistry

and the application of their skills. The specialised courses extend considerably the

coverage of topics available to students and are presented in the same format and

level of detail. This means that not all content is covered by all students and will

restrict their choices in the Matriculation Examination.

The Matriculation Examination is one of very few qualifications in this study offering

significant options as part of the syllabus, although it is not clear whether student

choice is in fact limited by their school’s choice of courses. If fully available these

options enable a choice of content to develop students’ knowledge. However overall

the syllabus, including specialisms, covers about half of the topics included in the

OCR A level syllabus. A practical programme is included in the syllabus but there

does not appear to be a practical element to the Matriculation Examination.

Support materials for students and teachers are provided by the Finnish National

Board of Education. The Finnish National Board of Education and the Ministry of

Education and Culture do not endorse textbooks.


Ofqual 2012 156

No separate assessment objectives are given for the Matriculation Examination. The

upper secondary syllabus does give concise generic assessment objectives relating

to knowledge and understanding, application of knowledge and experimental work.

However these refer to the school assessment during and at the end of courses

rather than the Matriculation Examination.

In the Matriculation Examination, students can choose any six questions from the 12

on the paper, including the two with higher scores. In practice their choices are

limited by their choice of courses. The questions are short and the language is very

clear; however students are not given any guided instructions as to the content of

their answers. The questions make little use of scaffolding and often require students

to link together chemistry concepts from different areas although sometimes within a

limited context. The questions require students to demonstrate they can apply their

knowledge and understanding.

Nearly 30 per cent of the assessment relies upon mathematics, use of graphs, and

so on.

The marking criteria for general studies assessment, which includes chemistry, are

available on the Matriculation Examination Board (or Ylioppilastutkintolautakunta)

website16. These describe the general features of good and poor work and refer to an

assessment scale which should be used to allocate the score to each question.


The baccalauréat général is designed to be studied by students who have been

successful in the diplôme national du brevet and who plan to continue their studies at

university. Taking both compulsory and specialisation courses for the joint subject of

physics‒chemistry within the baccalauréat général série S uses about 20 per cent of

the baccalauréat général course time. Study load within the course is split between

physics and chemistry. In England a typical student takes three A levels using about

30 per cent of their course time per subject.

In série L chemistry is a minor part of the scientific course (enseignment scientifique)

which has topics focused on water, foods and energy. No student graduating from

série L can choose to study science in higher education. This syllabus was judged to

be significantly below the demand of the OCR A level.

In série S chemistry is paired with physics as one of the optional science subject

courses and this limits both the amount of material and time for the chemistry course.

Even within the scientific programme, the student’s achievement in chemistry has a

very limited impact upon their overall score (a weighted average).

16 www.ylioppilastutkinto.fi/en/index.html (accessed on 15th May 2012).

http://www.ylioppilastutkinto.fi/en/index.html


Ofqual 2012 157

The syllabus is conceptual, built on a generic understanding of chemical

transformation exploring how chemists work (analysis and synthesis) and how

chemical systems develop from an initial state to an end state. For example kinetics

and thermodynamics are touched qualitatively via the development of a chemical

system from experiments, observations and measurements. This approach combines

usually separate topics such as electrochemistry with acids and bases into one.

The baccalauréat général syllabus does not offer options within the

physics‒chemistry course, but students can choose physics‒chemistry as a

specialism, which extends their studies and increases the weighting given to the

subject marks in their overall score. Including the specialisms and some items from

the physics courses the syllabus includes up to two-thirds of the topics included in

the OCR A level syllabus.

The practical programme is a significant feature of the syllabus with two hours every

two weeks for all students and an extra two hours per week for science specialism

courses. Students are expected to discover, absorb, apply and internalise laws,

techniques, procedures and the way of thinking, to acquire different experimental

skills.

Support is provided to teachers and students through the Eduscol website17. French

legislation protects the academic freedom of teachers to design their courses to meet

the syllabus requirements, using whichever resources and textbooks they choose. In

addition, all teachers in French schools are involved with the delivery and marking of

national examinations in their region which provides opportunities for them to develop

their knowledge of assessment and good practice.

For the national examination, there is a written test in physics and chemistry and a

practical test. Practical skills are assessed in a one-hour practical examination. The

assessment tasks are prepared centrally and a selection is made available to schools

each year.

Teachers are provided with an assessment grid and guidance to help them mark

student performance out of four marks. The mark given covers the student’s

experimental capacities, the results of their experiment and their written report.


The HKALE is designed to be studied by students who have been successful in Hong

Kong Certificate of Education Examinations sciences and wish to continue their

studies although not necessarily to study chemistry at university. Chemistry is an

optional subject. A typical student taking Chemistry A level alongside four AS

17 http://eduscol.education.fr (accessed on 15

th May 2012).

http://eduscol.education.fr/


Ofqual 2012 158

subjects uses about 30 per cent of their study time for the A level. In England a

typical student takes three A levels, also using about 30 per cent of their study time

per subject.

The syllabus aims to include the integration of chemistry into daily life and an

awareness of the impacts of chemistry. This includes problem-solving skills for

scientific investigation and communication; pattern recognition and practical skills.

Some of the topic titles in the syllabus are familiar chemistry (bonding and structure,

energetics and so on) with good detail and depth.

While no specific mathematical content is given in the syllabus, manipulating data

and performing calculations is one of the ten assessment objectives within the

HKALE. However, most calculations are straightforward except for the calculations of

Ksp and application of the Arrhenius equation to determine activation energy.

All HKALE syllabus topics are core and therefore there are no optional topics to be

studied. Overall it covers a very similar range of topics to those included in the OCR

A level syllabus.

The syllabus specifies the practical skills and minimum number of experiments to be

completed. The HKALE relies upon continuous assessment of practical work by

teachers to evaluate a student’s ability to plan experiments, carry them out and use

the results to reach a conclusion. The marks given by teachers are externally

moderated.

The HKALE assessment objectives cover knowledge, comprehension, application

and analysis / synthesis / evaluation. The syllabus topics can appear on either of the

examination papers, rather than being allocated to a particular paper. This is different

from the other multi-paper assessments in other qualifications included in this study,

OCR A level, the Cambridge International A level and Cambridge Pre-U, which

allocate specific topics to particular papers. The questions are mapped against the

general syllabus content and the assessment objectives to ensure each question

paper provides a broad range of coverage.

The two papers have a similar format although there is an extended writing question

worth 20 per cent of the marks in Paper 1. These papers contain the most varied

types of question and have a higher sustained level of demand than all other

qualifications included in this study. Many questions require higher-level thinking and

the ability to link ideas together, often without any scaffolding. However, questions

are clear and precise, ensuring students understand what they need to do and how

the marks are awarded.

The time allocation is reasonable given the demand in the question papers.


Ofqual 2012 159


and so on.

Comprehensive, detailed and precise mark schemes including half-marks to

recognise fine detail are provided for the written papers. These do not include the

scope for alternative answers. Considerable detail is provided in the mark scheme for

essay questions providing very valuable support for markers. There are marks for the

organisation and presentation of information as well as the demonstration of

chemical knowledge. Markers are expected to use their professional judgement to

consider alternative responses for the extended essay.

The last generally available HKALE examinations took place in April 2012.


The HKDSE is designed to be studied by the full range of students, rather than only

those planning to continue chemistry at university. Chemistry is an optional subject.

The chemistry syllabus is built around ten holistic learning aims with explicit links to

the real world; scientific investigation; and the relationships between science,

technology, society and environment (STSE). Taking chemistry within the diploma

uses 10 per cent of the HKDSE course time. In England a typical student takes three

A levels using about 30 per cent of the course time per subject.

The course is organised in such a way that modules can be run at different times to

better allow teachers to introduce topics in a natural way. The three-year senior

secondary course comprises 12 compulsory modules providing a range of topics

similar to the OCR A level. All major fields of chemistry are well represented giving a

strong foundation (namely physical chemistry, organic chemistry and inorganic

chemistry).

There is a choice for teachers or schools to select two from three optional subjects.

Students will then be able to select the appropriate question option during the

examination. The optional topics: industrial, materials and analytical chemistry,

extend the core content and provide depth and context for the students. The options

also cover the key modern approach of green chemistry, and some limited chemistry

of biologically important molecules. Including all the optional topics the syllabus

covers a very similar range of topics to the OCR A level syllabus.

The syllabus includes a number of practical activities, for which there are specific

guidelines and an investigative project to support group-working skills.

The HKDSE is a new qualification which students will complete for the first time in

2012. A large amount of support material has been produced including, for example,

several suggested module schemes which encourage a more developmental and

natural approach which allows linking of topics. The syllabus also gives many


Ofqual 2012 160

suggestions for contextualising all aspects of the course, with ideas for

demonstrations, activities and practical tasks, all relating to the real-world application

of chemistry with material that is accessible to students.

The assessment objectives show the different levels of understanding that the

students need, not just to recall knowledge but also to evaluate, analyse and apply.

Practical work is important in the HKDSE and is included as part of the school-based

assessment (SBA) worth 20 per cent of the final score. SBA is a key feature of the

HKDSE ensuring subject teachers use the teaching and learning process to support

student progress.

The first HKDSE examinations will be taken in April 2012.



students to continue their academic studies at university. Chemistry is a subject

choice within group 4, experimental sciences. Taking higher level chemistry within

the diploma uses about 20 per cent of the IB Diploma course time. In England a

typical student takes three A levels using about 30 per cent of the course time per

subject.

The syllabus is very detailed and provides specific objectives; guidance on teaching

strategies and delivery time; and, some support in delivering new aspects of the

subject content or new topics.

There is a choice of two from seven options within the IB Diploma course.

Educational institutions can choose from a range of modern topics such as medicines

and drugs; chemistry in industry and technology; and environmental chemistry.

These options enable schools to make a choice of content to match local

circumstances or teacher specialisms. The higher-level syllabus, including all the

options, covers the widest range of topics seen in any of the qualifications included in

this study.

A limited range of mathematical requirements are given in the syllabus.

Within the IB Diploma, practical work is assessed by conducting a series of

investigations together with a project using generic criteria which require higher-order

skills to design, conclude and evaluate findings.

The IB Diploma syllabus details four assessment objectives covering knowledge and

understanding; application; analysis and evaluation; and investigative and personal

skills.

The IB Diploma examination papers use a wide range of question types. Students

are not allowed to use a calculator in the multiple-choice Paper 1. The style of


Ofqual 2012 161

questions in the other papers is similar to OCR A level, but there is little opportunity

for students to make an extended response. The style of the question papers may

limit the opportunities for more able students to demonstrate the extent of their

knowledge and skills.


and so on.

Netherlands ‒ hoger algemeen voortgezet onderwijs, or havo

The hoger algemeen voortgezet onderwijs (havo) programme is designed for

students intending to continue their studies in technical subjects at higher education

institutions. Chemistry is a subject choice and students intending to continue their

studies in chemistry will normally take the nature and technology specialism. Taking

chemistry within the havo programme uses about 15 per cent of the havo course

time. In England a typical student takes three A levels using about 30 per cent of the


The syllabus details the topics to be taught in terms of knowledge and understanding

or application. This includes non-chemistry content in problem-solving, using ICT and

scientific research skills. There is an emphasis on biochemistry and industrial

processes, with little inorganic chemistry and no energetics content. The havo

syllabus covers over half of the topics included in the OCR A level syllabus although

some of the material is only at the level included in the English GCSE specification

(Bronsted–Lowry theory of acids, and so on; treatment of equilibrium; and production

of ammonia).

The syllabus provides clear mathematical requirements defined in chemistry

contexts.

The syllabus encourages teachers to use practical work and experimental research

together with demonstration experiments in teaching and assessing students.

However there is no practical assessment in the external havo assessment.

The Ministry of Education, Culture and Science provides materials to support schools

in developing their own study and assessment programmes. These are subject to

quality control by the Dutch Inspectorate of Education. Textbooks are not endorsed

by the Ministry or the Inspectorate.

Assessment objectives are not clearly defined within the havo materials, perhaps

because the central examination has a different focus each year. The papers are

very straightforward and accessible with no options. The questions are organised

and presented as themes with stimulus material followed by a number of questions

requiring short answers.


Ofqual 2012 162

The questions are heavily contextualised which often requires a great deal of

information to be assimilated before attempting the question. However they also

provide guidance and specific information, for example formulae, to support the

student. The questions are often relatively straightforward even though the

examinations do not use SI units.

The calculations are often the most difficult part of the answer. Over 20 per cent of

the assessment relies upon mathematics, use of graphs, and so on.

Successful students can choose to study for an extra year to convert their

qualification to a vwo equivalent accepted for academic courses of study at Dutch

universities.

Netherlands ‒ voorbereidend wetenschappelijk onderwijs, or vwo

The voorbereidend wetenschappelijk onderwijs (vwo) programme is designed for

students intending to continue their academic studies at university. Chemistry is a

subject choice and students intending to continue their studies in chemistry will

normally take the nature and technology specialism. Taking chemistry within the vwo

programme uses about 15 per cent of the vwo course time. In England a typical

student takes three A levels using about 30 per cent of the course time per subject.

The syllabus details the topics to be taught in terms of knowledge and understanding

or application. This includes non-chemistry content in problem-solving, using ICT and

scientific research skills. The topics appear very traditional but there is an emphasis

on biochemistry and industrial processes, with little inorganic chemistry and no

energetics content. The vwo syllabus covers over half of the topics included in the

OCR A level syllabus, but at a higher level than the havo.

The syllabus provides clear mathematical requirements defined in chemistry

contexts.

The syllabus encourages teachers to use practical work and experimental research

together with demonstration experiments in teaching and assessing students.

However there is no practical assessment in the external vwo assessment.

The Ministry of Education, Culture and Science provides materials to support schools

in developing their own study and assessment programmes. These are subject to

quality control by the Dutch Inspectorate of Education.

Textbooks are not endorsed by the Ministry or the Inspectorate.

Assessment objectives are not clearly defined within the vwo materials, perhaps

because the central examination has a different focus each year. For example the

assessment provided for this study was on biochemical contexts. The papers are

very straightforward and accessible with no options. The questions are organised


Ofqual 2012 163

and presented as themes, for example alcohol intolerance, with stimulus material

followed by a number of questions requiring short answers.

The questions are heavily contextualised which often requires a great deal of detailed

information to be assimilated before attempting the question. However they also

provide guidance and specific information, for example formulae, to support the

student. The questions are often relatively straightforward even though the

examinations do not use SI units.

The calculations were often the most difficult part of the answer. Over 25 per cent of

the assessment relies upon mathematics, use of graphs, and so on.


3

The National Certificate of Educational Achievement (NCEA) Level 3 is designed to

be accessible to the full range of students rather than only those planning to continue

their studies at university. The senior secondary chemistry courses are part of the

wider New Zealand science curriculum and chemistry is a subject choice within a

student’s study towards their NCEA. Taking NCEA Level 3 chemistry uses about 20

per cent of the NCEA course time, because a student typically studies five subjects.

In England a typical student takes three A levels using about 30 per cent of course

time per subject.

The science curriculum documents encourage students to study chemistry in order to

understand both the world around them and how chemistry can be used to solve

technological and environmental problems.

Chemistry is an optional subject in the NCEA and there is a range of courses which

can be followed at each level. Within each level there are both content-derived

courses of study and an independent chemistry research / practical investigation.

The courses build upon specific courses in the previous level, but do not necessarily

relate to other courses on the same level. Some topics have a similar breadth to the

OCR A level but no topics are covered to the same depth. For example the organic

chemistry course lacks any reference to mechanisms, modern analytical techniques

and benzene chemistry; instead the work is mainly descriptive involving the recall of

aliphatic chemistry and limited deductive analysis. There is some mathematics

represented in the NCEA Level 3 course but overall the mathematics required is

limited and often practical tasks tell students what data to collect and how to

manipulate it.

The NCEA is one of very few syllabuses offering significant options as a feature of

the chemistry course, although student choice is limited by their school’s choice of

courses. These options do enable choice of content to match individual student

interests.


Ofqual 2012 164

The practical programme consists mainly of analytical techniques, especially

titrations. Students studying the internally assessed courses have more opportunities

to develop their practical and experimental skills. The open-ended investigation

which allows students to design and carry out their own experiments in support of a

research project may be particularly demanding. This assignment also requires

production of a report, which is potentially of greater demand than the practical

assessments in the other qualifications included in this study. The skills developed in

this part of the certificate are valuable and develop student’s analytical and

independent research skills.

The New Zealand Ministry of Education provides a wide range of support materials

for teachers and students through the website of the New Zealand Qualifications

Authority18 and other related organisations.

There is an achievement standard for each course of study which explains what

knowledge, understanding, skills and applications the students are expected to

demonstrate. Questions are clearly worded, without context, and include all the

necessary information. It is clear what students are required to do.

The majority of questions in the external examinations are recall-based or allow for

very limited application / investigation by students. However the extended open

response sections do allow students to show what they know about the topic. The

time limits for individual papers are short by comparison with other qualifications

included in this study which reflects the narrow range of content within each course.

Over 20 per cent of the assessment relies upon the use of very basic mathematics,

use of graphs, and so on.

Marking guidelines are provided for the NCEA examinations which give sample

answers for each question part. The guidelines define how much of the answer a

student must get right for an Achievement (A), Achievement with Merit (M) and

Achievement with Excellence (E). There is a specific method for converting the

combination of A, M and E within each question into an overall grade for the paper.

The sample answers are very helpful for teachers and students preparing for future

examinations.






18 www.nzqa.govt.nz (accessed on 15

th May 2012).

http://www.nzqa.govt.nz/


Ofqual 2012 165


Education)



students, rather than only those planning to continue chemistry at university. It is an

optional subject. Taking both Chemistry 1 and Chemistry 2 courses within the upper

secondary school programme uses about 10 per cent of the Vitnemål course time. In


per subject.

The syllabus aims to create interest in chemistry and natural science, and at the

same time provide the knowledge necessary for participating in current debate by

providing insight into the significance of chemistry and its various applications in

everyday life and society. The overall goals are for students to learn natural science

concepts and scientific working methods, and how to assess their own work and

results.

The syllabus takes a different approach with the organisation of topics into subject

areas, each with a clear application. The syllabus specifically relates topics to

chemical language and models, experimental methods, current research and

chemical analysis. The courses cover organic, analytical and biological chemistry in

depth. However, there is limited content for kinetics and equilibrium. The syllabus

provides more detail for topics relevant in the real world and for practical research.

The range of topics covers about 80 per cent of the OCR A level syllabus and the

inorganic chemistry is limited compared with other qualifications included in this

study.

The syllabus provides an overview of the mathematical content. Students are

expected to carry out calculations, use and interpret formulas, models and data, and

solve equations.

The syllabus states clearly that studying chemistry requires linking theory with

practical work. It also encourages teaching outside the school, in laboratories and

companies, to provide an insight into how chemistry is put to practical use in society.

Seven of the ten subject areas across both courses specifically require students to

carry out practical work, and this is the main focus of both methods and

experimentation in Chemistry 1 and analysis in Chemistry 2.

Not all students who complete Chemistry 1 and Chemistry 2 courses will be required

to sit the external examinations.

Over 20 per cent of the assessment relies upon the use of mathematics, use of

graphs, and so on.


Ofqual 2012 166


Examination)

The Gāokăo is designed to select students for study at the universities of the

People’s Republic of China and other higher education institutions. The Gāokăo is

taken by students after they have successfully completed senior secondary

education. Chemistry is one of the three subjects within the science syllabus.

The syllabus document provided contained little detail compared with others

reviewed as part of this study. Students are required to learn chemistry facts and

knowledge but also to study the interrelations between ideas and the integrated use

of knowledge. Throughout the syllabus chemical ideas and knowledge are connected

with manufacturing, agriculture and the Chinese economy. This level of application is

unusual in comparison with the other qualifications considered for this study.

Mathematics is taken as a compulsory examination within the Gāokăo. Within

chemistry students tackle simple calculations of mole or pH, and simple Hess’s Law

calculations. There are no mathematical requirements defined for the treatment of

equilibrium, something which is expected within A level.

There is a choice from three options in the Gāokăo. This part of the syllabus is much

more detailed and appears to give the students an opportunity to be examined in an

area of their strength.

If all the optional content is included the range of topics is very similar to the OCR

A level syllabus. However the options may mean that students do not cover all topics.

The practical programme is part of the compulsory syllabus. Students are expected

to demonstrate knowledge of chemical experimental practice, chemical hazards,

separations, solution preparation, purification, how to set up apparatus and chemical

data analysis. However, students do not complete any practical assessment in the

examination.

The National Education Examinations Authority (NEEA) provides syllabus

documentation through its website19 and both students and teachers can obtain

further information about particular examinations from the provincial examination

authorities.


and so on.

19 www.neea.edu.cn/buttom/english.htm (accessed on 15

th May 2012).

http://www.neea.edu.cn/buttom/english.htm


Ofqual 2012 167




continue their studies at university. Chemistry is an optional subject. Taking higher

level chemistry within the Leaving Certificate uses about 20 per cent of the Leaving

Certificate course time because a student typically studies five subjects. In England a

typical student takes three A levels using about 30 per cent of course time per

subject.

The higher level syllabus would normally be studied by students expecting to

continue their studies in higher education. It includes both the study of chemistry and

the associated skills together with developing an appreciation of the significance of

chemistry in personal, social, environmental, economic and technological contexts.

The syllabus is content-driven with a range of topics, although some offer limited

depth of study. However the core content includes the additional topic of

environmental chemistry: water which expands the ideas of chemical equilibrium and

pH.

Mathematical skills are listed in the syllabus and students are expected to carry out

simple chemical calculations. These include the ability to use calculators, algebra

and graphical skills; however, the mathematics required is quite basic. The use of

graphs is limited to recording data and does not include using graphical techniques

for topics such as kinetics. However the expectation for students to calculate pH and

pOH from Ka and so on, is much more demanding.

The higher level syllabus includes two options which relate directly to core topics.

These involve the application of topics, and one option, additional industrial

chemistry, is a case study from the Irish chemical industry. Some other qualifications

included in this study encourage teachers to provide their students with opportunities

to learn from local or national industry, but this is the only syllabus including specific

materials.

It is not clear from the syllabus whether student choice is in fact limited by their

school’s choice of courses. If fully available these options enable some choice of

content to match individual student interests. The higher level syllabus, including all

the options, covers over half of the topics included in the OCR A level syllabus. The

practical programme is strongly emphasised in the syllabus which gives suggestions

of both teacher demonstrations and student experimental work in support of all core

topics.


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The National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NCCA) provides syllabus and

teacher support materials via its website20 and in print. These include materials and

activities designed to assist teachers in developing their skills in teaching, learning

and assessment strategies.

The NCCA and other government organisations do not endorse textbooks.

The syllabus has five assessment objectives: knowledge, understanding, skills,

competence, and attitudes. Assessment broadly covers 70 per cent content and 30

per cent skills in how science works. The assessment materials are clearly structured

and give details of what students need to do in each part of a question. However the

marks allocated for parts of questions are not always clear. The question papers are

closely written in a small font and students are provided with a separate answer

booklet. Students have significant choice of questions, and even parts of questions.

Therefore they need to read all the materials closely in order to select the appropriate

number of questions including their optional topics.

Practical knowledge is assessed through questions within the external examination.

Students are tested on the 28 mandatory practical procedures listed in the syllabus

content. There is no assessment of practical skills.

The question paper tests students’ knowledge and recall. The wide range of possible

question combinations and the variable nature of the questions could have an impact

on the assessment demand experienced by individual students. However there is so

much choice of questions that students can avoid some topics completely. There is

very little opportunity to demonstrate higher-order thinking skills.


and so on.

The mark scheme clearly identifies the correct response and the particular skills

assessed by each question. There is separate guidance for mathematics allowing

marks to be deducted for poor arithmetic. Some questions also allow additional “free

marks” to be allocated for high-performing students.

The Leaving Certificate Chemistry syllabus is currently being revised. The new

syllabus, to be introduced in the next few years, is intended to include a practical

assessment component.

20 www.ncca.ie (accessed on 15

th May 2012).

http://www.ncca.ie/


Ofqual 2012 169


The Korean College Scholastic Ability Test (CSAT) is designed to select students for

study at South Korea’s universities and other higher education institutions. Chemistry

is one of the four subject options within the CSAT science assessment.

The syllabus aims to encourage the development of lifelong scientific study and

emphasises student interest, motivation and enjoyment. The Chemistry 1 course

drives the qualitative development and investigation of chemical principals through

relevant contexts. The Chemistry 2 course is more specialised with higher

expectations in the quality of quantitative investigation. The syllabus is clear that

students will be tested on chemical concepts and their ability to both link and apply

them.

The topics covered in Chemistry 1 include the basics of chemistry, inorganic

chemistry and simple organic chemistry in context. The course emphasises chemical

themes by introducing core topics through the three tangible topics of water, air and

metals. Chemistry 2 covers physical chemistry in some detail, including

thermodynamics, equilibria and kinetics, and inorganic chemistry in the context of

redox reactions. It covers about two-thirds of the topics included in the OCR A level

syllabus. The syllabus has little about organic chemistry but the content of the

assessment suggests that this is taught in some detail.

Mathematics is taken as a compulsory examination within the CSAT. There is no

complex mathematics within the course and the assessment only requires basic

manipulation of algebraic expressions relating to density, volume, mass and moles;

and interpretation of graphs.

Practical work and skills are embedded in the syllabus and teachers are provided

with support in the form of a study instruction plan. The course specifies experiments

to support the learning of particular topics. This includes investigative assignments

with a strong emphasis on practical investigation and report-writing. Practical work is

assessed in class with experimental reports and observation of student performance.

However this does not contribute specifically towards the final CSAT mark.

Textbooks for use in Republic of Korea schools are approved by the Korea Institute

for Curriculum and Evaluation (KICE). The Republic of Korea government has also

announced plans that by 2015 all school textbooks and support materials will be

available electronically.

The CSAT assessments test recall of basic concepts and also the linking of these

concepts and the ability to apply them through multiple-choice problem-solving

questions.


Ofqual 2012 170



study in higher education. Chemistry is a compulsory part of the test.

ACT designs the test based on test specifications that reflect the skills that students

need to be successful in entry-level college courses. In order to provide the test ACT

collects details from its National Curriculum Survey as well as from years of data and

research examining college requirements. Chemistry is part of the ACT Science Test.

Mathematics is tested separately; therefore the mathematics requirements within the

science test are kept at a minimum.

As a stand-alone examination, there is no scope for any practical assessment.

ACT provides large amounts of support documentation and publishes its research on

its website21. This includes practice and sample tests, but not textbooks.

The ACT Science Test presents scientific information in one of three formats, “data

representation”, ”research summaries” and ”conflicting viewpoints”, and provides

seven passages for students to read. The questions are clear and demanding,

requiring a high degree of analysis at both question and answer level (the distracters

were very close to each other). Answering 40 questions in 35 minutes requires a high

level of science literacy and comprehension; this test would stretch the most able

students.

The ACT Science Test requires minimal skill in mathematics and is machine-marked.


The high school programme in New York State is designed to be studied by the full

range of students, rather than only those planning to continue their studies at

university. The Grade 9–12 courses are part of the wider New York State science

curriculum and build upon the knowledge, understanding, and ability to do science

that students have acquired in their earlier grades. The study of science is

compulsory to achieve the Regents Diploma, however chemistry itself is not

compulsory. Taking chemistry within the diploma uses about 5 per cent of the

Regents Diploma course time; the chemistry course delivers one of the 22 credits

students are expected to gain through their study within the high school programme.

In England a typical student takes three A levels using about 30 per cent of course

time per subject.

21 www.act.org/aap (accessed on 15

th May 2012).

http://www.act.org/aap


Ofqual 2012 171

The New York State core curriculum for chemistry provides broad, unifying, general

statements of what students need to know. The supporting materials outline the need

to develop essential knowledge and understanding of different areas of chemistry

and how they relate to each other. This core curriculum covers standards 1, 2, 6, 7,

and the process skills based on standard 4 in conjunction with standard 4. Detailed

course content and timing are developed by individual schools to provide a “student-

centered, problem-solving approach to Chemistry” (Regents Diploma assessment

materials).

The approach to topics includes colligative properties, and little about modern

analytical techniques, although chemical energetics are included. There is a section

on nuclear chemistry which is well developed. The syllabus covers over half of the

topics included in the OCR A level syllabus.

The syllabus does not provide a detailed overview of the mathematical content.

However within the syllabus it is clear that an extensive knowledge of mathematics is

not required. Some mathematics skills are required in responding to the paper.

Before a student can take the Regents examination they must have sufficient

laboratory experience. The syllabus does not contain a practical programme.

The New York State Education Department (NYSED) provides support

documentation and resources through its website22. It also provides programmes of

training and development for teachers across New York State. The syllabus provided

in the Physical Setting / Chemistry Core Curriculum document is an example of its

detailed support for course content.

The Regents Diploma assessment objectives are clearly defined to cover the range

of chemistry topics within the syllabus. The assessment materials are clearly

presented with short, well-phrased questions, sometimes providing students with

additional support.

The majority of questions require recall of knowledge or recall and a straightforward

application of knowledge. Some are more demanding because they ask the student

to apply their knowledge to an unusual context. The other questions involve reading

a short piece of text and then making specific responses. The questions are very

closely related to the syllabus content and do not seek to go beyond this. Higher-

ability students would not be challenged by this paper.

Less than 10 per cent of the assessment relies upon the use of mathematics, use of

graphs, and so on.

22 www.nysed.gov (accessed on 15

th May 2012).

http://www.nysed.gov/


Ofqual 2012 172

Marking support is provided for the Regents examination which gives the correct

response for each of the multiple-choice questions. It also details the acceptable

answers for each short-answer question and gives guidance on allocating the one or

two credits (marks) per question. The marking process is tightly controlled by NYSED

to ensure accuracy and fairness with at least two markers involved in marking each

paper before the total score is recorded.


The University of Cambridge International Examinations A level qualifications (or

Cambridge International A levels) are designed primarily for students who intend to

continue their studies at university. Chemistry is a subject choice. As with the A level

in England, a typical student takes three A levels using about 30 per cent of their


The syllabus aims to give an introduction to the study of chemistry and includes

integration of chemistry into daily life and an awareness of the impacts of chemistry.

It addresses problem-solving skills for scientific investigation and communication;

pattern recognition and practical skills.

The syllabus provides a significant level of details about topic content. There is a

comprehensive range of materials which are functional, detailed and supportive. In

addition to the majority of topics included in the OCR A level syllabus, this course

includes a more in-depth study of biochemistry, and materials and their applications.

Details about the range of mathematical skills that are needed to support the study of

chemistry are stated to enable students and their teachers to know what is expected

of them.

The University of Cambridge International Examinations (CIE) website23 provides

support through information and resources. This includes access to full sets of

previous assessment materials, example responses and teaching support materials.

There are also professional development events for teachers. They also endorse

textbooks.

The assessment objectives are clear and cover the full range of syllabus content.

The examination paper is well formatted with students guided through questions.

About 15 per cent of the assessment relies upon the use of mathematics, use of

graphs, and so on.

23 www.cie.org.uk (accessed on 15

th May 2012).

http://www.cie.org.uk/


Ofqual 2012 173


The Cambridge Pre-U Diploma (or Cambridge Pre-U) is designed for students who

intend to continue their studies in science at university. Chemistry is a subject choice.

Taking chemistry within the diploma uses about 25 per cent of the Pre-U course time,

because a student studies global perspectives and research in addition to their three

chosen subjects. In England a typical student takes three A levels using about 30 per

cent of course time per subject.

The syllabus aims to equip students with the skills required to make a success of

their subsequent studies at university, involving not only a solid grounding in each

specialist subject at an appropriate level, but also the ability to undertake

independent and self-directed learning and to think laterally, critically and creatively.

The syllabus content is presented in a way which clearly shows where the material

will appear in the examination papers.

The Cambridge Pre-U includes a very similar range of topics to the Cambridge

International A level but in more depth than any other qualification included in this

study. This goes beyond the level of content usually required at this level. The

syllabus includes alternative approaches to the teaching of organic chemistry and

bonding, which are designed to deliver the subject of chemistry as a more cohesively

organised discipline, rather than a large selection of ideas to be recalled. The

assessment instrument reflects this philosophy in that it is not heavily weighted

towards recall but involves higher-level skills, thus adding to the demand.

The course materials provide a clear overview of the mathematical content of the

syllabus.

The syllabus emphasises the importance of practical work in reinforcing theoretical

learning, encouraging understanding of the scientific method, and developing

practical skills. Students are recommended to complete at least one practical

investigation to follow through the experimental process and prepare for the

significant practical element in the final assessments.

The University of Cambridge International Examinations (CIE) website (see footnote

23) provides support through information and resources. This includes access to full

sets of previous assessment materials, example responses and teaching support

materials. There are also professional development events for teachers. However,

they do not publish or endorse textbooks.

The Cambridge Pre-U assessment objectives are very clear and detailed with over

20 per cent of the assessment relies upon the use of mathematics, use of graphs,

and so on.


Ofqual 2012 174

6 Findings: English

6.1 Summary

The qualifications considered within this study approach the academic study of

English in a number of different ways. This is reflected in the content of the course

syllabuses as well as the overall breadth of the student’s study programme. Unlike

the other subjects included in this study, English courses were only included where

English is the main language of tuition. Within this smaller selection of qualifications

there are still clear differences in basic design which relate to the target student

populations and the national structure of senior secondary studies.

The borders of the subject area, contents and underlying philosophy are defined

differently in different education systems. The flexibility in some courses reviewed,

where students can make choices within papers, for example, could increase

opportunities for higher achieving students to demonstrate their knowledge, skills and

application. Likewise, within coursework options, student choice often requires

independent thinking and decision-making. Within the courses which included some

study of English literature the definition of text and notions of canonicity varied

considerably. The set materials in some genres (poetry) and certain periods (Middle

English) is particularly demanding.

In addition to the basic differences in design the qualifications in the English section

of this study vary greatly in terms of their aims and rationales. Where possible the

study includes the course which focuses on the study of literature and literary skills,

for example the AQA A level, both Hong Kong qualifications (HKALE and HKDSE)

and both University of Cambridge International Examinations (CIE) qualifications

(A level and Pre-U). All of these are optional courses of study, and all except for the

Pre-U also offer courses including English language. In Hong Kong, the HKALE AS

Use of English and HKDSE English language courses are compulsory, although

neither of these courses has been considered by this study.

The USA qualifications included in this study concentrate focus predominantly on

language and broader communicative practices. While the rest combine the study of

language and literature in different proportions. A number of qualifications place

emphasis on preparing the students to operate effectively in the adult world rather

than aiming specifically to prepare students for higher-level English studies. The

Alberta Diploma course also sets out to encourage students to develop their

Canadian identity by including Canadian authors in the reading list.

The USA ACT is the only qualification which does not follow a specific course of

study. It has been included in this study as an assessment taken by senior secondary

students and because the results are used in applications to universities and

colleges. However, ACT is a stand-alone test which aims to assess “college

readiness” of a student’s English skills rather than directly testing the knowledge,


Ofqual 2012 175

understanding, skills and application developed by a student over a particular course

of study. Therefore it does not have a syllabus and is considered only as an

assessment.

Within the courses which focus primarily on literature topics, there is a variety of

conceptual frameworks in place. Some seem to be more closely aligned than others

with contemporary critical theory. Some qualifications focus on their own national

literature, on the literature of the UK and North America or encourage a more

international perspective. All state a commitment to developing students’ critical

abilities and to encouraging an enjoyment of reading..

Despite the differences of approach there were some subject-related skills which

were included in all course syllabuses: close reading (especially of unseen

materials), independent thinking, reading and research, and sustained written or oral

argument.

The International Baccalaureate Organisation has a unique approach developed to

meet the needs of their multi-cultural and multi-lingual students. The IB Diploma

Language A1 course is constructed to be studied by a student in the language with

which they feel most familiar when reading, studying and writing about literature. The

course can be used in the study of a chosen language supported by appropriate texts

chosen from the IB literature lists and elsewhere. This study has only considered the

study of Language A1 for English.

As with their aims and rationales, the structures of qualifications are equally varied.

The majority offer a combination of written examinations and internal assessment,

with a variety of weightings. Those which concentrate most on testing literature topics

usually specify (though not always assess) the study of Shakespeare, though the

prescription of period and genre is more variable. Particularly striking is the different

definitions of a “text”. While some qualifications concentrate more or less exclusively

on written text, others take a much more multimedia approach, with film and visual

texts appearing with some regularity.

Comment on the content of the internally assessed components and other

components which allow free choice of text is limited as this is dependent upon the

selections made by teachers and students.

Schemes of assessment also differ considerably: some are modular, some linear,

some offer internal and external assessment, and some consist of just two (in New

York State just one) terminal papers. The opportunity for retakes is governed to a

large extent by the nature of the qualifications and their place in the whole

curriculum. The ACT aptitude test, for example, can be taken up to 12 times as part

of a student’s preparation for entry to post-secondary education with ACT’s own

research showing that most students take the test twice with over half improving their


Ofqual 2012 176

overall score (ACT, 2012c). In contrast the Republic of Ireland Leaving Certificate is

clearly intended to be a final assessment prior to the student moving on to higher

education or employment. Such differing schemes inevitably raise a number of

issues, such as how well each caters for the recursive nature of the subject, as well

as issues of comparability of outcomes.

A wide range of assessment methods are employed in the qualifications reviewed.

Internal assessment includes conventional essay-writing, creative and re-creative24

writing, and oral presentations; with word limits from between 600 to 3,500 words.

External examinations include multiple-choice, short-answer questions, open-ended

essay questions, and questions testing unseen materials. Some of the qualifications

testing knowledge and understanding of literary texts allow students access to texts

in some or all of the written examinations, while others have only closed-text

examinations.

The timing of examinations varies widely, with the duration of examinations spanning

from just 35 minutes (ACT Reading Test) to three hours 20 minutes (Republic of

Ireland Leaving Certificate). Most examination papers are around two hours in

duration.

Mark schemes vary from the brief and entirely generic, to the detailed and question-

specific. The amount of indicative content provided is usually in line with the degree

of prescription in the qualification (those qualifications which specify the testing of a

range of set texts tend to provide the most). Indicative, rather than prescriptive, mark

schemes were judged to be particularly useful for both students and teachers as part

of the learning and teaching process. New York State in particular provides

comprehensive marker support materials and follows a strict moderation process.


included in the study and a summary of what each course covers appear in Table 4



As there is considerable overlap between the aims and rationales of the various

qualifications, they have been taken as a whole for the purpose of this section.

It is clear that the qualifications included in this study have quite diverse aims. The

AQA B A level, the Cambridge Pre-U, the Cambridge International A level and the

International Baccalaureate Diploma concentrate on literature, the latter offering a

24 Re-creative: literally “create anew”. A re-creative task is based upon source materials and requires

the student to consider the content from an alternative viewpoint and produce a new text, often in a

different genre to the original, which is supported by textual evidence from the original material.


Ofqual 2012 177

more global perspective on the subject. Others, such as NSW HSC and New

Zealand NCEA Level 3, and to a lesser extent Alberta Diploma, New York State

Regents Diploma and the Republic of Ireland Leaving Certificate, make the

boundaries of English and English literature more porous, placing emphasis on the

study of English to enable students to become good communicators, readers,

thinkers and citizens. These qualifications allow for the study of a wide range of text

types (photographs, films, journalism, screenplays) not seen in the syllabuses that

concentrate more exclusively on literature.

Some education systems, such as Alberta and the Republic of Ireland place

emphasis on their national literatures; while in Hong Kong the focus is on European

and North American materials. Both the ACT and the New York State Regents

Diploma have pragmatic aims: the former to measure a student’s readiness for post-

secondary education, the latter to prepare the student for the world beyond school.

The English A level qualification included in this review features a notable emphasis

on the process of reading and interpretation, especially compared with both the

Cambridge Pre-U and the Cambridge International A level.

Most qualifications provide useful support material. The Alberta Diploma, the New

York State Regents Diploma, New Zealand NCEA Level 3 and the Republic of

Ireland Leaving Certificate all provide high quality materials, useful for both students

and teachers (and, in the case of Canada, parents). Canada, New York State

Regents Diploma and New Zealand produce particularly helpful exemplars of

students’ work.

The comparison of assessment objectives in courses which focus on both language

and literature (often both reading and production) with those in an English literature

course (AQA B A level) means that judgements are often rather difficult to make.

Those courses that are viewed as most appropriate as preparation for future study in

the UK tend to have very similar literature-related objectives to the A level. While the

International Baccalaureate Diploma is very close in demand, it could be suggested

that its requirement for intercultural awareness may make it more demanding.

Conversely, whilst the International Baccalaureate Diploma’s requirement for close

analysis of unseen texts increases demand, this is offset by its being less rigorous in

assessing understanding of context and its effects than AQA B A level.

The New York State syllabus offers no set topics, being driven instead by the testing

of language skills, with the “Critical lens” section offering students the chance to

undertake a sustained writing exercise on a free choice of literary texts. This could be

a challenging task, depending on the text chosen.

The Alberta Diploma’s emphasis on a personal, experiential response is very

different to the approaches seen and may lead away from higher-order skills of close


Ofqual 2012 178

literary analysis; moreover, the course requires the testing of far fewer texts than

some others in this review, such as AQA B A level.

The New Zealand NCEA Level 3 allows for a good deal of choice in terms of which

achievement standards are taken, meaning that there is no fixed profile of an English

student. One might have taken all seven Standards and have covered an extremely

wide range of topics and tasks, including “typical” A level texts; others might have

concentrated on language-based topics (including oral presentations).

In the case of the Republic of Ireland Leaving Certificate syllabus, the lack of internal

assessment throws the emphasis on the written examination, with a narrower range

of texts and topics and no requirement to engage with literary theory.

The nature of the topics of the HKALE is more challenging than those in the HKDSE,

with the HKDSE’s narrower range of texts reflecting the significant changes to

qualification design within Hong Kong. The wider range of study within HKDSE

means that Literature in English takes about one third of the study time previously

allocated to the HKALE course. The portfolio requirement for both HKALE and

HKDSE offers plenty of student choice and the opportunity to explore a range of

writing styles, including film study. Students taking either of the Hong Kong Literature

in English courses are supported by the compulsory English courses within those

qualifications. Each of these compulsory courses takes up about a further 15 per cent

of the student’s HKALE or HKDSE course time.

The NSW HSC course features an inter-textual approach. The interdisciplinary nature

of the course (mixing traditional literary topics with media-based topics, for example),

the emphasis on oral competency, and the opportunities offered for imaginative

writing are distinct from other courses.

The International Baccalaureate Diploma emerges as the most comparable with the

AQA A level in the range of topics offered and the combination of breadth and depth

of study. Both A level and the International Baccalaureate Diploma manage a good

balance between core and optional elements, encouraging students’ independent

thinking and research skills. The Cambridge International A level and the Cambridge

Pre-U are very close to A level in terms of content and structure, with both offering

the same balance of core to optional topics.

Taking all factors into account, AQA A level and the International Baccalaureate

Diploma stood out as maintaining a good balance between core and optional

elements, whilst encouraging students’ independent thinking and research skills.

Assessment

The most demanding types of examination questions are extended, unstructured

questions requiring substantial argument. While short-answer and stepped questions


Ofqual 2012 179

are useful in varying the pace of an examination and catering for the lower-achieving

students, they may also hamper the more able, especially when used to test unseen

material. Successful questions are those which employ straightforward language,

contain a manageable number of factors for consideration and employ a variety of

command terms.

Some of the qualifications included in this study rely on an extensive use of multiple-

choice questioning in their examinations, making it impossible for students to

undertake critical responses to texts (apart from those offered in the answer options).

The number of texts assessed in examination conditions is also variable, generally

restricting the range of demand within the assessment..

The support of mark schemes where assessment objectives are clearly mapped to

questions, and provide indicative content which is illustrative, rather than prescriptive,

are more appropriate for students looking to progress to higher education in the UK

as they could be used by both students and teachers as part of the learning and

teaching process.

Different approaches were taken to coursework. For example, in the Cambridge Pre-

U Personal investigation, one sustained piece of writing produced without teacher

support is very demanding. The A level, AQA B, requires for four pieces of

coursework, but does allow limited teacher support.. Both methods enable the

students to demonstrate higher order skills.

The ACT and New York State Regents Diploma (post-2011) require little literary

analysis and the Alberta Diploma seeks answers based on personal response rather

than on the close analytical skills.

The quality of questions will affect the demand of assessments for students. Most

courses have clearly expressed and straightforward phrasing, comparable to the

AQA A level. Those which were generally seen as being more difficult were the CIE

Pre-U, HKALE and HKDSE Questions on the Cambridge Pre-U papers use less

straightforward language and include more factors for consideration. The Hong Kong

questions are often very long, with many separate factors to address. The mark

schemes provided all supported the marker in identifying student achievement, and

those which provided clear guidance would also be useful to teachers and students.

Annotated samples of marked scripts supplied for some assessments (New York

State Regents Diploma, Alberta Diploma, HKDSE, New Zealand NCEA Level 3)

provided useful information for forming judgements, as did examiners’ reports.


Ofqual 2012 180

6.2 English findings by education system



studied by the full range of students, rather than only those planning to continue to

university. English is the only mandatory subject in the HSC, students need to take

one preliminary course and one HSC course in English (Standard); English

(Advanced) or English as a second language. Taking any of these pairs of courses

takes about 20 per cent of a student’s overall HSC course time.

Students taking the English Advanced course can add the extension 1 course, which

promotes independent learning and engagement and provide students with

opportunities to prepare for further study of English. Taking the Extension 1 course

takes a further 10 per cent of the students overall HSC course time. However this

study focuses on the English Advanced course.

The syllabus states the guiding principle of all the English courses is that students

should work towards becoming “confident, articulate communicators, critical and

imaginative thinkers, and active participants in society” (Higher School Certificate

assessment materials). Students are exposed to English in a wide variety of forms

and encouraged to recognise how the use of language changes to meet the needs of

different audiences and situations. This is designed to develop both their critical skills

in analysing text, an understanding of their own responses to text and how this in turn

supports their own compositions.

The content and structure of the course provide a wide and exciting experience of

English. The texts studied come from a wide range of periods and genres, and are

expected to include classics, successful teaching texts and innovative recent works.

There is no use of particular genres or time periods as organising structures, but

Shakespearian drama is compulsory. The focus on particular areas of study, such as

“Belonging”, is a useful way of signalling connections between texts and for creating

a holistic paradigm for the study of English. The diverse range of text types on offer

also allows for a unified study of literature and language.

There are no optional elements within the HSC course, but teachers and students do

have the opportunity to select the materials used in addition to the prescribed texts.

There are also choices of materials and subject matter within the modular section of

the course which concerns the representation of information, textual integrity and

value.

The HSC features an inter-textual approach. The interdisciplinary nature of the

course (mixing traditional literary topics with media-based topics, for example), the

emphasis on oral competency, and the opportunities offered for imaginative writing

are distinct from other courses included in this study.


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The scheme of assessment provides for a balanced weighting between internal and

external assessment and uniquely includes imaginative writing. The two papers are

well designed and holistic and utilise the widest range of assessment methods.

Paper 1 is common to Standard and Advanced levels testing students’ ability to

analyse familiar and unseen texts and compose responses with both short and

extended response questions Paper 2 tests the skills developed in the modular

section of the course through sustained response and includes some demanding

questions which invite high-order thinking. The high proportion of questions requiring

comparison and the time allowed for the assessment work together to further

increase the level of demand.

Mark schemes are made up of generic guidance comments, with descriptors

provided for five mark bands.

Overall the HSC syllabus is the broadest of any qualification included in this study,

both in the range of materials studied and the skills which students have the

opportunities to practice and develop.



than only those planning to continue to university. English Language Arts (ELA) is a

compulsory part of the Diploma. Students must pass ELA 10-1 and 20-1 courses in

order to take ELA 30-1. These three courses take up about 15 per cent of the

student’s overall Diploma course time.

The stated aims of the ELA courses are that students should study literature as a

means of gaining understanding of themselves, of the world around them, and of “the

characters that literature creates” (Alberta Diploma assessment materials).. Students

are encouraged to appreciate the significance and artistry of literature, as well as

developing their own confidence and competence in writing for a wide range of

audiences and purposes. The course aims to develop strong language users,

prepared to meet the challenges of the workplace or post-secondary studies.

In terms of content and structure, the minimum requirement for text study is broad

and a third of texts must be the work of a Canadian author. The requirement for

students to study Canadian texts is intended to encourage them to reflect on their

own ideas and experiences of citizenship and to develop respect for cultural diversity

and common values.

In the Diploma examination Part A requires two sustained responses (one to unseen

texts and one to a text chosen by the student) on a particular theme (for example:

“ways in which individuals take responsibility for themselves”), both urging students

to draw on their own experiences and feelings. The common theme for both pieces of


Ofqual 2012 182

writing may reduce demand but the tasks are quite open-ended, with ample

scaffolding in the form of planning space and prompt questions. The personal

response required is different in this assessment with students asked to draw on their

personal life experiences. Other assessments expect students to offer a personal

response through their own analysis and ideas about texts.

Each part of the assessment has guidance for markers with five band descriptors for

Part A progressing from “Excellent” through to “Poor”, with “Insufficient” being used

for rubric infringements and absence of writing. Marking guidance is helpful and

clear, supported by samples of marked examination scripts.

Part B consists of 70 multiple-choice questions on a wide range of short texts,

including some excerpts from extended texts. These include modern drama (theatre,

television, radio or screenplays), poetry and song, non-fiction and response to non-

fiction. The extracts are quite challenging although the opportunities for students to

develop their response to the texts is limited by the use of multiple-choice questions..

Overall the Diploma ELA syllabus is one of the narrowest of any qualification

included in this study, both in the range of materials studied and the skills which

students have the opportunities to practice and develop. The focus is upon personal

response and anecdotal writing, rather than the content and skills found in other

qualifications in this study.


The A level is designed to be studied by students who have been successful in level

2 English studies and wish to continue with the subject, although not necessarily to

study English at university. After completing half the course, students may claim a

qualification called the AS level, with the second half of the course being called A2.

Together they make up the A level. A levels are offered by five different organisations

in England, and they contain some variation although they are based on a common

set of criteria set by Ofqual. A typical student takes three A levels using about 30 per

cent of their course time per subject

This study considered the A level English literature specification B offered by AQA. In

addition to English literature, qualifications in English language and in English

language and literature, are also offered by most of the awarding organisations

offering A level qualifications in England.

The syllabus explains that “the exploration of reading processes can be an

interesting and enriching way to approaching literary texts” (A level assessment

materials). Within the AS (first year) course focuses is on storytelling and the

construction of alternative realities. The A2 (second year) course extends this to

include different critical approaches and the interpretation of cultural meanings. It


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encourages students to develop their interest in and enjoyment of literature and

literary studies through reading widely and independently.

There are four nationally prescribed assessment objectives which are common to all

English Literature A level specifications regardless of the organisation offering the

qualification.

In terms of content and structure, students study a minimum of 12 texts. The external

assessments focus on these prescribed texts, while the internal assessments allow

for a freer choice of text by both student and teacher. Study may include a text in

translation.

The syllabus is well structured, with clear connections across and within units. There

is a good range of topics, ensuring a comprehensive study of genres, and this genre-

led approach is used to support a broader understanding of literary concepts than

may be possible in a syllabus based on isolated texts or even literary periods. In

particular, the mandatory study of an anthology of critical writing stretches the more

able student.

Independent reading and research is encouraged and there is an opportunity to

undertake recreative writing as part of the student’s coursework portfolio.

The specification includes a number of prescribed texts that can be taught as part of

the course. While some texts are more challenging than others in the list, this does

not appear to affect the demand of the qualification overall.

The questions set on both examination units are clear, economically worded, and

accessible to all students in the ability range. There is a sound match of assessment

objectives to questions.

Mark schemes are made up of a list of basic principles for markers, a grid with

generic descriptors for each assessment objective assessed within each of six

bands, and brief indicative content.


The HKALE is designed to be studied by students who have been successful in the

Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examinations and wish to continue their studies,

although not necessarily to study English, at university. All students take the AS Use

of English qualification, but this study considers only the optional HKALE Literature in

English qualification as a closer comparison with the AQA English Literature A level.

A typical student taking Literature in English A level alongside 4 other subjects at AS

uses about 30 per cent of their study time for the A level

At qualification level, the examination aims to assess how well students have

understood and appreciated representative literary texts (including films) as well as


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related cultural forms in order to develop a greater awareness of the relationship

between literature and society.

The syllabus’ stated aim is to offer “representative literary texts”; however the

prescribed range is narrow in comparison to other the other English literature

qualifications considered by this study. In particular the selection for Paper 1 lacks in

breadth; however, the texts chosen are well grouped and the inclusion of film texts is

in line with the course aim to encourage students to make connections between texts

and the contemporary world. Addressing the topics for Paper 2 require a broader

cultural understanding of period and contemporary issues.

Although English is the language of tuition in Hong Kong the prescribed texts and

films are essentially European and North American, set within western hemisphere

cultural contexts. Students are therefore studying a foreign literary tradition and this

may explain why knowledge appears compartmentalised and the course structure

unlikely to provide a clear sense of historical perspective or connections between

texts.

However, the portfolio work produced for internal assessment provides excellent

opportunities for students to engage with the course content, allowing them

opportunities to experiment with their own writing and responses to texts; it also

caters well for all levels of the ability range.

The examiner’s report, which specifies the typical content of students’ answers, is

useful, as it demonstrates how the assessment objectives link to questions. Without

the report it is difficult to see how questions match assessment objectives and the

intention of some questions is unclear. There are some questions, especially those of

a semi-creative nature, which encourage students to make assumptions that may not

be based on literary principles and to treat texts as if they were transparent

representations of reality. This is a different approach to that taken in the other

English literature qualifications considered in this study.

The mark scheme provides seven mark bands with very brief descriptors for each.

The study found that the HKALE Literature in English course had narrower content

than the AQA English Literature A level. However, this finding does not take into

account the additional English studies undertaken by students in the compulsory

HKALE AS Use of English qualification.



those planning to continue to university. English language is a compulsory course in

the HKDSE, but this study considers only the HKDSE Literature in English course as


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a closer comparison with the AQA English Literature A level. Literature in English is

an optional course taking up about 10 per cent of a student’s HKDSE course time..

The Literature in English syllabus provides students with opportunities to develop

their knowledge and literary skills of comprehension and appreciation. Teachers are

also encouraged to coordinate student’s studies of this course with the English

language course in order to maximise the opportunities students have to learn about

English as a whole subject.

HKDSE is a new course of study first taught in 2009 with the first examinations due

to take place from April 2012. Consideration of the assessment materials has

therefore been limited to the sample materials provided for teachers at an early stage

to assist their preparations for teaching the course.

Although English is the language of tuition in Hong Kong the sample sets of

prescribed texts and films are essentially European and North American, set within

western hemisphere cultural contexts. Students are therefore studying a foreign

literary tradition and this may explain why there is a narrow range of topics and set

texts.

The stated assessment objectives are not clearly reflected in the questions seen.

That is, students are expected to demonstrate a number of high-level literary skills

and an understanding of literary concepts, but questions do not always test these in

any clear or systematic way.

The assessment is driven by the study of single texts, with no apparent over-arching

principle or concept. Questions are straightforward, though not always successful at

prompting a literary response. The stepped, directed questions on the Appreciation

paper would not encourage a personal response from students and the timing of the

paper is tight. However the assessment is accessible to students across the ability

range.

The portfolio work provides an opportunity to broaden and enrich the scope of the

study through developing more awareness of and understanding of generic forms.

This is generally undertaken in the third year of the course allowing students to utilise

earlier learning across both English courses.

The Level descriptors are clearly intended to discriminate across the full range of

student ability.

The study found that the HKDSE Literature in English course had narrower content

than the AQA English Literature A level. However, this does not take into account the

additional English studies undertaken by students in the compulsory HKDSE English

language course.


Ofqual 2012 186



students to continue their academic studies at university. The study of a first

language (Group 1 – Language A125) is a compulsory part of the Diploma. Study of

the chosen Language A1 takes up about 20 per cent of the IB Diploma course time.

The syllabus provides opportunities for students to learn about their chosen

language, the literature which uses it and how to use it expressively. This includes

developing recognised literary skills of appreciation and criticism. The syllabus offers

a very good range of texts across all components and it successfully combines close

analysis and breadth of study. The overall structure allows teachers considerable

freedom to construct a course tailored to the particular needs and interests of

students. This could raise issues over comparability of demand. The world literature

topic significantly extends the students’ reading and range of cultural reference and

gives a strong global perspective to the syllabus. IB is the only course to specifically

include translated texts.

The assessment objectives are clear and well matched to the assessment.

Both of the external examination papers are of a similar demand to the AQA A level.

However, the absence of any single-text question does restrict opportunities for

students to demonstrate their close reading and analytical skills. The coursework

component is well-suited to the full ability range, offering a good deal of choice for the

student across the full range of the language A1 syllabus. The oral tasks equate well

with the written coursework tasks.

Mark schemes provide clear and helpful guidance; however the language used in the

performance descriptors is sometimes imprecise (for example, “adequate

understanding”).

The Language A1 syllabus has potential for students to study the widest range of

texts of any qualification included in this study.

25 “Language A1” denotes the language with which students feel most familiar when reading, studying

and writing about literature; this is most likely to be, but does not have to be, the language of

instruction.


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3

The National Certificate of Educational Achievement (NCEA) is designed to be

accessible to the full range of students rather than only those planning to continue

their studies at university. English is an optional subject taking up about 20 per cent

of the NCEA course time, for a typical student studying five subjects.

The stated principles of the NCEA are that the student is at the centre; the syllabus

underpins assessment and assessment capability is crucial to improvement.

The syllabus offers a very good range of topics which are interesting and engaging

for students; they are well balanced, with plenty of sub-topics available in the

externally assessed standards. The study of English is opened up by the lack of

division between language and literature together with the inclusion of the literary text

and other forms of written and visual production. The oral component is an

educationally beneficial part of the programme on offer. Student and centre choices

inevitably mean that there will be many and varied configurations of English under

this model, and that certain elements of study can be avoided. There are seven

achievement standards: four are externally assessed and three are internally

assessed. Students need to gain at least 14 out of the 24 available credits for

university entrance and students can choose predominantly internally assessed or

predominantly externally assessed standards. All of the externally assessed

achievement standards are tested in one examination session although students do

not have to attempt all of the standards. Students are expected to achieve their

credits from both internally and externally assessed standards.

Both types of standard offer students ample opportunities to study a range of text

types and to respond to them in a variety of forms (written, oral, research). There are

opportunities for overlap between the internally and externally assessed units; for

example, the oral presentation could be focused on an externally examined text.

The internally assessed units are designed to test skills which are difficult to assess

in timed conditions, while the externally assessed achievement standards are all text-

based.

The questions are clear, open-ended and designed to elicit critical responses; there

is a good degree of equivalence between the questions both within and across

sections.

Overall, the externally examined achievement standards are more challenging than

those which are internally assessed, and the time and word allowances may restrict

the opportunities for more able students to demonstrate their full range of ability.


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NCEA Level 3 English is assessed against the requirements of the registered

achievement standards for English. With the exception of the mark scheme for

AS90723, which gives some indicative content, mark schemes are generic and

provide evidence statements for the three possible judgements: Achievement,

Achievement with Merit and Achievement with Excellence. There is also a bullet-

point list defining the characteristics of work which should be graded as Not

achieved. The mark schemes are clear and easy to follow, if a little lacking in detail.

Overall the NCEA Level 3 syllabus includes a broad range of materials to study and

skills which students have the opportunities to practice and develop.







The Established Leaving Certificate is designed to be studied by the full range of


continue their studies at university English is an optional subject. Taking up about 20

per cent of the Leaving Certificate course time, for a typical student studying five

subjects.

The syllabus requires the study of language in a wide variety of contexts, genres

functions and styles and covers a broad range of topics, which appears comparable

to the English language and literature A level course available in England.

Structurally the course is organised around two general domains, comprehending

and composing. Literature topics are dominated by 20th-century texts, however, the

strong emphasis placed on poetry and on the inclusion of film as a text for study and

analysis increases the scope and demand of the syllabus.

This qualification is assessed entirely through terminal written examinations:

The literature questions on Paper 2 are more demanding than those on English

language on Paper 1, particularly the comparative question. However, the single-text

questions are sometimes rather limiting, with a tendency to encourage the students

to think in binary terms. The duration and content of Paper 2 are very demanding for

students.

The absence of coursework hampers students’ opportunities for independent

research, though it is acknowledged that there are plenty of recommended wider

reading texts which might lead to students pursuing their own interests.


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The criteria for assessment are competence-based each criterion is weighted for

each task and these weightings are converted to marks available for individual

questions in the mark schemes. There is separate guidance for each task, with brief

indicative content provided.

Overall the Leaving certificate syllabus includes a range of materials to study and

skills which students have some opportunity to practice and develop. However this

range is narrower than the content and skills found in other qualifications in the study.



study in higher education. The English and reading tests are compulsory parts of the

ACT and there is an optional writing test.

There is no specific test syllabus, but the test is designed by ACT to reflect the

content of state course materials. In order to provide the test ACT collect details of all

the state courses and also conduct research into college requirements.

ACT provides large amounts of support documentation and publishes its research on

its website26. This includes practice and sample tests, but not textbooks.

Assessment objectives are precisely stated and questions are constructed to match

them closely. Questions are of varying demand, and include accessible questions for

lower-attaining students.

The ACT English Test uses multiple-choice questions to test student’s understanding

of the conventions of writing and rhetorical skills as demonstrated by texts. Similarly

the ACT Reading Test uses multiple-choice questions to test students understanding

of prose passages. The texts are selected to represent materials commonly

encountered in the first-year of higher education.

Higher-attaining students are hampered by the rigid constraints of the multiple-choice

format, and are prevented from demonstrating any flair, originality, opinion or

nuanced understanding of writers’ methods. However reading the unseen texts and

successfully answering the volume of questions within the time allowed requires a

high level of specific literacy and comprehension skills.

The writing test provides stimulus material which describes an issue and two possible

points of view. Students are asked to write about their position on the issue and may

adopt either stated positions or a different viewpoint

26 www.act.org (accessed on 15

th May 2012).

http://www.act.org/


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These are demanding assessments of a specific set of English language skills. All

three tests are entirely skills-based and are intended to test aptitude and readiness

for college entry. They do not cover some areas considered to be important, for

example, researching and debating ideas; developing personal responses to texts;

using language for a variety of purposes and audiences; understanding of the

contexts in which texts are produced and read.




English Language Arts (ELA) is a compulsory part of the Regents Diploma. The full

ELA courses deliver four of the 22 credits students are expected to gain through their

study within the high school programme, using about 20 per cent of the Regents

Diploma course time.

The ELA Core Curriculum highlights learning standards which are used to measure a

student’s success. A learning standard is an established level or degree of quantity,

value, or quality. New York State learning standards are defined as the knowledge,

skills, and understandings that individuals can, and do, habitually demonstrate over

time as a consequence of instruction and experience. New York State has now

adopted the Common Core Standards.

The learning standards provide the basis for schools to develop their ELA courses.

Topics and sub-topics are taught and assessed through a variety of activities and

tasks devised by the teacher throughout the school grades. In addition students take

the external Regents Examination. This assessment is part of a broad educational

process, with the examination operating as a culmination of the informal

assessments which are ongoing throughout the student’s school career. Topics are

based on skills and the knowledge required to operate in the four language modes

(listening, speaking, reading and writing). This holistic view of English as a subject

sets it apart from the A level; however, the range of topics is limited and offers little

breadth or depth. The assessment objectives are well matched to the questions.

From January 2011, the ELA external assessment was restructured into one

Comprehensive English examination paper. The paper uses multiple-choice

questions to test listening and reading skills directly, with short and extended written

tasks to test comprehension and writing skills. Opportunity for sustained and focused

writing may be limited in this model.

The most demanding question is the critical lens, the final section of the paper.

Although the open nature of the task and the students’ free choice of texts might lead

to prepared answers. The papers are clearly presented with helpful scaffolding for

lower-attaining students and the choice of unseen texts relates very well to the

contemporary world and would be of interest to students.


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Mark schemes are clear and useful, with helpful samples of marked scripts being

provided.

Overall the Regents Diploma syllabus is one of the narrowest of any qualification

included in this study, both in the range of materials studied and the skills which

students have the opportunities to practice and develop. The focus is upon the

practical use of English, rather than the content and skills found in other qualifications

in the study.


The Cambridge International A level qualifications are designed primarily for students

who intend to continue their studies at university. Literature in English is a subject

choice. For a typical student taking three subjects Literature in English takes up

about 30 per cent of their A level course time.

The syllabus aims to encourage students to read a wide range of texts across time

and culture. Students have the opportunity to develop their response to literature and

the associated skills of reading, analysis and communication in support of their own

personal development.

There is a text-centric approach which focuses students on learning to read,

understand, analyse and respond to texts as coherent entities. This approach differs

from other Literature qualifications included in this study which are structured around

genre study or theoretical approaches to the text.

The three core papers (3, 4 and 5) and the optional paper 6 are structurally identical,

with students having the option to write a whole-text essay or one based on an

extract from the set text.

The questions are clear and appropriately challenging, with plenty of focus on

authorial method. The option of an extract-based question on all four papers

encourages close reading and offers structure for the lower-attaining students.

Rubrics and presentation are clear, with plenty of space for the annotation of

extracts.

The match of assessment objectives to questions is good and the mark schemes are

generally straightforward, clear and accessible.

This study found that this qualification has very similar syllabus content to the AQA

English Literature A level.


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The Cambridge Pre-U is designed for students who intend to continue their studies

university. Literature in English is a subject choice within the Cambridge Pre-U. For a

typical student taking three principal subjects Literature in English would take up

about 30 per cent of their Pre U course time.

Assessment covers at least six texts, covering poetry, prose and drama. They must

include Shakespeare, and writing before and after 1900.

The Cambridge Pre-U has a linear syllabus, with all units being taken at the end of

the two-year course.

The choice of texts has a predominance of the English canon. There is little

contemporary writing with only three living authors, J. M. Coetzee, Derek Walcott,

and Brian Friel prescribed. However this can be balanced by the personal

investigation, with its free choice of texts, or through the preparatory reading and

study for the unseen Comment and Analysis paper.

The assessment is single-text driven, with little attempt to encourage students to

think about literature more broadly.

However, the topics are challenging and particularly suitable for high-achieving

students, without excluding those of lower ability. The study of poetry and the testing

of close analysis of unseen materials are particularly stretching, as are the

recommendations for critical reading offered to students preparing for the personal

investigation.

All papers have extended, unstructured questions requiring sustained writing.

The language framing in some questions is quite high level and not always

commensurate with the question’s actual demand (several of them relying on the

relatively straightforward discussion of theme and character). Similarly, questions are

complex in construction, sometimes requiring students to consider four or five

separate factors. The Comment and Analysis paper provides stretch and challenge

and is an effective way of encouraging wider reading by way of preparation.

The mark scheme is organised with reference to the assessment objectives and

supported by the question-specific notes which provide the parameters within which

markers may expect the discussion to roam. This guidance is clear and helpful.

This study found that the Pre-U has very similar syllabus content to the AQA English

Literature A level.


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7 Findings: History

7.1 Summary

The history courses included in this review have very different purposes and this

affects any comparisons between them. For example, the course for the New York

State Regents Diploma are clearly intended to build upon a regionally prescribed

history or social studies course, which students have followed through their

secondary education up to their respective starting points. Additionally, length of

recommended teaching time and the sheer volume of content suggest how much

history has to be covered by students. However other differences by themselves do

not indicate different levels of demand.

For example, while a course that requires students to memorise more historical

content might appear less demanding than one that requires complex understanding

of historical concepts as part of an examination, this does not necessarily mean the

entire qualification is less or more demanding.

Reviewers noted the following features which lead to courses being of a high

demand:

conceptual understanding

the accurate and effective deployment of knowledge (which may be broad or in

depth as they can be equally demanding)

document-based skills – analysis and evaluations of sources and their

integration with the student’s own knowledge

essay-based skills – discussion of issues, analysis and evaluation to reach

valid, considered and supported judgements (these may be demonstrated in an

oral examination)

historical enquiry – the ability to ask relevant and significant questions about the

past and research them.

The qualifications adopt a range of assessment methodologies. Some rely solely (or

heavily) upon external assessment whilst others give considerable weighting to

internal assessment. This is inevitably linked to the extent to which schools are able

to devise their own teaching programme. This is also true in the case of those

qualifications which include a personal investigation.

Oral examinations are a feature particularly of the STX in Denmark and Vitnemål in

Norway. In the case of the STX the entire assessment is through an oral

examination. For the Vitnemål an oral examination is used, for some students only,

as part of the validation of teacher / centre assessment. Additionally in the case of


Ofqual 2012 194

the baccalauréat général in France an oral examination is used as an additional

opportunity for borderline fail students to achieve a pass standard.

A few qualifications use multiple-choice questions, notably the Gāokăo in the

People’s Republic of China, New York State Regents Diploma and the CSAT in the

Republic of Korea. For the CSAT these constitute the entirety of the final assessment

and for the Gāokăo they constitute 50 per cent of the final assessment. This type of

assessment tests a student’s ability to recall the large amount of information they

have acquired as part of the course, and is an effective way to ensure testing of a

large part of a curriculum in a short period of time.

However, most courses reviewed rely on written assessment or examinations, and

the essay question is the most consistently used question style followed by the

source-based question.

The qualifications reviewed also differ in organisation. While the majority of these

qualifications are free-standing, others combine the study of history with the study of

another subject, such as the baccalauréat général in France and the Vitnemål in

Norway, which combine history with geography and philosophy respectively. Finally,

the qualifications place differing degrees of emphasis on: preparing students for

higher study at university, developing students’ critical thinking skills, developing

citizenship and developing students’ interest in history.

The respective qualifications describe their structure in similar ways. The historical

knowledge or content is divided into topics, units or periods, and in some there are

also themes running through. In terms of the historical content the differences in the

nature and purpose of qualifications are clearly a factor in determining the extent to

which students are required to study their own national history at one end of the

spectrum and are expected to develop a wider continental or world view at the other.

Related to this is the extent to which the qualifications offer choice to teachers on

what content to teach. In some, such as the baccalauréat général in France or the

New York State Regents Diploma, there is no choice, but in others, most notably the

A level, there is very wide choice. It should be reiterated, though, that this choice is

for teachers, not for students. The only way some of the qualifications offer students

choice is on their examination papers. In terms of content, only where students are

permitted to choose an extended personal historical investigation component are

they able to make any choices regarding the content they study. Across all

qualifications there is also a clear concern to balance the depth and breadth of

historical study.

Linked to this is the way in which some qualifications view history as extending to the

present day whilst other set a fixed end point in the recent past. Some qualifications

such as the Vitnemål in Norway and the Gāokăo in the People’s Republic of China

expect students to gain an overview of history stretching back to classical or earlier


Ofqual 2012 195

times. Others focus upon the modern period, such as the baccalauréat général in

France where the final class looks at history post-1945. In most qualifications history

is seen as provisional; most explicitly stated by Edexcel’s A level, but implicit in all

those that describe history as open to interpretation. The New South Wales HSC

course describes history as a “contested dialogue between past and present” (HSC

assessment materials). Perhaps only in the Gāokăo, the New York State Regents

Diploma and the Republic of Korea CSAT qualifications does there appear to be an

element of the view that history is uncontested with a definitive narrative version.

In all the qualifications historical understanding is not separated from historical

knowledge. However the way in which historical concepts and processes are

described or assessed does differ. Many qualifications express these as assessment

objectives and the link between the two is explicit both in the outline of the course

and on the examination papers. Other qualifications, for example the New South

Wales HSC, describe course outcomes which include both historical content and

skills, whereas others describe achievement standards (New Zealand NCEA Level 3)

or learning outcomes (New York State Regents Diploma). Nevertheless the key

concepts of time, change, causation and the processes of evidence and

communication, structuring and supporting an argument with evidence are common

to all. Two significant differences are the way in which some qualifications describe

and assess historical interpretation, and the fact that some limit the extent to which

students’ understanding of historical enquiry can be assessed, by the absence of a

requirement for an extended personal historical investigation.

The comparison of the individual qualifications revealed a number of similarities and

some significant differences in terms of how assessment is managed. Amongst these

is the number of assessment points, including whether a qualification is linear or

modular. Then there is the balance between internal and external assessments, the

degree to which the structure of internal assessments is prescribed and the extent to

which assessments are externally moderated or not. With external assessment there

are differences in their structure, their duration and the extent to which students can

or cannot retake assessments. Finally, there are some qualifications where there is a

clear progression in demand between the final assessments taken in the first and

second years of a qualification, and others where this is not the case.

The mark schemes that accompany assessments vary in the level of detail and

guidance that they supply for their first audience, examiners and for their second

audience, teachers and students. They also reveal the extent to which examination

questions actually match and assess the declared assessment objectives or learning

outcomes of the qualification.

There is no comparable subject of study within the Alberta system, so it was not

included in this study. Similarly, the ACT is not included as history is not a

component of the test.


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included in the study and a summary of what each course contains appear in Table 6



All of the courses considered as part of this review view the study of history as a

discipline as an important part of their rationale, but to varying degrees. The

strongest statements are to be found perhaps in the Cambridge Pre-U and A level,

the IB Diploma and the Edexcel A level. The only exceptions to this are the New York

State Regents Diploma and the Republic of Korea CSAT where history is clearly

placed within the context of a prescribed social studies programme. In two instances,

the baccalauréat général in France and the Vitnemål in Norway, the discipline of

history is seen as integrated with another discipline, geography and philosophy

respectively. This last might also be claimed for the Gāokăo in the People’s Republic

of China which has a strong political theory dimension.

For some of these courses the study of history is explicitly a preparation for study at a

higher level / university, namely the People’s Republic of China Gāokăo, the Edexcel

A level, the baccalauréat général in France, the Finland Matriculation Examination,

the IB Diploma, the Netherlands havo and vwo and the Cambridge Pre-U. For others

the skills and understanding derived from studying history are seen as a preparation

for life and citizenship, for example the Denmark STX, the Hong Kong HKALE and

HKDSE, the Republic of Ireland Leaving Certificate, the New South Wales HSC and

the New York State Regents Diploma. Additionally, some place an emphasis on

students learning about the culture of their country, such as the Matriculation

Examination in Finland, the baccalauréat général in France and the havo and vwo in

the Netherlands.

Some of these form part of a curriculum where the study of history is prescribed up to

the end of compulsory secondary education, such as in the baccalauréat général, the

New South Wales HSC and the New York State Regents Diploma. Both of these

factors clearly influence the extent to which the courses require students to study

their own national history.

Of the countries which do require students to study their own national history the

weightings vary. In the Edexcel A level, students spend a minimum of 25 per cent on

their national history as do Matriculation Examination students in Finland. The New

York State Regents Diploma is entirely on US history whilst that for the Gāokăo

places Chinese history firmly at the centre of its content. Of the rest, the Republic of

Ireland Leaving Certificate course requires 50 per cent on Irish history, the

baccalauréat général requires at least 50 per cent on French history, the havo and

vwo courses include one component dedicated to Dutch history, and the NCEA Level

3 course can be studied entirely on topics from New Zealand history although this

depends on the optional topics chosen. The opposite, with no New Zealand history,


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is also possible. Conversely, the Hong Kong HKALE course does not require

students to study the history of Hong Kong although the new HKDSE does.

Four courses, the Cambridge Pre-U, the Edexcel A level, the Hong Kong HKALE and

the New South Wales HSC, make explicit reference in their aims to stimulating

students’ interest in or enjoyment of history whilst the Republic of Korea CSAT states

that the curriculum is a response to students’ requests. All of the courses include

students’ development of their knowledge and understanding of history as part of

their aims, and also the importance of evidence and its critical use.

Only one, the Edexcel A level, mentions the provisionality of history, although others

describe historical interpretation as being open to debate. In some the content is

more high profile, notably the Matriculation Examination which aims to teach students

the principal “trends of Finnish and world history” and New York State Regents

Diploma whose predominant emphasis is on “developing a disposition to democratic

values and learning to function effectively in American society”.

Linked to the study of history, a number of courses argue that one of the aims of

studying history is to develop critical thinking skills. This is explicit in the materials

supporting the courses for the Edexcel A level, both Hong Kong qualifications, the

Denmark STX, the Republic of Ireland Leaving Certificate, the IB Diploma and the

New York State Regents Diploma.

The study showed that the assessment objectives of the Edexcel A level are of a

similar demand to those of the Cambridge International A level, the IB Diploma and

the Cambridge Pre-U. Those for the New South Wales HSC and the Hong Kong

HKALE were also judged to be similar to each other but with a slightly lower demand

than the Edexcel A level. For example in the case of HKALE there was no reference

to historical significance and subject knowledge seemed to carry greater weight,

particularly on the examination papers.

The requirements of the People’s Republic of China Gāokăo, the New York State

Regents Diploma and the Republic of Korea CSAT qualifications have a heavy

emphasis upon content rather than on the concepts and processes of history.

Similarly the Republic of Ireland Leaving Certificate’s assessment objective relating

to source handling skills in particular was seen as less demanding, as were the Hong

Kong HKDSE assessment objectives. The New Zealand NCEA Level 3 assessment

objectives were also considered to be less demanding because they placed less

emphasis upon analysis and evaluation.

Two significant differences are the way in which some qualifications describe and

assess historical interpretation and the fact that some qualifications limit the extent to

which students’ understanding of historical enquiry can be assessed, by the absence

of a requirement for an extended personal historical investigation. In the former case


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some courses treat interpretation and evidence as if they were the same thing (which

is not the case). Others understand interpretations in historiographic terms.

In the assessment of students’ understanding of historical enquiry, there is a

compulsory component of historical enquiry personal research in some qualifications

such as the A level, the Hong Kong HKDSE (with the exception of private students)

the IB Diploma, the New Zealand NCEA Level 3, the Cambridge Pre-U, the Republic

of Ireland Leaving Certificate and in the preliminary school-devised part of the New

South Wales HSC.

The more demanding of these require footnotes and a bibliography, and students

having to study primary sources in order to gain access to the two highest bands,

such as the Cambridge Pre-U and the Edexcel A level.

There is a similarity between the New Zealand NCEA Level 3 historical research

internal assessment task, the IB Diploma historical investigation and the Edexcel

A level historical enquiry. However it is interesting to note that the New Zealand

NCEA Level 3 course has a much more flexible approach to the format in which the

task could be presented; for example, designing a museum display for a battle or

campaign in the Second World War, or a historical walking tour. The New Zealand

NCEA Level 3 course is also unusual in its emphasis that some time should be spent

pre-teaching research techniques in order to prepare students to undertake the

internal assessment task.

The range and number of topics students actually study can be a key factor of

demand. This is different from the range and choice of topics available on

qualifications as a whole, as these choices are made by teachers. For students, it all

depends upon the minimum requirements determined by the balance between

optional and compulsory topics, together with precisely how they are examined. For

some of the courses such as the New York State Regents Diploma and the Denmark

STX students must cover all topics. The range of topics students must tackle on the

Edexcel A level is similar to that on the Cambridge Pre-U and IB Diploma, whilst

those on the Cambridge International A level were judged as slightly less demanding.

Having core content gives students some certainty and prior notification of what will

be examined. Optional content, on the other hand, gives students the choice to play

to their strengths. However this introduces the element of uncertainty about just what

will be asked of them. In addition is the degree of choice within an optional topic on

the final examination. One final factor here is the extent to which centres or students

can devise their own topics. If one takes the view that a lesser degree of choice

makes a course more demanding, then the course for the New York State Regents

Diploma is most demanding, followed by those for the People’s Republic of China

Gāokăo, the Denmark STX, the Finland Matriculation Examination and the Hong

Kong HKALE and HKDSE.


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Assessment

The most common style of question across all courses is the essay, accompanied on

the majority by source-based questions. The courses that are significantly different

from this model are the Gāokăo, the STX, the baccalauréat général, the Regents

Diploma, the havo and vwo, the Vitnemål and the CSAT.

The Denmark STX has an oral examination. Students have to talk about a subject

based upon a set of very challenging sources for 10 minutes and then have a

dialogue with the examiner for another 20 minutes. The flexibility and complexity of

questioning that such an approach allows was considered very demanding. Having to

demonstrate these skills these skills would be valuable to a student looking to

progress to higher education in the UK.

Conversely, question styles such as multiple choice, that predominated in

qualifications such as the Republic of Korea CSAT, the Regents Diploma and the

Gāokăo may not offer students the chance to show what they know more generally,

given the specific questions being asked, or to employ analytical techniques. The

havo and vwo courses in the Netherlands gave a focus on short-answer questions.

Despite the use of essays across the remaining courses their level of demand is not

necessarily the same. All of the essay questions on the baccalauréat général paper,

many of those on the Republic of Ireland Leaving Certificate and some on the Hong

Kong HKALE examination papers do not explicitly ask students to reach judgements,

and the Republic of Ireland Leaving Certificate mark scheme appears to reward

simple recall. The essay questions on the New South Wales HSC and New Zealand

NCEA Level 3 examination papers include the requirement for some description and

narrative which are less demanding skills than analysis and argument. In addition,

the essay-style questions for the New Zealand NCEA Level 3 are rendered less

challenging by being split into two parts (for instance “Explain the factors that led to

Oliver Cromwell’s decision to become Lord Protector in 1653”, followed by “Evaluate

the extent to which Cromwell’s political and religious aims for the Protectorate were

achieved between 1653 and 1658’”).

Of the other courses the essay questions for the Finland Matriculation Examination

and the Cambridge International A level have more in common with AS level

questions in the UK. The essay question framing is less complex and the word

“describe” features more than “discuss”. The essay questions for the IB Diploma

were considered to be as demanding as those for the A level, with the exception of

the very demanding Paper 3.

On the surface some of the essays for the Cambridge Pre-U appear more complex

than those for the A level. However it should be noted that whilst both require

students to reach judgements, only the A level questions require the integration of

interpretations, perhaps making them the most demanding of all. Finally the single


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essay for the Norway Vitnemål and the open-ended composition titles for the France

baccalauréat général were judged to be very challenging due to their open-ended

nature. However, the ability of students to select from what they had learned for the

former and the lack of explicit demand for higher-order thinking in the latter meant

that their overall demand was seen to be slightly lower than A level.

Accompanying the essay questions were source or document questions. Of course

the sources or documents that accompanied these questions were not all of the

same difficulty. Leaving that factor aside it was possible to discern some clear

differences in demand across the courses. The source questions range from simple

source comprehension (Hong Kong HKALE and Republic of Ireland Leaving

Certificate papers) to the highest level of question requiring source synthesis and the

integration of students’ own knowledge. This last was present in the A level, the

baccalauréat général , the IB Diploma and the Cambridge International A level (to

achieve an A grade), but not in any other.

Also, the Edexcel A level questions had the added complexity of controversy to deal

with. The New Zealand NCEA Level 3 source evaluation paper does demand more

evaluation, but some questions include prompts which serve to lessen the degree of

demand. The disaggregation of the source questions to target different skills of

comparison, evaluation, and so on makes the Republic of Ireland Leaving Certificate

questions less complex than the A level questions requiring integration, evaluation

and judgement. Some courses made much greater use of scaffolding in source

questions such as the New South Wales HSC (particularly ancient history) and the

New Zealand NCEA Level 3. On both the New South Wales HSC courses, a

significant number of the source-based questions could be answered through factual

recall, but others go on to require students to integrate the sources with their own

knowledge and some assessment of source utility.

Across the courses examiners have clearly been aware of the need for clarity in their

question-writing, so as not to put an additional barrier in front of students. The

questions of the New York State Regents Diploma were considered to be particularly

straightforward. Across the courses questions were viewed to be clearly written,

frequently with consistently used question stems, phrases and command words to

make them more accessible to students. The A level is a particularly good example

of this, as is the IB Diploma subject booklet.

On the whole the essay questions which predominate across the courses considered

as part of this study are similarly structured. Where they are broken into two parts or

where a suggested structure or scaffold is given (as in the New Zealand NCEA Level

3) this was considered to lower the level of demand posed by that individual essay,

but not necessarily of that essay in comparison to one without any scaffolding

structure, because other variables would influence that judgement, such as what the

essay question is about.


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The only course that was judged to be more demanding for students in terms of the

structure of the examination was the Finland Matriculation Examination where

students have to decide how many questions (up to six out of the ten) to answer, plus

the fact that two of the ten are “wild card” questions which were deemed to be far

more challenging and therefore carried higher marks. So this was a very complex set

of decisions for students to take.

7.2 History findings by education system



studied by the full range of students, rather than only those planning to continue

history at university. In the HSC, the study of history is split into two separate optional

courses: ancient history and modern history. Both subjects were reviewed as part of

this study. Taking both HSC ancient history and modern history uses about 40 per

cent of the HSC course time. In England a typical student takes three A levels using


Ancient history

The supporting materials state that this subject enables students to acquire

knowledge and understanding, historical skills, values and attitudes essential to an

appreciation of the ancient world; to develop a lifelong interest and enthusiasm for

ancient history; and to prepare for informed and active citizenship in the

contemporary world. Taking HSC ancient history uses about 20 per cent of the HSC



There is scope for teachers to devise their own case studies in the Preliminary

course. One key requirement is that students must consider different ancient

civilisations to ensure breadth of study. There are significant differences in the scope

of the topics. They may arrange an examination of the roles of the historian and

archaeologist, archaeological sites, ancient societies and sources. An independent

research project is completed at the end of year 11.In the HSC course, content is

organised into four units carrying equal weighting. The core unit is a study of

archaeological and written evidence of, Pompeii and Herculaneum. For each of the

other three units, an Ancient Society, a Personality in their Time, and an Historical

Period, there is a range of options (between 10 and 16 choices). These are drawn

from the major civilizations of the Near East, Egypt, Greece and Rome.

There are variations in the size of the periods studied. Some topics such as the Old

Kingdom Egypt, Dynasties III to VI, cover several hundred years, whereas Greek

topics, such as ancient Greece, with much more evidence to consider, may range

over 40–60 years. Each topic requires considerable depth and specialisation with a

particular emphasis on primary sources, both archaeological and written. An


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understanding of the main elements of historiography within the topic is also

expected.

The course is assessed at its end in one examination paper of three hours’ duration.

Section I (Vesuvius) is compulsory; section II (societies) requires one topic chosen

from 10 options; section III (personalities) requires one topic chosen from 12 options;

section IV (historical periods) requires one topic chosen from 16 options. As

questions can be drawn from anywhere within the syllabus topic, students are

required to study all of the content in each topic.

The course has both depth and breadth. Depth is achieved by the study of one

particular personality and their wider impact. The breadth of the course comes from

having to study across two ancient civilisations.

The final assessment for this course takes the form of an external examination and

an internal assessment; each worth 50 per cent of the final assessment. The external

examination paper is designed as a test for all students of all abilities. It is divided

into four sections. Section I has five or six sources accompanied by four questions.

The first few involve comprehension and the extraction of information and the last

question requires an extended and more evaluative response.

In section II students must attempt one question from a choice of ten questions. Each

of these has a single source and four part-questions. Within these two sections there

is a heavy emphasis upon knowledge recall.

In section III students must choose one from 12 questions. Each of these is split into

two parts requiring short structured essay answers. Students are informed that they

must “present sustained, logical, well-structured answers to the question”, “use

relevant sources to support your argument” and “use historical terms and concepts

appropriately” (HSC assessment materials). Part (a) questions generally require

straightforward description and explanation. However, the final part requires the

development of an argument.

Finally in section IV, students have to choose one essay question from two within

their chosen option, of which there are 16. This question requires the development of

an argument, supported by evidence and differing perspectives and interpretations.

Higher performing students will include discussions of a historiographical nature. The

majority of the essay questions in this section ask students to “assess” or “evaluate”,

prompts which invite judgement and debate. Other questions use the prompt phrase

“to what extent” which also necessitates the use of judgement by the students.

Modern history

The supporting materials state that the study of this subject “has a distinctive role in

the school curriculum as it challenges students to consider the great social,


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technological, economic, political and moral transformations from the late eighteenth

century to the present” (Higher School Certificate assessment materials) although

from the evidence of the detailed content and examination paper the greatest

emphasis is placed upon political history. It requires students to analyse the causes,

progress and effects of these transformations and, finally, to make judgements about

them. “Modern history is especially relevant to the lives of students, as the events

and issues that form its content are, in many cases, still current” (HSC assessment

materials). Taking HSC modern history uses about 20 per cent of the HSC course



Its objectives are that students develop knowledge and understanding about key

features, issues, individuals and events from the 18th century to the present; change

and continuity over time; the process of historical inquiry; and communicating an

understanding of history. Students also develop values and attitudes about informed

and active citizenship; a just society; the influence of the past on the present and the

future; and the contribution of historical studies to lifelong learning.

In the preliminary course two case studies must be studied, one drawn from: Europe,

North America or Australia, and the other from Asia, the Pacific, the Middle East or

Central / South America, ensuring breadth. Core study involves the world at the

beginning of the twentieth century, using a source based approach. A historical

research project is also undertaken. The content is organised into four parts and is

based exclusively on 20th-century history, with a heavy emphasis upon political

history. There is a wide range of topics. Part I is a compulsory source-based study of

World War I focusing on Europe. The other three parts, national studies, personalities

of the 20th century, and international studies in peace and conflict have a wide range

of options within them. This optionality means that whilst a breadth of coverage is

possible the converse is also feasible. For example, it is possible to concentrate

exclusively on European history between 1914 and 1945 by taking the following

options: World War I (1914‒19), Germany 1918‒39, Albert Speer and conflict in

Europe 1935‒45. It is also possible to devote half of the course to Northern Ireland

by studying Ian Paisley and Anglo–Irish Relations 1968‒98, although the examiner’s

report shows these two options are rarely chosen.

There is one final examination paper at the end of Year 12. Section I has three

compulsory questions on the core unit on World War I. Section II has two questions

on each of the national studies from which students choose one. Section III has one

question per personality studied, so students have no choice unless they have

studied more than one personality. In Section IV, there are two questions offered per

period from which students choose one. So students will need to have covered all of

the chosen topics.


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Like the ancient history subject, the assessment for this course takes the form an

external examination in Year 12 and an internal assessment, each worth 50 per cent

of the total assessment.

The external examination paper is designed as a test for all students of all abilities. It

is divided into four sections. Section I has three questions that relate to the four

sources in the accompanying source booklet. The source questions are scaffolded

and involve comprehension and the extraction of information rather than inference or

evaluation. Only the final question targets source utility. In Section II students have to

choose one essay question from the two within their chosen option, of which there

are nine. The vast majority of the essay questions in this section ask students to

“assess” or “evaluate”; prompts which invite judgement and debate. Other questions

use the prompt phrase “to what extent”, which also necessitates the use of

judgement by the students. However, in the same paper there are questions which

use the prompt words “explain” or “account for” which do not require an assessment

of the relative importance of the various factors which explain or account for a

particular development.

In Section III students must answer one question which can be on any one of 27

named individuals. Each of these questions is split into two parts, the first requiring

short structured essay answers. Students are informed that they must “present a

sustained, logical, well-structured answer to the question”, “support your argument

with relevant, accurate, historical information” and “use historical terms and concepts

appropriately” (HSC assessment materials). The part (a) question requires the

relatively undemanding outline / narrative of a life. However, the final part (b) requires

the development of an argument based on the given individual. The question asks

students to assess the accuracy of the statement that “individuals are the product of

their times” in relation to their chosen individual. This question requires the

development of an argument, supported by evidence and differing perspectives and

interpretations. Higher performing students may include discussions of a

historiographical nature.

In Section IV students have to choose one essay question from two within their

chosen option, of which there are seven. The vast majority of the essay questions in

this section ask students to “assess” or “evaluate”; prompts which invite judgement

and debate. Other questions use the prompt phrase “to what extent” which also

necessitates the use of judgement by the students.




secondary courses in order to be accepted for STX. History is a compulsory

component of the STX. This study reviewed History A in the STX Upper. All students

take the History A course within the STX which uses about 10 per cent of the STX


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The supporting materials state that the history course is designed to develop

students’ knowledge of history, historic consciousness (a term used in a number of

European countries – to mean an awareness of the historic past) and identity. The

subject gives students the means to evaluate various types of historical material, and

work with and structure the many ways in which history is presented and used both in

and outside school. Through work with historical material, students develop their

critical, analytical and creative abilities.

When assessing performance, importance is placed on the extent to which the

examinee’s performance lives up to the subject aims which are to: “account for

central events and developments in Danish, European and World history (including

the connection between national, regional, European and global developments);

document knowledge of different types of society; formulate historical problems and

relate these to their own time; analyse the symbiosis between humans, nature and

society through the ages; analyse examples of the connection between material

conditions and human aspirations; explain changes in society and discuss the

principles of the various periods; reflect on mankind as being created by and creators

of history; collect and systematise information on and from the past; work with

different historical materials and comment methodically and critically on examples of

the use of history; show historical insight in various ways and give reasons for them;

and demonstrate knowledge of the identity and methods of the subject” (STX

assessment materials).

Time periods from pre-1453 to the present day are covered. Although there is

flexibility in terms of how this broad range of topics is taught all must be covered. At

least two stages have to be based specifically on Denmark’s history, one in the

period before, and one after, 1914. Stages based on Denmark’s history should also

have an outward view of European history and / or world history, and stages based

on Europe’s history and / or world history should be prepared with an insight into

Denmark’s history.

The assessment of the course is continuous with an evaluation after each stage. At

the end of the course there is an oral examination. Although only one topic is

assessed in this oral examination, students do not know which topic this will be until it

is decided by a lottery 24 hours before the examination. Therefore they must have

covered all topics, so the course ensures a broad range of topics is covered.

The oral examination lasts 30 minutes based on 10‒15 pages of pre-released

material. These materials relate to one of the 15 stages of the curriculum covered

and comes in a variety of formats, including tables of data, pictures and extracts of

text. In the oral examination, the student has to set out, analyse and discuss one or


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more issues connected with the topic that they are allocated. In the first ten minutes

the student presents the historical problem(s) and their relationships with the

completed stages. The examination then continues in the form of a 20-minute

dialogue between the examiner and examinee.

The examination and course itself link well to the aims; they include a focus on

events and developments in Danish, European and world history, and the nature of

the assessment task would seem to fit particularly well with the aim that students

should be able to “formulate historical problems and relate these to their own time”.

This is accessible for students of varying abilities, and provides opportunity for higher

attaining students to demonstrate their knowledge and skills. The preparation for an

oral examination such as this is a useful skill.


The A level is designed to be studied by students who were successful in level 2

history and wish to continue their studies although not necessarily to study history at

university. After completing half the course, students may claim a qualification called

the AS level, with the second half of the course being called A2. Together they make

up the A level. A levels are offered by five different organisations in England, and

they contain some variation although they are based on a common set of criteria set

by the regulator. Taking history A level typically uses about 30 per cent of a student’s

A level study time. History is a subject choice within A levels. The A level

specification considered for this review is offered by Edexcel. This specification offers

a choice of content including British, European and world history, with options

covering areas such as medieval England and the British empire. It should be noted

that this is teacher choice, not student choice.

There are two assessment objectives. The first includes the requirement for students

to:

recall, select and deploy historical knowledge appropriately, and communicate

knowledge and understanding of history in a clear and effective manner

demonstrate their understanding of the past through explanation, analysis and

arriving at substantiated judgements of key concepts such as causation,

consequence, continuity, change and significance within an historical context

and of the relationships between key features and characteristics of the periods

studied.

The second includes the requirement for students to:

as part of a historical enquiry, analyse and evaluate a range of appropriate

source material with discrimination


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analyse and evaluate, in relation to the historical context, how aspects of

the past have been interpreted and represented in different ways.

The content is organised in four units containing a varied range of nearly 100 topics

from ancient history to the present day. Within this choice there is some prescription

as students must study the history of more than one country or state or the history of

more than one period. There is a compulsory British history depth study unit

weighted at 25 per cent and Unit 4 Historical enquiry includes consideration of both

short-term and long-term change within a period of at least 100 years. Moreover

duplication is avoided by having prohibited combinations. Three of the units are

externally assessed and the last, Unit 4, is an internally assessed historical enquiry

carrying 20 per cent of the total assessment weighting. The external examinations

amount to four hours 40 minutes in total duration.

The examination for Unit 1 Historical themes in breadth is 1 hour 20 minutes long

and carries 25 per cent of the total assessment weighting. Students answer two

essay questions chosen from the six or seven topics. Each question must come from

a different option topic. Most of the examination questions in this unit begin “How

far…” or “To what extent…” and test a student’s ability to “demonstrate their

understanding of the past through explanation, analysis and arriving at substantiated

judgements”.

The examination for Unit 2 British history depth studies is 1 hour 20 minutes long and

carries 25 per cent of the total assessment weighting. Students must answer one

compulsory source question from their chosen topic and then choose one source

plus own knowledge essay question from a choice of two. This last is very

demanding as it requires students to make reasoned and supported judgements

regarding an historical view or claim, drawing upon both the sources and their own

knowledge. One area of uncertainty here is the distinction between a source and an

interpretation. For each question whilst one is a source the other two extracts are

historians’ views or interpretations of the history.

Unit 3 Depth studies and associated historical controversies has a two-hour

examination which carries 30 per cent of the total assessment weighting. Students

answer questions on one sub-topic in each option. They have to answer two

questions: in section A they choose one essay question out of two and in section B

they do the same. These look at the nature of challenges and conflict, and the use of

sources as evidence to make judgements on historical controversies. These

questions were judged to be the most demanding questions seen on any of the

qualifications reviewed, making this the most demanding paper.

The questions are appropriately demanding, and allow high-achieving students to

demonstrate their higher-order skills. They require students to create and justify

opinions and judgements.


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at university. History is an optional subject choice and is intended to occupy a quarter

of students’ study time over two years if it is selected. Taking both the compulsory

and specialised additional history courses within the upper secondary school

programme uses about 10 per cent of the Matriculation Examination course time. In


per subject.

The stated objective of teaching history is for students to learn principal trends of

Finnish and world history and the most important events in history and their

backgrounds and consequences; to perceive the present as being the result of

historical development and the starting point for the future, to be capable of relating

their own time and themselves to the continuum of history and thus be able to build

their knowledge of history; to be able to acquire information about the past and

assess it critically, understanding its ambiguity, relativity and the intricacy of its causal

connections, to be able to assess human activity in the past and examine historical

phenomena both from the starting points for each period and from the present day

perspective; to understand different manifestations of culture and their diversity; and

to obtain material to create a world view which appreciates human rights and

democracy and to act as responsible citizens (Matriculation Examination assessment

materials).

In the course there are different types of history to study and examples of studies in

depth, as well as historical overview, although the balance tends more towards

breadth rather than depth of study. The course content is divided into four studies

and two advanced special studies. Students can either study the first four or all six.

Each is organised chronologically and contains a mix of social, economic, political

and cultural history. These are: History 1: Man, the environment and culture, and

History 2: European man. These start from prehistory and the classical era

respectively, and are followed through to the present day, with a largely European

perspective. History 3: International relations is 20th-century international relations

including both World Wars, the Cold War and through to the present day; History 4 is

modern (19th- and 20th-century) Finnish history. The Advanced special studies are

History 5: Finnish history from prehistory to 1809, a mix of social, economic, political,

cultural history; and History 6: Meeting of cultures, which lists a number of societies

across time and space. This last is less precisely defined that the other five studies.

A minimum of a quarter, and possibly as much as a third, of students’ time might be

spent studying their national history.

The final examination is sat on a national test day, and the paper has ten questions,

including questions from all six topics. Included in the ten are two demanding “wild


Ofqual 2012 209

card” questions and a maximum of four “cross-subject” questions. Students can

answer up to six questions. If a student answers more than the six required questions

then all are marked and the lowest six scores awarded. If more than one answer to a

question is submitted then the answer with the lowest score will be accepted.

The ten questions use a variety of approaches, some with a source and some not.

Eight are designed to have comparable weightings, a maximum of six marks, and the

other two “wild card” questions have a maximum weighting of nine. Not all the

assessment objectives for the course could be covered by the questions, but the

course does encourage teachers to undertake additional testing throughout the

course.

There is a wide degree of variation of demand between the questions. Although all

questions are challenging, there is a variety of history skills being tested; some more

demanding than others. Some have an emphasis on description or causation, which

might be more accessible to the lower-attaining students while other questions are

testing interpretations and evaluating source materials, which allow higher-attaining

students to demonstrate their abilities.

Many questions on the paper actually require students to consider two aspects, for

example one question asks how man changed nature in a certain period AND the

consequences of this. This two-part approach to questions also makes them more

demanding, particularly in structure and approach, although it may also be a

deliberate attempt at differentiation within a question, as often the first requirement is

less demanding than the second. The effect of the variation in question style within a

single paper, which is divided into optional sections, appears to reduce the extent to

which students making different choices have comparable challenges. Overall,

however, the open nature of many of the questions must successfully challenge the

most able students.

The mark scheme is unusual when compared with that of the A level. The

examination is marked on a standard assessment scale of 0‒6 inclusive, or for wild

card questions, 0‒9. There is no explanation of the qualities relating to each mark

and no reference to assessment objectives; however, there are two lists to help

teachers in their marking, one demonstrating the criteria of “an answer indicating

maturity” and one demonstrating criteria of “a poor answer”. Further, there appears to

be a negative approach to marking as evidenced by the comment that markers

should (using a red pen) underline any errors and make notes in the margin next to

long passages that contain errors or irrelevant material. Also if an answer is unclear,

confused or remarkably untidy, its score may be reduced.


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The baccalauréat général is designed to be studied by students who were successful

in the diplôme national du brevet and plan to continue their studies at university.

History is part of the subject history–geography in the baccalauréat, and is a

compulsory subject in all three streams: sciences, economics and social sciences

and literature. Taking both compulsory and specialisation courses for the joint subject

of history–geography within the baccalauréat général série ES uses about 20 per

cent of baccalauréat général time. Study load within the course is split between

history and geography. In England a typical student takes three A levels using about

30 per cent of course time per subject.

The content of the course varies depending on the stream students are taking, but

overall the aims of the examination are:

to assess the aptitude of the student to state his / her knowledge and ideas of

the programmes, fundamental knowledge and comprehension of the

contemporary world, the civic and cultural training of the citizen

to evaluate the acquisition of skills throughout their secondary education, in

particular the capability of the student to treat and grade the information, to

develop a reasoning of history or geography, according to the proposed forms

of written or graphic submissions of text by the different parts of the test

an appreciation of the quality of the student’s written expression, as well as their

acquiring of judgement by demonstrating the skills of critical reading, analysis

and the interpretation of a range of sources.

Whichever stream students are following, French history constitutes about 50 per

cent of their course. The topics cover a narrow chronological range. The international

dimension is provided by studies of European history, the USA and the USSR. The

“third world” is included in one of four sub-topics in the first topic of the economics

and social science and literature series’ final class.

Each of the three series of baccalauréat général is assessed by a written terminal

examination accounting for 100 per cent of the mark. Students take the appropriate

paper for the series they are studying. The four-hour test is divided into two unequal

parts and on the day of the test, the headteacher of the school or college decides

which subject (history or geography) will be the subject for the first part. The second

part then has to be the other subject.

In Part 1, students can choose either one of the two extended writing composition

questions or the more structured source question, which itself contains a composition

question. All three carry the same weighting of 12 marks and are designed to match

one area of the syllabus. The demand of the composition questions lies in their very


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openness; however the accompanying mark schemes do not specify higher-level

thinking being required for higher marks. However, the lack of any command words

could reduce the demand as effectively the instruction is to “write about” a given

topic. The openness of these questions allows for differentiation by outcome as

students of all abilities will write what they know and understand. However, higher-

attaining students may simply be rewarded for writing more, or in more detail,

demonstrating more knowledge rather than showing more complex higher-order

skills. Given the large amount of time available it must be assumed that students are

expected to write in some detail and this may be more challenging for lower-attaining

students. It certainly tests some of the cited objectives such as “fundamental

knowledge”, “understanding” and “mobilise knowledge and ideas”. Students are also

rewarded for “quality of expression” which this type of question can allow them to

demonstrate.

In part 2, students can choose to answer one from two source-based questions each

with five sub-questions requiring use of the source and own knowledge. Each full

question is worth 8 marks. These types of questions successfully meet the remaining

objectives of critical exercise of reading and analysis and interpretation of source

documents and different natures. In this way there is a good match between

questions and assessment objectives; however, these objectives are rather broad

and do not necessarily test students’ abilities in higher-order skills such as reaching

judgements, testing interpretations, cross-reference of sources and creating

arguments. In the science stream examination the questions are quite narrow in their

focus and answers potentially seem to be either right or wrong. The most demanding

questions are potentially the source questions in the economics and social science

and literature stream examinations which require students to demonstrate skills such

as identifying and explaining different interpretations. For example, one part-question

on an advertisement from the economic and social committee of the Centre-West

(CSECO) 1962‒3 requires students to “Unravel and class the arguments used”

(baccalauréat général assessment materials).

The marking guidance for part one is very general, giving a very brief description of

the awarding of overall marks for the examination but it is stressed that this is just a

guide. For part 2, the source-based questions, a similar format is followed although

here more guidance is given on what should be in an answer. It is interesting to note

that regarding the source sub-questions, it is expected that students answer some

questions, to a maximum of five, therefore implying that answering all the questions

is not necessary.


The HKALE is designed to be studied by students who were successful in the Hong

Kong Certificate of Education Examinations and wish to continue their studies,

although not necessarily to study history, at university. History is an optional subject


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within the HKALE and is comprised of two syllabuses, A and B, either of which can

be studied as an AS level qualification in one year, or together form an A level

qualification. In both syllabuses political issues dominate; though in syllabus A there

is an extensive section on economic, social and cultural issues.

A typical HKALE student taking A level History alongside four AS subjects uses

about 30 per cent of course time for the A level. In England a typical student takes

three A levels using about 30 per cent of course time per subject.

The objectives of the course are to help students to:

recognise significant historical trends and developments that have shaped the

modern world

establish plausible relationships between facts and events, demonstrating the

appropriate use of historical concepts and generalisation

compare the various forms of historical evidence, noting contrasts, similarities

and recognising bias in and discrepancies between source materials

make critical use of historical data in support of arguments and judgements

read, locate and summarise relevant information from a variety of materials and

present information in a logical, analytical and coherent structure both orally and

in writing

distinguish, question and assess different approaches to interpretations of and

opinions about the past

apply relevant historical knowledge or understanding to daily experience both

direct and indirect

identify and appreciate problems and challenges faced by societies in the past

as well as values and attitudes on which human actions have been based

develop and maintain an interest in the pursuit of historical enquiry (HKALE

assessment materials).

Syllabus A is Modern Western History (c.1800–1980) which is organised under four

broad themes. Within these there are 16 topics. Syllabus B is Modern Asian History

(c.1800–1980) which is organised under five countries / regions as these “do not

have the same degree of commonality with respect to their historical development’”

(HKALE assessment materials). A broad survey approach supplemented by in-depth

studies of topics / countries is intended. Teachers can “trade breadth for depth”, and

as such are not expected to cover all topics, for example in Syllabus B there is an

assumption that two regions from the five on offer will be taught.


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For each paper, there is an examination of three hours’ duration which appears

adequate for the demands of the papers. Each examination is in turn split into two

parts. Part I consists of compulsory data-based questions related to the nominated

topic. Various types of historical sources may be used, including extracts from written

sources, statistics, and visual material such as maps, cartoons and photographs.

Part II consists of 15 essay questions from which students choose two.

There is a clear incline of difficulty in part I which makes it accessible to all and the

final question gives scope for higher-attaining students to demonstrate their

knowledge and skills.

The essay questions in part II are sufficiently open to challenge the highest-attaining

students, but the specificity of questions may occasionally act as a barrier to some

students and prevent them from being able to demonstrate their knowledge and

skills. For example on the topic of South-East Asia, which includes seven countries,

just one (Siam) is made the focus of the examination question.

The two papers are almost identical there is a very narrow assessment pattern.



those planning to continue history at university. History is an optional subject within

the HKDSE. Taking history within the diploma uses 10 per cent of HKDSE course



The syllabus aims to help students to:

discover where they stand in contemporary world

develop skills of critical thinking

approach past and current events in an impartial and empathetic manner

understand characteristics and values of their own culture

cultivate both national consciousness and being citizens of the global

community

explore in greater depth an issue of personal interest (HKDSE assessment

materials).

The content of this subject is focused upon modern political history. A student

completing this qualification over three years would have a breadth and depth of

knowledge and understanding of international history in the 20th century. The major

focuses are upon Asian history (Hong Kong, China, Japan and South-East Asia), and


Ofqual 2012 214

upon conflict in the 20th century which has a European and global superpower

emphasis, although the conflicts in some other regions of the world are also covered,

namely the Middle East and South Africa. There does not appear to be any

opportunity for students to consider in any depth the history of any countries other

than those of South-East Asia, or periods other than the 20th century, nor do they

have the opportunity to contrast the historical development of their own area with that

of other countries and civilisations.

There is a large number of topics, each covering up to 100 years of history in some

depth although there are overlaps between them to lessen the challenge. Due to the

pattern of the final assessment centres will essentially need to cover everything. The

school-based assessment (SBA) requires students to design and answer their own

question, taken from the 20th century, and meeting the requirements of at least one

of three approaches described in the course materials: comparative, issue-based or

local heritage studies. This component allows students opportunities to consider

aspects of economic and cultural history and could lead to opportunities for very

interesting work.

The final assessment for this course is in two parts, two examination papers and the

SBA, although private students do not complete this component.

In Paper 1 the questions cover source evaluation and interpretation and

consideration of the perspective of people in the past. In terms of demand there is

quite a range of questions. In particular there are accessible questions for the lower-

attaining students such as question 2a which simply tests source comprehension

skills. There is also a large number of source-based questions on this paper which

ask students to discuss limitations, bias and inference and these are of low demand.

There are a few more demanding questions which require an extended written

response and synthesis of sources and own knowledge which are more demanding

but the limitations of time and expected outcomes are below those expected at A2 of

the A level. Bearing in mind that this paper represents 50 per cent of the total

assessment this significantly lowers the total demand of this history element of the

qualification.

In Paper 2 the questions are targeted at knowledge, understanding, selection and

deployment and historical terms, skills and concepts. These are more demanding

questions, in part because of the extended writing response required of students.

However students only have roughly 35 minutes for each question which limits the

depth of response possible. Question stems show that different skills are being

tested by different questions, for example some ask for comparison, some for

consideration of named factors and others such as question 4 ask students to “trace

and explain” development. There are quite significant differences in the time periods

covered by questions so for example question 6 focuses on the second half of the


Ofqual 2012 215

20th century whereas question 4 targets the entire century. Bearing in mind the

different geographical spheres these may represent a comparable level of demand.

Taken together the papers provide insufficient opportunity for students to

demonstrate the higher-order skills that would be needed as part of further study.



students to continue their academic studies at university. History is one of the subject

choices within Group 3: Individuals and societies as part of the IB Diploma. Taking

higher level history within the diploma uses about 20 per cent of the IB Diploma



There is a wide range of topics available for study. There are two routes: route 1 on

developments in the history of Europe and the Islamic world (500‒1570) and route 2

on 20th-century world history. Teachers must choose one of these routes. It is not

possible to study topics from both. The range of geographic areas offered in the

topics and the topics themselves are very broad, for example “causes, practices and

effects of wars”. The prescribed subjects for Paper 1 provide the opportunity for in-

depth study of a particular topic, and the choice of topics on offer for Paper 2 is very

wide. The flexibility and choice allows teachers to choose a topic that links with their

choice of prescribed topic if they wish. For route 2 the examples for detailed study

selected must cover two regions, which ensures coverage of a range of geographic

areas. This is an international qualification and there is less emphasis on students’

own national history, but there is scope to be able to cover this thoroughly in Paper 2,

Paper 3 and the internal assessment task.

There are no forbidden combinations so it appears that it might be possible to choose

a narrow route through the materials. The free choice of topic for internal assessment

also has implications in this respect. There does not seem to be any mechanism in

the syllabus itself to prevent students from choosing to investigate an aspect of

history, such as the crisis of communism, which they may have studied for Papers 1,

2 and 3.

The course is examined at the end of the second year, and the routes have the

following assessment patterns:

Route 1: two compulsory papers at standard level, and three compulsory

papers at higher level. Paper 1 (source-based paper), one topic from a choice

of two options. Paper 2 (essays), two topics from a choice of five options. Paper

3 (essays), three topics from a choice of 12 options.


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Route 2: two compulsory papers at standard level and three compulsory papers

at higher level. Paper 1 (source-based paper), one topic from a choice of three

options. Paper 2 (essays), two topics from a choice of five options. Paper 3

(essays), one region from a choice of four, then three sub-topics from a choice

of 12 options per region.

In both routes, the source-based papers contain short answer / structured questions

with a clear incline of difficulty, moving from source comprehension to synthesis of

sources and own knowledge in evaluating a historical claim and in essay questions of

a similar type, although the nature of demand varies, for example “analyse”,

“compare and contrast”, “examine”. The glossary of command words makes the

demand of these questions clear and appropriately challenging. Some questions are

presented in two parts as (a) and (b) which offers some support to students, and

might be considered to reduce the level of demand.

Many of the essay questions are very open-ended, which allows for differentiation by

outcome. The language used is accessible to both lower- and higher-attaining

students. The questions provide an excellent opportunity for higher-attaining students

to demonstrate their skills and knowledge. For example, one question asks students

to “analyse the circumstances that helped one right-wing leader to become the ruler

of a single-party state”. This question can be answered with widely different levels of

sophistication. Conversely the emphasis on the recall and organisation of knowledge

in the more straightforward questions would also render them accessible to lower-

attaining students.

While it is possible to cover a narrow range of topics across this course, the

assessments would allow students to demonstrate the higher-order skills they had

developed through the course, making it comparable in demand to A levels.

Netherlands – hoger algemeen voortgezet onderwijs, or havo and

voorbereidend wetenschappelijk onderwijs, or vwo

History is a compulsory subject in the culture and society profile and in the economy

and society profile of both the havo and vwo qualifications. Requirements for both

qualifications for history are the same, and have therefore been reviewed together.

Taking history within the havo programme uses about 15 per cent of havo or vwo



The course has assessment objectives which are expressed as fields. There are five

of these: A – Historical understanding; B – Orientating knowledge (in a chronological

development of centuries of European history); C – Topics (chosen by schools); D –

History of the constitutional state and parliamentary democracy; and E – Orientation

to study and career (further training opportunities in history).


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Students study all five fields. Fields B, D and E are assessed in school. Fields A and

C are assessed by the central examination. Within Field A, students are given an

extensive and broad overview of history from pre-3000 BC through to the end of the

20th century, divided into ten epochs, examining the broad characteristics of each

epoch. For each, students have to be able to name the characteristic aspects, give a

suitable example of an event, development, phenomenon or action or reasoning of a

person for each aspect, and use this example to elucidate the aspect in question;

they have to be able to explain how knowledge of the era concerned influences the

attitude towards present reality; and be able to explain that the significance that is

attributed to eras depends partly on the time, place and circumstances in which

people engage with the past. Some of the concepts developed through this Field are

very sophisticated and challenging, for example the emphasis on developing “an

understanding of the subjective nature of chronological frameworks” (Field A3) or the

“simultaneousness of the non-simultaneous”. This extremely demanding approach

contrasts with the examination papers which appear to require only a superficial

knowledge from students.

Within Field C students study two compulsory topics: decolonisation and cold war in

Vietnam; and dynamism and stagnation in the Dutch republic (from the late 15th to

early 19th century). The outline of content in these is demanding in its detail.

Students are required to study concepts such as change and continuity, cause and

effect, and skills such as source analysis, the ability to formulate questions, the ability

to distinguish between fact and opinion and how to support arguments with evidence.

The qualification offers an opportunity for teachers to design their own courses and to

decide when and how they assess, but this freedom is balanced against the centrally

assessed Fields which offer little choice. There appears to be a strong euro-centric

focus to the course; however it has a strong component of social and cultural history

as well as political history.

The final assessment for this course consists of the central examination and the

school examination. The school examination must be completed and the results

submitted to the Inspectorate before the national examination starts.

The assessment approach in the national examination is very different from that

found in A levels. The two subjects / topics for the national examination are published

in advance (for 2011 they were dynamism and stagnation in the Dutch republic and

decolonisation and cold war in Vietnam). The examination consists of 30 short-

answer questions based upon a number of sources. The questions vary in demand,

with some requiring recall only and others requiring the analysis of a source in order

to use it to support four different propositions. The questions are clear in their

demand and focus as shown by the consistent use of command terms such as,

“indicate”, “name” and “explain”, and the questions themselves are concise and

uncomplicated.


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There is an opportunity for extended writing in the school examination. However on

the national examination there is no extended writing, historiography or serious

analysis. Further, the amount of required historical content for the national

examination is less than that required in the A level.


The National Certificate of Educational Achievement (NCEA) Level 3 is designed to

be accessible to the full range of students rather than only those planning to continue

their studies at university. History is an optional subject within the NCEA. The course

has five achievement standards. Taking NCEA Level 3 History uses about 20 per

cent of NCEA course time, because a student typically studies five subjects. In


per subject.

Plan and carry out independent historical research which involves independently

defining an area for historical research; planning the research; selecting and

recording, in an organised way, relevant historical evidence from a range of

sources; and evaluating the effectiveness of the research process.

Communicate and present historical ideas clearly to show understanding of an

historical context which involves communicating key historical ideas with accurate

supporting evidence to show understanding of an historical context. It also

requires material to be presented clearly, applying appropriate historical format

and / or style to the mode of presentation and using appropriate historical

conventions consistently and accurately.

Analyse and evaluate evidence in historical sources which involves

demonstrating an understanding of historical ideas and / or recognising

differences in points of view. It also requires analysis of historical relationships

indicated by the evidence and making valid judgement(s) about the usefulness

and / or reliability of the evidence.

Examine a significant decision made by people in history which involves writing

an essay accurately, describing factors that contributed to a significant decision

made in an historical setting and the consequences of the decision.

Examine a significant historical situation in the context of change which involves

writing an essay to examine a significant historical situation by describing the

situation, change in the situation over time and the influence of the situation on

people.

(New Zealand assessment materials)

The compulsory historical content areas are New Zealand history in the 19th century

and Tudor and Stuart England, 1558‒1667. While having few compulsory areas may

allow greater depth to be achieved, it is possible that choices made could result in

students only studying national history, and not getting the opportunity to gain


Ofqual 2012 219

awareness of cultures outside England and New Zealand, or to study more recent

history (although they do have the opportunity to study local history). However, the

independent research units offer a potential counterweight to this.

The history course will see significant changes to its content under the new

curriculum introduced in 2010, with the first NCEA Level 3 assessment taking place

in 2013. In particular the externally assessed standards will no longer be constrained

to New Zealand history in the 19th century and Tudor and Stuart England, 1558–

1667.The final assessment for this course consists of students undertaking three

assessments from five available assessments. Two of these are internally assessed

and three are externally-marked examination papers. The internal assessments

require students first to plan and carry out independent historical research and then

to communicate and present that research in context. These offer innovative ways of

assessing students’ understanding of the issues.

All three externally assessed standards are examined in one examination sitting.

The three examinations are all set in relation to either the topic England 1558‒1667

or 19th-century New Zealand. The first examination is entitled “Analyse and evaluate

evidence in historical sources”. It consists of six unseen sources with six equally

weighted questions. Each question focuses upon a different type of source skill, such

as describing the significance or meaning of something in the source, explaining

different points of view in different sources, explaining the cause and effect of an

issue or theme in the source, making connections between past and present, and

evaluating the usefulness and / or reliability of a source. Many of these questions use

the sources as prompts to explore an issue, and utilise the student’s knowledge of

the period rather than source skills as such. The sources are unconnected so there is

no question requiring students to synthesise and this makes the paper less

demanding.

The second examination is titled “Examine a significant decision made by people in

history”. Students choose one essay question from six on their chosen topic. These

questions focus on cause and consequence. The questions are structured in a way

that these ideas are dealt with separately within an overall essay response.

The third examination is titled “Examine a significant historical situation in the context

of change”. Students choose one essay question from six on their chosen topic.

These questions focus on change and continuity. The questions are structured so

that there are two sections within the essay response. The first part deals with

describing the situation, and the second part evaluates the impact of change.

The essays offer a good level of demand but are structured in how students can

respond, and more importantly they do not directly require the application of higher-

order skills. For example, questions that ask students to “Explain the factors that led


Ofqual 2012 220

to… / contributed to…” and to “Evaluate the consequences of…” could produce

narrative rather than argued responses. In another question students are asked to

describe an event or issue, before evaluating its impact. Lower-attaining students will

benefit from the structured questions and may choose recommended approaches to

the independent research task which do not perhaps demand higher-order skills.

Higher-attaining students are less well served (due in part to less challenging

question stems and an absence of questions on interpretations).

Students are provided with a suggested outline structure for the essays

(introduction / body / conclusion) which may prove useful in improving access, as

may the planning sheet. However it could also be argued that these could prove

counter-productive and that encouraging students to copy out the question is not

good use of their examination time. It could also be argued that some of the

additional wording designed to improve clarity may be unnecessary or clumsy such

as the question, “Examine a significant decision made by people in history, in an

essay”.

Compared with the A level, the mark scheme is different. It is non-numerical with

three levels of achievement only (or four, including the “non-achievement” level), and

this is based on the quality of responses rather than by attributing marks based on

individual elements.

The Ministry introduced a new curriculum for schools in 2010, which has resulted in a

re-alignment of the NCEA achievement standards across all three levels. These will

be implemented fully in 2013 with new standards at NCEA Level 3. The analysis and

findings in this study are based on the outgoing standards which will be examined for

the last time in 2012.


Education)



students, rather than only those planning to continue history at university. History

forms part of the history and philosophy course. Taking both joint history and

philosophy courses within the upper secondary school programme uses about 10 per

cent of Vitnemål course time. In England a typical student takes three A levels using


Its aim is to:

give pupils training in source criticism and the ability to evaluate information, and in

distinguishing between information and documentation. These skills are crucial to

democracy, the rule of law and science, and to an active participation in the Information

Society. This programme subject shall help develop the individual's awareness of history,


Ofqual 2012 221

and the ability to participate in philosophical discourse and wonder about how humans

have lived and behaved throughout history.

(Vitnemål assessment materials)

The qualification is seen as providing a general education, increasing the student’s

own self-awareness and also providing a base for study at a higher level.

The course does not have explicit assessment objectives. Instead there is a

statement of competence which encompasses four specific criteria. The first three of

these are historical and philosophical knowledge; historical thinking and

consciousness and philosophical reflection. The fourth is historical and philosophical

knowledge; historical thinking and consciousness and philosophical reflection. Then

there is use of sources, which is assessed on the use of sources, and two more

general criteria, “are the required sections answered”; and “the overall evaluation

based on the general criteria: relevance, independence, technical knowledge,

consistence and argumentation” Vitnemål assessment materials). These are a

mixture of competencies and the characteristics of an examination answer. When

expressed in relation to each subject area these appear to be content and / or

process driven, for example “compare social constructions” or “assess the value of

selected historical artefacts and narratives as sources of knowledge about different

themes in the Middle Ages” but with a dimension of historical skill in some, for

example “apply relevant source criticism and questioning…”.

The syllabus content has a very wide chronological approach from early civilisations

and the ancient world through to the modern day over the three-year course. There is

a strong emphasis on European and Norwegian history throughout although there

are also references to wider European and non-European history, for example a

focus on “aboriginal culture’” to illustrate conflict between traditional and modern

cultures. Throughout there is also a focus on different types of history – economic,

philosophical, social, political and cultural, but as the title suggests it is the

philosophical approach which receives most attention. Key events are also named

specifically for study such as Greek and Roman civilisation and the significance of

Islamic culture in the Middle Ages, but what is particularly noticeable about the

content of this qualification is the flexibility available to centres and students

regarding which particular nations and events to study, for example in History and

Philosophy 2, “discuss the meaning of modernisation and give examples of this from

different parts of the world”. Thus it is the understanding of history skills, concepts

and terms that is important, with content used to illustrate, supported by the

specialisms of centres, teachers and students.

All of the main subject areas of the course are core and compulsory and have

considerable breadth, although the degree of depth is not clear. There appear to be

no options at all in the syllabus. However the option that is available to centres is the


Ofqual 2012 222

freedom to choose the particular nations and examples that they teach to exemplify

the bullet point indicators in the syllabus.

School-based students may be selected to sit the final examination. For those that

do, the final examination is an essay constructed in broad terms to allow students to

bring to bear the understandings they have developed. They are also allowed a day’s

preparation time to familiarise themselves with the subject material which must form

part of their response. Beyond that requirement they can draw upon whatever topics

their teachers have chosen to study in order to explore the key understandings of the

qualification. It appears that all external students sit the oral and written examination,

but only a selected sample of the school-based students need to do so. It clearly

forms a moderation or verification role for school-based students. As such the

examination does not attempt coverage of the course of study, or require

chronological breadth in the response. Rather, it appears to be a light-touch test of

the level of competence of selected students, as a means of validating teacher

assessment of the course as whole.

Students may be required to sit an oral examination at the end of History and

Philosophy 1. (No examples of the oral examination were seen.) They may be

required to sit a written examination at the end of History and Philosophy 2. The

written examination consists of a single question which is very much an overarching

question about the nature of history itself that gives students the opportunity to draw

upon virtually anything that they have studied. It does relate very directly to one of

the subject areas of History and Philosophy 2. The question asks about “truth”, which

matches the subject area “Knowledge and the pursuit of truth”. Whilst it does ask for

the specific inclusion of the Holocaust, students are told this in advance and are able

to research this as part of their pre-examination preparation day. This means that it is

not a test of memory. In some ways, therefore, it compares with the controlled

assessment at GCSE in terms of its methodology in that students have sufficient

time, in an open-book situation (including internet access), to prepare for a question

on a specific area of their course. Whilst the precise question is not given in advance

on the preparation day it is so broad that it allows a wide range of response.

Nevertheless the one task set is very demanding in its conceptual requirements, and

higher-attaining students have ample opportunity to demonstrate their knowledge

and skills. The preparation time and additional points scaffolding make it accessible

to lower-attaining students. The length of time is appropriate for the assessment

itself, but appears much more demanding than the assessments undertaken for

A level if it requires greater complexity and greater conceptual understanding to be

displayed rather than simply doing more. In the absence of student work this cannot

be tested further. It should also be noted, as above, that this task is comparable in

some respects to the controlled assessment tasks undertaken at GCSE in that the

students know the area of the question in advance to prepare and can have their


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preparatory notes with them when they write their final answers under examination

conditions.

There is no mark scheme as such, but an evaluation matrix is included at the end of

the assessment materials. In essence it is a fairly simple level of response mark

scheme. It gives no detail or illustrative examples, and, after the initial definition of

the competences, does not differentiate between historical and philosophical

knowledge; historical thinking and consciousness; philosophical reflection; and a

series of more generic pointers towards the overall quality and coherence of the

work. For each of the criteria there are suggested descriptions of typical work at just

three levels across the 6 marks available.


Examination)

The Gāokăo is designed to select students for study at universities in the People’s

Republic of China and other higher education institutions. The Gāokăo is taken by

students after they have successfully completed senior secondary education. History

is a compulsory section within the Gāokăo examination. The subject has four stated

learning objectives and standards: acquiring and interpreting, transferring and using

knowledge, describing and explaining events, and debating and discussing issues.

The content is organised into two parts. The first is compulsory and carries 84 per

cent of the examination marks whilst the second is elective and carries 16 per cent of

the marks. The syllabus covers Chinese and non-Chinese history at different points

through time. As such it is designed to be a study in breadth, at points also covering

different countries and concepts in depth. There is a very broad chronological range

of topics in this syllabus. The compulsory content ranges from ancient, through

modern, to contemporary history. Within this there is a constant theme running

through – that of a study of Chinese history within a given period, and a study of “the

world” within the same period. The content of the Chinese topics appears to be in a

little more depth than the international ones, a key example being the ancient topic.

The inclusion of world history also provides a useful international context to the study

of Chinese history.

In terms of the type of history studied in this course there is a strong emphasis upon

political history, with some economic and cultural history. It is tightly focused upon

political systems and philosophies, including constitutional monarchies, republics,

reform and revolution, democracy and communism. An element of judgement is

implicit within some topics of national history, for example “Crimes of the Japanese

military invasion of China” and “China’s resumption of its legitimate seat at the United

Nations”. There is a little more variety in the optional content, with the inclusion of

options such as the study of world cultural heritage sites and collections and Chinese

and foreign historical figures, but even here there is an obvious slant towards political

history, for example the chosen key figures include Washington, Napoleon, Marx,


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and Mao Zedong. There are a large number of topics to cover in this syllabus but the

examination process requires detailed knowledge rather than any real depth of

understanding.

The final assessment for this course consists of two papers which are externally

assessed. Students have just 90 minutes to complete both, to answer 25 multiple-

choice questions on the compulsory content and a further three written questions

(one on the compulsory content, and students choose two out of six on their optional

content), many of which are themselves split into two sub-questions.

The demand of the multiple-choice paper is created more by the requirement on

students to cover a huge range of content than by the tasks themselves. They test

the correct recall of events and definitions and so do not require the application of

information or reasoning about such concepts as cause and consequence. In some

instances the inclusion of source material will force students to think, and apply prior

knowledge, to select the correct answer.

In Paper II the questions asked follow a set pattern of stems and demands, requiring

students to “summarise” and “explain”, to comprehend material in the sources and to

place this within a context. In isolation, these terms appear undemanding for students

at this level and do not allow higher-achieving students to demonstrate what they can

do. However, in some cases the issues they target, such as “how the humanists,

artists and 18th-century scholars of the Renaissance period handled the issue of

religion”, are quite complex and demanding. However, summarising and explaining

do not appear to allow students to demonstrate skills such as analysing, assessing,

reaching judgements, testing interpretations and other higher-order skills. The limited

marks and time available suggest there is little scope for exploring alternative

interpretations and that essentially students are required to present short summaries

of received information.




continue their studies at university. History is an optional subject and can be taught at

both Ordinary and Higher levels, differentiated through the specification of learning

outcomes. Taking higher level history within the Leaving Certificate uses about 20

per cent of Leaving Certificate course time because a student typically studies five



The learning outcomes are broken down into two parts. Part 1 focuses on working

with evidence which includes understanding the role of evidence; identifying and

interpreting a range of sources and questioning provenance, purpose and

usefulness; drawing conclusions from sources to form judgements; identifying


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strengths and limitations of sources and recognising the provisional nature of history.

Students are also required to undertake a piece of research. Part 2 is concerned with

knowledge and understanding, requiring students to recall main events, show good

understanding of cause and consequences, and recall issues and events in the three

case studies: they must give discursive accounts of these; evaluate the role of key

individuals, and show understanding of the relevance of key concepts to the topic in

question.

Half of the course is devoted to Irish history, plus a requirement to see how the Irish

topics fit within the wider world topics. There is a wide chronological spread of topics

from which a teacher chooses what their students will study. On both the early

modern and later modern options, the rest of the world is studied only in the context

of empires and colonialism, with the exception of an opportunity to study the modern

USA. There is a strong emphasis upon political history (reflected in the examination

papers), but there is also social, economic and cultural history. The approach is a

chronological narrative with little reference in the content to challenging the accepted

narrative.

It is possible for schools to construct a relatively short period of study. For example in

the later modern period, they will complete the document study on Ireland: Topic 5

politics and society in Northern Ireland 1949‒93, and three others which could be:

Topic 6 government, economy and society in the Republic of Ireland, 1949‒89; plus

from the European and world list: division and realignment in Europe, 1945‒92 and

the United States and the world, 1945‒89. It would also be possible for students to

undertake their personal research study from the same area of history as this is a

matter of individual choice, with teacher guidance.

The structure of the syllabus means that, in effect, the prescribed topic for the

documents-based study (which changes each year) is the core, with a free, if limited,

choice from the other topics within that field of study. The syllabus maintains a

balance between Irish and European history by ensuring that two topics are chosen

from each.

The final assessment for this course is an examination of two hours 50 minutes’

duration. There is also a personal research study carrying 20 per cent of the final

assessment weighting. The examination paper is divided into three sections. Section

1 tests the nominated source-based option. It contains two sources and three sub-

questions requiring comprehension, comparison and criticism of the sources. A fourth

question is a short essay on the same topic as the sources. However, there is no

requirement to integrate the sources with the student’s own knowledge in order to

make a judgement. This lessens the demand.

Section 2 has five sections, each with four essay questions from which students

choose one. Section 3 also has five sections, each with four essay questions from


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which students must choose two, both of which must come from a separate topic.

Some invite descriptive narrative, others invite explanation while others appear more

demanding, requiring analysis and comparative judgements. Despite these variations

all are weighted equally.

The mark schemes for essays are expressed in very generic terms regarding the

writing qualities displayed such as structure, organisation and support. There is no

reference to indicative content or specific questions beyond occasional very brief

comment. The schemes use the interesting feature of cumulative marking (CM) and

overall evaluation (OE) in a ratio of 60:40. The effect of this, however, appears to

allow students to accumulate maximum marks for CM for lengthy responses which

lack penetrating analysis.

Republic of Korea Su-neung (College Scholastic Ability Test, or CSAT)

The Republic of Korea College Scholastic Ability Test (CSAT) is designed to select

students for study at South Korea’s universities and other higher education

institutions. History forms part of a social studies course. The history component uses

the language of historical consciousness to express its aims to provide an

understanding of the roots of issues in the present which will help students

understand the prospects of future developments.

The content of this assessment has a strong emphasis on Korean history for those

who choose history as part of the social studies curriculum. All history units are

options. In the 11th Grade students choose four from 11 subjects three of which are

Korean history, Korean modern and contemporary history and world history.

Whichever they choose they have to cover everything, meaning that the course

covers over 1,000 years, from ancient civilisations to the modern day. There is a

heavy emphasis on content coverage. Of the three options, Korean modern and

contemporary history had most entries in 2010, at 236,487 entries, followed by

Korean history at 63,838 entries and lastly world history which had 42,428 entries.

There is a clear emphasis upon developing a sense of identity and developing the

skills of analysing data critically and problem-solving. It is also the only assessment

to claim that its make-up and structure are the result of student requests.

The Korean history element covers a broad range of themes, so students will know

about political, economic, social and cultural history. The vast range of topics and the

structure of the examination show that detailed knowledge is tested rather than

students’ depth of historical knowledge and understanding.

From the sheer number of compulsory topics and the nature of the final examination

paper it would appear that students need to acquire a substantial amount of

knowledge. All topics are compulsory and there is no prior indication of which topics

or themes will be targeted in the final examination paper. Each of the history options


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is examined in a single paper with 20 multiple-choice questions testing factual

knowledge across all topics.

The questions do not discriminate in demand and the only difference between

questions worth 2 and 3 marks is that for the 3-mark questions the student must

correctly choose the right combination of two out of the five possible correct answers.




Two subjects are available as part of the Regents examinations that contain historical

content: Global History and Geography and US Government and History. Both are

compulsory requirements as part of the Regents Diploma. This study only considered

US Government and History, as its examination is usually taken a year later than the

examination for Global History and Geography. However, it should be noted that this

is still earlier in senior secondary education than many of the examinations

considered as part of this review. It should also be noted that we have only focused

on one of the compulsory history-related courses for this qualification.

Taking history within the diploma uses about 5 per cent of Regents Diploma course

time. The history of the United States and New York course and the world history

course together deliver delivers two of the 22 credits students are expected to gain

through their study within the high school programme. In England a typical student

takes three A levels using about 30 per cent of course time per subject.

History forms part of a social studies curriculum and in the senior secondary years is

underpinned by prior study of the Grade 7‒8 social studies programme: United

States and New York State history. The goal of the K-11 social studies core

curriculum overall is for students to:

learn the structure and function of governments and to learn how to take on their roles as

citizens. Students should understand those basic principles and the cultural heritage that

support our democracy so that they can become informed, committed participants in our

democracy. This core curriculum lists examples that describe how individuals and groups

throughout history have challenged and influenced public policy and constitutional

change. These examples and this course of study should help students understand how

ordinary citizens and groups of people interacted with lawmakers and policy-makers and

made a difference.

(Regents Diploma assessment materials)

Expectations for students are framed in terms of learning standards. These include

performance indicators and evidence of success descriptions. There are three levels

of standards. The highest level is Commencement. They are broad statements, for

example: “requires an analysis of the development of American culture, its diversity


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and multicultural contexts and the ways people are unified by many values, practices

and traditions”. Students are expected to describe and analyse “important ideas,

social and cultural values, beliefs and traditions and illustrate the connections and

interactions of people and events across time and from a variety of perspectives”

(Regents Diploma assessment materials). Skills include explaining the significance of

historical evidence, weighing up importance, reliability and validity of evidence; the

concept of multiple causation, and changing and competing interpretations. On the

examination paper itself the questions relating to sources were based more heavily

upon source comprehension than on the interpretation and analysis of those

historical sources.

As the title of this examination indicates, the topics concentrate on the history and

government of the USA, with an emphasis on political history; although there is

coverage of social and economic affairs. These topics offer a depth of coverage.

Topics cover the span of USA history and also address other parts of the world

through consideration of US foreign policy. Alongside the content of the topics a

number of concepts and themes are emphasised throughout the curriculum such as:

change, citizenship, civic values, constitutional principles, culture, and intellectual life,

amongst others.

Students need to acquire a substantial amount of knowledge as part of this course.

All topics are compulsory and there is no prior indication of which topics or themes

will be targeted in the final examination paper.

The final assessment for this course is one three-hour paper taken at the end of the

course. It consists of three parts. Part I is comprised of 50 multiple-choice questions

each worth 1 mark. For each question, students must choose one response from a

range of four possible answers. This section covers the entirety of the course

content.

Part II is a single compulsory essay question. It takes a theme from the course

content and students have to illustrate it and discuss it using two examples.

Part IIIA consists of nine documents with 14 short-answer questions. In all cases

these test comprehension – asking students to read the source and answer a

question about its content.

Part IIIB is an extended writing question which requires students to integrate their

own knowledge and selected pertinent information from the sources in Part IIIA into a

structured extended piece of writing on two topics from a choice of three.

The questions in part I do not require higher-order analytical skills to answer, but they

do expect students to have a substantial amount of knowledge on which to draw. The

questions require consideration of themes, concepts and values, and the language

used in the questions is quite sophisticated.


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The extended writing parts (particularly part II) of the paper are considerably more

demanding than part I, and these would offer more challenge for higher-attaining

students.

In the document-based questions in part IIIA, the students are required to

comprehend the sources, but do not get the opportunity to demonstrate their further

higher-level skills. The final part IIIB requires students to use the sources as well as

their own knowledge which is a more demanding skill.

The scaffolding (or directions given to candidates) used within questions is quite

extensive. It is found on both of the extended writing questions and includes

guidelines to students on how to approach and structure the answer, as well as

definitions of the terminology used in the questions. For example, “discuss” is defined

in part II. This is useful for lower-attaining students but it may not allow higher-

performing students to demonstrate critical analysis as part of their response.

The New York State Regents Diploma study of history offers a considerably different

model from that offered by the A level. In terms of content, it concentrates on the

acquisition of a considerable body of knowledge, and the assessment styles used are

suitable to test a student’s grasp of this knowledge. And as the two courses including

history are requirements in completing senior secondary education, and are usually

assessed before the final year of education, they serve their purpose well. However,

the assessments would not allow students to demonstrate higher-order analytical

skills.


The Cambridge International A level qualifications are designed primarily for students

who intend to continue their studies at university. History is a subject choice within

the Cambridge International A level. It is made up of two sections: the AS, usually

undertaken in the first year, and the A2 in the second year, which, when combined,

make a complete A level. As with the A level in England, a typical student takes three

A levels using about 30 per cent of their course time per subject.

The syllabus offers a choice of two from six periods which are modern European

history 1789‒1939; South-East Asia: from colonies to nations 1870‒1980;

international history 1945‒91; the history of tropical Africa, 1855‒1914; the history of

the USA, c.1840‒1968; and Caribbean history, 1794‒1900.

There are five assessment objectives. Four are tested by essay questions. These are

to:

demonstrate an understanding of the complexity of issues and themes within a

historical period


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distinguish and assess different approaches to, interpretations of, and opinions

about the past

express awareness of historical concepts such as change and continuity, cause

and effect in the past

present a clear, concise, logical and relevant argument

evaluate and interpret source materials as historical evidence and demonstrate

facility in their use; this is mostly tested in source-based questions.

(Cambridge International A level assessment materials)

This course is designed to be suitable for students from different parts of the world.

The content and context offered for teachers to choose from covers most continents

to a greater or lesser extent, apart from Australasia and South America. Within each

paper the topics follow a themed approach (except for tropical Africa), with a very in-

depth examination of the history of several nations. For example Paper 1 (further

described below) requires a study of the French revolution, the industrial revolution,

the Russian revolution and totalitarianism between the wars, amongst other things.

The course is assessed in two equal parts, the AS and the A2, each of which carries

50 per cent of the total assessment to complete the A level. There are six different

three-hour examinations (referred to as papers) and students choose one paper to

complete the AS level, and two to complete the whole A level. Students can

undertake their examinations in two different windows each year (June and

November), but not all papers are available in each window.

On each of the Papers 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 there is one source question, which is testing

an interpretation, and a choice of three from seven essay questions. All questions

carry equal weighting. The course content is satisfactorily covered, with a thematic

approach. Paper 4 on the history of tropical Africa is treated slightly differently. On

this there is a choice of four from ten essay questions, all of which carry equal

weighting, and there is no source question.

Overall the questions on these papers are demanding. There are few common stems

and approaches, and tasks require students to “discuss” and “examine”. This

deliberately open nature allows higher-attaining students to fully demonstrate their

knowledge and skills, but provides little help for the lower-attaining student to

formulate a response. There is very little predictability to these questions, although

some are more straightforward than others. Mostly, the questions require students to

“examine” or “discuss” in order to remain very open, enabling students to form an

individual structure and response to the question. However, some questions are

phrased as “why” questions, and these would not offer the same level of challenge.

In terms of demand of the overall qualification, the structure, where students

complete one paper to achieve an AS and two to achieve the A level, makes it


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difficult to identify progression in the assessments between the first and the second

year. Students knowing that they will be examined in two topics (although they are

broad in themselves) may restrict the content students gain as part of the course,

depending on how it is taught. Overall, the style of the assessments would enable

students to demonstrate their full range of skills.


The Cambridge Pre-U is designed for students who intend to continue their studies at

university. History is an optional subject as part of the Cambridge Pre-U. Taking

history within the diploma uses about 25 per cent of Pre-U course time, because a

student studies global perspectives and research in addition to their three chosen



Its stated aim is to stimulate interest in, and to promote the study of, history; and to

give students the opportunity to develop an understanding of the complexity of

human societies; to identify patterns in, and connections between, apparently

contrasting events and developments; to develop their skills of interpreting and

evaluating evidence; and to use independent study skills, to read widely, write

fluently, and to develop the capacity to formulate and justify their own ideas about the

past. This syllabus is intended to give freedom to choose aspects of historical study,

but also to ensure that all students are introduced to advanced study in a coherent

way and are given an opportunity to put their study into a wider historical context. It

also gives students the ability to undertake independent and self-directed learning,

and to think laterally, critically and creatively.

The four explicitly stated assessment objectives are:

recall, select and deploy historical knowledge accurately

investigate historical questions and present explanations, showing understanding

of appropriate concepts, and arriving at substantiated judgements, using

historical documents where appropriate

explain, interpret and evaluate source material and interpretations of the historical

events studied

organise and present historical information with a balanced, coherent structure,

communicating historical knowledge and understanding clearly and persuasively,

using appropriate terminology.

(Cambridge Pre-U materials)

Across the syllabus there is a wide range of topics in terms of both chronology and

content on British and European history. There is also a range of topics on US,

African and Asian limited to the more modern period. There are also many different

types of history to study, from the significance of individuals to the causes and origins


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of civil war, to monarchy and revolution. This should allow a study of entirely different

events, periods and types of history or a theme based on one of these. In the

qualification as a whole there is a high degree of choice regarding options, both when

selecting which routes to take and papers to study, as well as selection of questions

on the papers themselves.

The qualification has four parts, all of which are examined at the end of the course.

Each part constitutes 25 per cent of the total assessment. In the examination for the

first part, students pick two papers (called outline papers) out of a choice of eight

(available are three on British history, three on European history, one on US history

and one on African and Asian history). They may not select more than one on Britain

or Europe but equally they do not have to study either. In these there is extensive

choice. There are up to ten different sections on the paper with varying numbers of

questions, from 52 on European history outlines c.1378‒c.1815, to 38 questions on

US history outlines. Students may answer any three questions but they must be

selected from at least two different sections of the paper.

On each outline paper students must answer three essay questions from at least two

sections of the paper. Most papers have nine sections with five questions in each but

the thematic sections always have six questions. All questions carry the same

number of marks and weighting, and all use the same mark scheme. However the

style, nature and approach of the questions is not formulaic. Content coverage is

good given the number of questions on each section. It is not predictable that a

certain topic will arise but the course supporting materials do state that all topics will

appear over two years. It appears that the essay questions across the papers assess

the same historical concepts and processes, albeit in a different historical context.

The second unit, the special subject, is also assessed by an examination which

includes both source-based and essay questions. With the exception of the Crusades

1095‒1192, the special subjects cover 20‒50 years and therefore provide in-depth

study. On the special subject papers, students must answer one compulsory source

question, split into two parts, and one essay question from a choice of three.

Finally, for the personal investigation students must write one extended essay

(3,500‒4,000 words) on a topic of their choice (there are some restrictions on choice

to ensure breadth of coverage).


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8 Cross-cutting themes and issues identified

In bringing together the four sets of subject findings a number of themes emerged

which encompass the differences between the main senior secondary qualifications

used by students to support progression to university in England and in other high-

performing countries. By presenting these emerging themes as issues we can

suggest a framework for discussing how A levels available in England compare with

the qualifications offered at a similar level elsewhere in the world.

The issues for consideration are:

Issue 1: Breadth versus depth – Many systems have a baccalaureate- or diploma-

style assessment system including the study of a number of subject areas

that are not required as part of A levels. Would this additional breadth

outweigh the strengths of additional depth of the current A level system?

Issue 2: Independent study – Would the inclusion of independent research,

projects and extended essays bring additional depth to subject expertise?

Issue 3: Different levels of demand within mathematics – The number of different

mathematics assessments at a variety of levels available to students in

many education systems was also in contrast to A level Mathematics. Is

there a need for A level Mathematics to have further lower-level options in

addition to AS?

Issue 4: Breadth versus depth within mathematics – Within the more challenging

mathematics courses considered, A level Mathematics is unusual in

covering both pure mathematics and the application of mathematics in the

same course. While this means that more fields within mathematics are

available to study, other education systems include more demanding

mathematics which an A level student can only access through additional

A level courses. Would a more focused A level mathematics course better

serve the needs of more capable mathematicians?

Issue 5: Specialism within mathematics - A level Mathematics includes optional

routes. This means students with the same grade in the qualification may

not be equally well prepared for a specific further course of study. Would

distinct qualifications, building on a mathematical core but emphasising

the different specialisms, better serve students and those seeking to

match them to appropriate further opportunities?

Issue 6: Mathematical content in chemistry – A strength of A level Chemistry was

seen to be its high mathematical content in comparison with other

systems. Is this balance correct? Would students and higher

educationalists find it preferable to have further or deeper chemistry


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content within chemistry and move the bulk of mathematics currently

covered in chemistry to mathematics subjects?

Issue 7: Focus of the study of English − A levels were found to be distinctly

different from the study of English in other education systems as they have

an exclusive focus on reading and interpreting traditional forms of text. In

other systems there is a broad range of views on what could be

considered a text (from a photograph, to film, to Chaucer). Would a

broader approach prepare students better for studying in a higher

education setting?

Issue 8: Purpose behind studying history − Other systems often had a clear

rationale for the study of history at senior secondary level, for example to

promote good citizenship. Do we need to address a purpose for the study

of A level History beyond preparing students for higher-level historical

study?

Issue 9: School-based assessment – Should there be more teacher- and school-

based assessment with the potential to stretch students, especially where

oral examinations are part of the system?

Issue 10: Multiple choice – Multiple-choice questions are common in other education

systems at senior secondary level. They are not common in A levels.

Multiple-choice questions can be used to test large amounts of content

and assess skills such as the ability to use the English language. These

can be difficult to test by other means. Should we revisit the use of

multiple-choice questions in A level assessments?

None of these issues are new to the ongoing discourse about English A levels. Each

issue has been considered and debated during the development of the English

national qualification. However the current round of discussions can now be informed

with key evidence from a wide range of individual countries’ approaches and

experience.


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Issue 1: Breadth versus depth

Many systems have a baccalaureate- or diploma-style assessment system

including the study of a number of subject areas that are not required as part

of A levels. Would this additional breadth outweigh the strengths of additional

depth of the current A level system?

Evidence from this study shows the structure of A levels to be very unusual when

compared with the qualifications available to students at senior secondary level

worldwide. Almost all of the education systems studied favour a baccalaureate- or

diploma-style qualification, with a core of compulsory subjects supplemented by a

range of optional specialisms. Even some university entrance examinations are

delivered in a diploma style. In the People’s Republic of China the Gāokăo has three

core areas, whilst the ACT is made up of four content areas.

The number of subjects studied at senior secondary level elsewhere in the world is

considerably higher than in England – a minimum of 13 in the Denmark STX at the

top end of this. In many education systems, students are generally required to study

a social science, science, mathematics, a foreign language and a home language

subject at the very least until age 18.

On top of these core subjects, most qualifications and assessments either allow, or

more usually, insist upon some elective content allowing a student to specialise in a

certain discipline or path. In the HKDSE, for example, students are expected to take

four core subjects (Chinese language, English language, mathematics and liberal

studies), as well as two or three elective subjects selected from a bank of some 30

options, including vocational study.

In some education systems, the elective subjects available are determined by the

strand of the qualification that students have selected. In France, a baccalauréat

général student can follow either the série scientifique (S), série économique et

sociale (ES) or série littéraire (L) – sciences, economics and social sciences, or

literature respectively. Within each, students study between nine subjects (if they

select a compulsory subject as their speciality) and 12 subjects leading to national

external examinations.

Qualifications which are offered on a subject-by-subject basis are far fewer in

number. These include A levels, Cambridge International A levels, Cambridge Pre-U

certificates and the HKALE.

Given that an A level student typically studies far fewer subjects than their

international counterparts, it is perhaps not unexpected that the depth and breadth of

content in A levels is amongst the most demanding seen in this study. Each A level

subject is likely to account for between a quarter and a third of the total senior

secondary course time, far higher than the time allocated to equivalent subjects in


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some of the baccalaureate qualifications. As such, A levels contain a considerable

breadth of content compared to most of the other qualifications in the study, and are

able to explore much of this in some depth due to the space in total curriculum time

devoted to the subjects.

If we take chemistry as an example, we find that stand-alone qualifications such as

the OCR A level, the HKALE and CIE qualifications come out very strongly in this

review. The content of OCR A level is broader and deeper than the majority of other

specifications.

In other education systems depth is also achieved through the study of optional

material. In Denmark teachers and students are expected to supplement the

compulsory content by choosing topics to study more deeply or in different contexts.

Most of the other courses offer a choice from a number of optional topics.


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Issue 2: Independent study

Would the inclusion of independent research, projects and extended essays

bring additional depth to subject expertise?

This study found that some of the most demanding elements of qualifications

worldwide included independent projects and sustained study tasks.

A number of the qualifications in the study include an independent study project,

often in the form of a piece of research or an extended essay. These elements can

help to build the skills of deep thought, synthesis, research and self-directed learning

which are so highly prized by universities. They can also introduce additional depth

into subject study or help to build links across separate subjects. The format of these

independent research tasks in different education systems often depends on the

structure of the qualification. In diploma- or baccalaureate-style qualifications, these

projects sometimes form a separate study area designed to stand alone from, or cut

across, the subjects being studied (France baccalauréat général, IB Diploma). In

other education systems, projects may be contained within the syllabus for specific

subjects (New Zealand NCEA Level 3).

In France, students studying for any stream of the baccalauréat général are required

to produce their travaux personnels encadrés (TPE), an independent project which

crosses over two or more subjects (Eduscol, 2011). This is undertaken in small

groups. Students also carry out independent study as part of the IB Diploma,

completing an extended essay enabling them to engage in their own research

through an in-depth study of a question relating to one of the subjects they are

studying. In both qualifications, these projects are distinct elements of the

assessment, standing apart from the study of subject areas.

Independent study projects are also used within subject syllabuses to provide depth

of study in an area, and to build and assess subject-specific skills. In chemistry in

particular, all qualifications emphasise the importance of practical work as an

essential ingredient of chemistry at senior secondary level. The extent to which this is

reflected in extended practical investigation varies, however.

An alternative approach is the IB Diploma which emphasises the importance of

practical chemistry as an investigation. In the IB Diploma practical work is assessed

by conducting a series of investigations together with a project using generic criteria.

This requires higher-order skills to design, conclude and evaluate findings.

Candidates are expected to complete 60 hours of practical activities and project work

which contributes 24 per cent of the final score. A similar approach is taken within the

New Zealand NCEA Level 3 chemistry course. Students studying the internally-

assessed units undertake an open-ended investigation. Within this they design and

carry out their own experiments in support of a research project, capturing the results


Ofqual 2012 238

in a report. This was seen as being a demanding aspect of the course and one which

would develop valuable skills for future study.

Independent study also adds demand in other subject areas. In history the inclusion

of independent study supports the development of historical interpretation and

enquiry; core components of the majority of history courses included in this study. In

the assessment of historical enquiry, some qualifications or assessments contain a

compulsory component of historical enquiry personal research. These include the

A level, the Cambridge Pre-U, the Hong Kong HKDSE, the IB Diploma, the New

Zealand NCEA Level 3, the Republic of Ireland Leaving Certificate (Established) and

in the preliminary school-devised part of the New South Wales HSC. In all of these

qualifications, independent study is a valuable way of increasing depth of knowledge,

alongside developing subject-specific and more general study skills.

There is a similarity between the New Zealand NCEA Level 3 historical research

internal assessment task, the IB Diploma historical investigation and the Edexcel

A level historical enquiry. However it is interesting to note that the New Zealand

NCEA Level 3 course has a much more flexible approach to the format in which the

task can be presented; for example, designing a museum display for a battle or

campaign in the Second World War, or a historical walking tour. The New Zealand

NCEA Level 3 course is also unusual in its emphasis on the pre-teaching of research

techniques in order to prepare students to undertake the internally-assessed task.

Where education systems incorporate independent research and study projects in

subject syllabuses, this tends to be a feature of all disciplines, rather than being

limited to particular subjects. In the Hong Kong HKDSE, for example, school-based

assessment (SBA) is a component of every subject from mathematics to English.

This requires students to complete a self-directed independent research project,

sometimes over a number of school terms.

Even in those education systems where there is not an assessed research project,

independent study skills are emphasised in other ways. At the start of the three-year

STX in Denmark, students follow a six-month foundation programme during which

they learn general study skills. Throughout the rest of the course, they are expected

to study independently for 25 per cent of the course time, allowing them to pursue

their own studies to greater depth. It is also usual practice in Danish schools for

students to have access to reference materials during their examinations, including

access to the internet. In addition to testing subject knowledge the assessments are

also intended to test research abilities, data handling and analytical skills (Ministry of

Children and Education 2012g).


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Issue 3: Different levels of demand within mathematics

The number of different mathematics assessments at a variety of levels

available to students in many education systems was also in contrast to A level

Mathematics. Is there a need for A level Mathematics to have further lower-level

options in addition to AS?

In England there is a huge range of A level subjects which students can study

including A level Mathematics and Further Mathematics. However mathematics is not

compulsory post-16. Lower-level mathematics qualifications are available in England,

but they do not generally make up part of what a student does alongside their A level

qualifications. Students who complete GCSE Mathematics have no clear course of

study to expand their knowledge and understanding of mathematics, other than the

AS and A level Mathematics courses.

A level Mathematics is unusual in that it offers six different routes of study. By

choosing a different combination of applied units a student can tailor their course

towards their chosen career path or higher education course. However, all of these

routes through the qualification are designed to be comparable and therefore no one

route would be more suitable for lower-ability candidates. Additionally, all routes

require completion of the pure mathematics core units rather than allowing students

to pursue an application-based course of study. There is, however, a separate

A level in Pure Mathematics.

Many of the education systems in this study offer qualifications at a range of levels.

This is particularly important where qualifications are intended to be taken by the full

range of students at senior secondary level. Mathematics is one of the subjects with

the greatest choice of levels of study available, with three or four programmes of

learning often available to students. In the qualifications and assessments in which

mathematics is compulsory post-16, often it is the ability of the student that

determines which of the routes they will follow.

The highest number of options for mathematical study is available in the IB Diploma.

Within this qualification students must complete one subject within the mathematics

and computer science group. Within the mathematics group there are four individual

subject choices. Two of these are at standard level, Mathematics and Mathematical

Studies, and two at higher level, Higher Level Mathematics and Further Mathematics.

The higher-level qualifications were deemed to be amongst the most demanding in

this study. The standard level is pitched at those students who will need a sound

mathematical background as they prepare for future studies in subjects such as

chemistry, economics, psychology and business studies. The demand was judged to

be below A level.

More common is an offer of three different mathematics courses, pitched at three

different levels. In the Republic of Ireland, there are also three levels of study


Ofqual 2012 240

available for mathematics: Foundation, Ordinary and Higher. This is in contrast to the

majority of other subjects in the Established Leaving Certificate which are only

available at two levels. Foundation mathematics is geared towards vocational and

functional mathematics. Ordinary mathematics is essentially a service subject,

providing knowledge and techniques that will be needed in the future for the study of

scientific, economic, business and technology subjects. Higher mathematics is the

closest equivalent to A level and is the study of predominantly pure mathematics as a

discipline.

Likewise, the Denmark STX is designed to be studied by students intending to

continue their academic studies at university. Mathematics is a compulsory part of

the STX programme and may be taken at three different levels: A, B and C. For

preparation for higher education in a STEM (science, technology, engineering,

mathematics) related subject or a subject that requires any form of statistical analysis

it is necessary to study the STX level A in mathematics. This programme requires

325 guided learning hours which is roughly equivalent to A level.

In some other education systems, mathematics is offered at two levels: a basic

compulsory level and a more demanding optional level. The incoming HKDSE, for

example, is designed to be taken by all students. Mathematics is part of the HKDSE

and comprises of a compulsory part and an extended part. All candidates must follow

the compulsory part of the syllabus.

In other education systems, the nature and level of the mathematics qualification

studied is dependent on the stream of learning in which a student is enrolled. In

France the baccalauréat général is made up of three streams. At one end of the

scale is the literature stream of which mathematics is a minor part. The syllabus for

mathematics in this stream is heavily focused on basic algebra, statistics, arithmetic

and geometry, and was judged to be significantly below the standard of A level.


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Issue 4: Breadth versus depth within mathematics

Within the more challenging mathematics courses considered, A level

Mathematics is unusual in covering both pure mathematics and the application

of mathematics in the same course. While this means that more fields within

mathematics are available to study, other education systems include more

demanding mathematics which an A level student can only access through

additional A level courses. Would a more focused A level mathematics course

better serve the needs of more capable mathematicians?

The majority of the qualifications and assessments in mathematics included in this

study emphasise either pure or applied mathematics. The in-depth study of both

aspects of mathematics within the same course is unusual, and rarely seen outside

the A level. The balance between breadth of application and pursuit of complex and

deep study is a tension inherent in the study of a discipline and was a major

consideration when comparing the demands of different mathematics qualifications

included in this study. Many qualifications and assessments in the study emphasise

one over the other, and it is apparent that either emphasis may result in a demanding

qualification.

The depth to which a topic is studied is particularly significant in the judgement of

demand. Depth of study more than numbers of topics was judged to be more

important in raising the demand of the specification. For example the ACT tests

complex numbers but only superficially and this in itself is not enough to raise

demand, whereas the in-depth knowledge required by A level Further Mathematics

and the IB Diploma significantly raises the demand of those specifications.

Within the A level system there is the option for students to study in depth by taking

Further Mathematics and 15 per cent of students who study A level Mathematics take

this up. Similarly the Hong Kong HKALE, IB Diploma and New South Wales HSC

also have options within which students can increase their level of study.

A number of qualifications in the study are structured to focus on a narrow range of

topics, often to much greater depth than is possible at A level. These qualifications

and assessments include the Hong Kong HKALE, the Netherlands vwo, the People’s

Republic of China Gāokăo and the Republic of Korea CSAT. These four systems all

required the study of abstract and technically difficult mathematics which raised

qualification demand. In all cases, their assessments included some questions that

were more demanding than those found in A levels. This was also true of selected

questions contained within the assessments for NSW HSC (Mathematics with

Extension 1 or 2), the science series of the France baccalauréat général, IB

Diploma (Higher level), New Zealand NCEA, People’s Republic of China Gāokăo and

the Cambridge Pre-U.


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Other qualifications and assessments provided a much broader approach to the

discipline of mathematics. A level Further Mathematics was the broadest and the

deepest qualification reviewed. It is unusual in that the study of three application

disciplines, statistics, decision mathematics and mechanics, is offered. The next

broadest qualification was A level Mathematics, with two applications, statistics and

mechanics, being most commonly studied. While some other qualifications come

close, such as the Higher Level IB Diploma by requiring a significant amount of

statistics and probability, only the Cambridge International A level, the Cambridge

Pre-U and to some extent the New South Wales HSC require the study of a

significant amount of applied mathematics.

Whilst demand was strongly associated with depth, there was also a link to breadth.

Where the study of certain topics (such as calculus and trigonometry) was not

included in a qualification or assessment to some significant level, this was deemed

to lessen demand. In addition, the ability to adapt one’s approach and mind-set to

different applications of mathematics across a broad qualification may have the

potential to raise the demand of the qualification, and allows students more flexibility

in the pathways they can follow in higher education.


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Issue 5: Specialism within mathematics

A level Mathematics includes optional routes. This means students with the

same grade in the qualification may not be equally well prepared for a specific

further course of study. Would distinct qualifications, building on a

mathematical core but emphasising the different specialisms, better serve

students and those seeking to match them to appropriate further

opportunities?

As noted in Issue 4 there is an emphasis in most qualifications on the study of either

pure or applied mathematics. The study of both aspects of mathematics within the

same course is unusual, and rarely seen outside the A level.

In some education systems the emphasis on pure or applied mathematics is dictated

by the level of the course studied. As part of the Finland Matriculation Examination,

the basic level mathematics syllabus covers a range of topics in mathematics and its

applications. The advanced level covers a similar range of topics to the core modules

C1–C4 (Pure Mathematics) of the A level and there are no significant application

topics.

The Edexcel A level qualification is made up of the four pure mathematics core units

C1‒C4 plus two applied units. There is a choice of two applied units from the six

available: Decision Mathematics D1 and D2, Mechanics M1 and M2, and Statistics

S1 and S2. D2, M2 and S2 may only be studied in the second year as a follow-on to

their partner unit. The most popular combination is C1‒C4 plus M1 and S1.

The Further Mathematics qualification is designed to be taken alongside A level

Mathematics. About fifteen per cent of A level mathematics students study this

combination. In order to achieve A level Further Mathematics students need to

complete a further six modules of study beyond those studied for A level

Mathematics. The core is Further Pure 1 and either Further Pure 2 or 3 with another

four modules being selected from ten potential pure and applied options. The most

common option pattern is Further Pure 1, 2 and 3 and Mechanics 2, Statistics 2 and

Decision 1. The choice of options for A level mathematics and further mathematics

students will usually be restricted to the course combinations available at their school

or college.

In other qualifications and assessments, separate pure and applied mathematics

courses are available for students to choose between. In the Alberta Diploma, two

different mathematics courses are available at each level of study. At the 30 level,

students may study Pure Mathematics 30 and Applied Mathematics 30. The New

Zealand NCEA also allows the study of mathematics in three different areas:

Calculus, Calculus CAS and Statistics and Modelling.


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Both Alberta and New Zealand actively encourage the use of new technologies as a

feature of their assessments of mathematics. In the Alberta Diploma, graphical

calculators play a key role in the learning of mathematics. In the New Zealand NCEA

Calculus CAS course, there is a reliance on the use of algebraic calculators as a part

of the course, ensuring that students gain experience in using technology they would

use in higher education. Interestingly, in the Republic of Korea CSAT, there is also a

heavy emphasis on the use of calculators and computers in the teaching of

mathematics; however these are not allowed in the examination, thus restricting the

topics that can be tested thoroughly.

The mathematics included in the A level and further mathematics combination above

is amongst the most demanding in this study, similar to HKALE and the IB Diploma

Higher. This study found that the mechanics papers allowed students to show they

were able to apply pure mathematics to practical situations. In particular the

Mechanics 2 module requires extensive problem-solving at this level. This would be

very helpful for students whose choice of higher education takes them into science or

engineering and technology degrees.


Ofqual 2012 245

Issue 6: Mathematical content within chemistry

A strength of A level chemistry was seen to be its high mathematical content in

comparison with other systems. Is this balance correct? Would students and

higher educationalists find it preferable to have further or deeper chemistry

content within chemistry and move the bulk of mathematics currently covered

in chemistry to mathematics subjects?

The range and variety of chemistry that a student can study successfully is closely

related to their mathematical competence. This can range from plotting experimental

results on a graph to the formulation of algebraic equations used in rate calculations

and chemical modelling. In all the qualifications or assessments included in this

study, syllabuses appear to expect students to be able to carry out routine

arithmetical calculations, such as those in stoichiometry and empirical formulae.

However, the actual mathematical requirements are sometimes not defined within the

course content.

One of the strengths identified of OCR A level Chemistry was the high mathematical

content of the course. Qualifications with similarly high levels of mathematical content

include the IB Diploma, Republic of Ireland Leaving Certificate (Established), the

Cambridge International A levels and the Cambridge Pre-U. These all have a clearly

stated mathematical component representing an integral part of the course. For the

OCR A level and both the CIE syllabuses these are identical and the most

demanding seen.

Of course, as previously noted, the A level is relatively unique in its structure

compared with many of the international qualifications, comprised as it is of stand-

alone subjects rather than an overall certificate. As it is possible that A level

Chemistry students will not be studying mathematics alongside their chemistry

course, there is perhaps more of a need to ensure that the required mathematical

content is explicit within the chemistry syllabus.

This is in contrast to comparator education systems where mathematics is a

mandatory subject for all students in most of the composite qualifications. However,

this has a limited match with the demand for mathematics within chemistry

assessments and mathematical requirements must be inferred from the topics

covered and questions asked in written assessments. For example, the Denmark

STX Chemistry A course specifically requires students to complete the STX

Mathematics B course in support of their studies. It does not specify which

mathematical knowledge and skills from that course students are expected to apply

to chemistry; however, success in the assessments requires good mathematical

skills.

An exception to this is the Alberta Diploma which clearly cross-refers the

mathematical requirements of the chemistry course to the core mathematics syllabus.


Ofqual 2012 246

In the Alberta Diploma, the Chemistry 30 syllabus cross-refers directly to specific

objectives within their qualification’s Applied and Pure Mathematics 10 and 20

syllabuses.

The impact of mathematics upon the demand of the assessment can be measured in

terms of the proportion of the assessment which relies upon correct application of

mathematical techniques and skills in support of chemical knowledge, understanding,

application and skills in order to complete a task or questions. This is highest in the

Denmark STX assessment at nearly half of the available marks, but unsurprising

given the intensely investigative nature of the assessment. Lowest is the USA ACT

which has no mathematical requirements in the science test, but does also test

mathematics separately. The Regents Diploma is dependent on mathematics for less

than 10 per cent of the assessment, but the remainder are grouped between 15 per

cent and 30 per cent. This suggests a clear focus on chemistry, although it may also

reflect the prevalence of short-answer questions rather than unstructured tasks.

Perhaps the lowest level of mathematical demand can be found in the New Zealand

NCEA Level 3 qualification. This does not exceed the level of competence required

for English GCSE Mathematics. The demand to be able to use, for example,

logarithms in pH calculations is the same for the NCEA as for the Alberta Diploma

and OCR A level, but there is a limited depth of use of mathematics in NCEA

assessments. The remaining syllabuses rely much more on students learning the

relevant material and being able to apply it in relatively simple cases. The difficulty of

calculations tends to follow the same pattern as the range and depth of topics in the

syllabus. Most composite qualifications present mathematically undemanding

assessments. The exception is the IB Diploma with the wider range of content

requiring more mathematics.

A variety of question types is used by the chemistry qualifications and assessments

studied. These include multiple-choice and numerical response; short-answer

questions; interpretation of data; calculations; evaluation and analysis; interpretation

of data and use of graphs; and practical procedures, amongst others.


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Issue 7: Focus of the study of English

A levels were found to be distinctly different from the study of English in other

education systems as they have an exclusive focus on reading and interpreting

traditional forms of text. In other systems there is a broad range of views on

what could be considered a text (from a photograph, to film, to Chaucer).

Would a broader approach prepare students better for studying in a higher

education setting?

This study demonstrates clearly that there is no single, unified definition of English as

an academic subject. Even within England there are three distinct A level

qualifications: English Language, English Language and Literature, and English

Literature. The A level chosen for inclusion in this study is the AQA English Literature

B syllabus. However, not all of the countries included within the study which use

English as the language of tuition have distinct English literature courses. The

English courses available in comparator education systems may also include the

study of language, and this may be one of the factors which promote the broader

range of views on what might be considered a text in these qualifications.

It is clear that the qualifications included in this study have quite diverse aims. The

AQA A level, the Cambridge Pre-U, the Cambridge International A levels and the IB

Diploma concentrate on literature, the latter offering a more global perspective on the

subject. These four qualifications are the most similar in terms of content as they

focus on the more traditional forms of text. Others, such as the New South Wales

HSC and New Zealand NCEA Level 3, and to a lesser extent the Alberta Diploma,

New York Regents Diploma and the Republic of Ireland Leaving Certificate

(Established), make the boundaries of English and English literature more porous,

placing emphasis on the study of English to enable students to become good

communicators, readers, thinkers and citizens.

Within these courses the definition of text and notions of canonicity vary

considerably. Those qualifications which place some emphasis on the study of

English for communication allow for the study of a wide range of text types

(photographs, films, journalism, screenplays) not seen in the syllabuses that

concentrate more exclusively on literature.

The portfolio requirement for both HKALE and HKDSE offers plenty of student choice

and the opportunity to explore a range of writing styles, including film study. The New

South Wales HSC features an inter-textual approach. The interdisciplinary nature of

the specification (mixing traditional literary topics with media-based topics, for

example), the emphasis on oral competency, and the opportunities offered for

imaginative writing are distinct from other courses included in this study. Where more

traditional literary texts are studied, these come from a wide range of periods and

genres, and are expected to include classics, successful teaching texts and

innovative recent works.


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The New Zealand NCEA Level 3 syllabus offers a very good range of topics which

are interesting and engaging for students; they are well balanced, with plenty of sub-

topics available in the externally assessed standards. The study of English is opened

up by the lack of division between language and literature together with the inclusion

of the literary text and other forms of written and visual production. The oral

component is an educationally beneficial part of the programme on offer.

In the Alberta Diploma, students may consider very diverse texts as part of their

study. These may include modern drama (theatre, television, film, radio or

screenplays), poetry and song, non-fiction and response to non-fiction.

Although A levels do prepare students well for continuing their studies at a UK

university, this study found that the English Literature A level qualification may not

provide specific preparation for all of the English-related degree courses available in

England. This is because many English universities have developed broader English

courses which look beyond the analysis and critique of literary texts to encompass

the wider development and use of the English language. This is similar to some of

the international qualifications in the study which manage to successfully blend the

study of language and literature. The study of a more diverse base of texts is one

feature of these qualifications.


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Issue 8: Purpose behind studying history

Other systems often had a clear rationale for the study of history at senior

secondary level, for example to promote good citizenship. Do we need to

address a purpose for the study of A level History beyond preparing students

for higher-level historical study?

This study found that in the majority of education systems included in this project,

there was a clear vision for the study of history at senior secondary level.

Qualifications place differing degrees of emphasis on: preparing students for higher

study at university; developing students’ critical thinking skills; developing citizenship;

and developing students’ interest in history. This rationale for the study of history

impacts on the design of the qualification, particularly on historical content and the

types of historical skills that are assessed.

Most of the qualifications or assessments view the study of history as a discipline as

an important part of their rationale, but to varying degrees. The strongest statements

are to be found in the Edexcel A level, the Cambridge International A levels and

Cambridge Pre-U and the IB Diploma. The exceptions to this are the New York

Regents Diploma and the Republic of Korea CSAT where history is placed within the

context of a prescribed social studies programme. In two instances, the baccalauréat

général in France and the Vitnemål in Norway, the discipline of history is seen as

integrated with another discipline; geography and philosophy respectively.

For some of these qualifications or assessments the study of history is explicitly a

preparation for study at university, namely the Edexcel A level, the Cambridge Pre-U,

the Finland Matriculation Examination, the baccalauréat général in France, the IB

Diploma, the Netherlands havo and vwo and the Gāokăo in the People’s Republic of

China.

For others the skills and understanding derived from studying history are seen as a

preparation for life and citizenship (whether national or global). In New York State the

predominant emphasis is on “developing a disposition to democratic values and

learning to function effectively in American society” (New York State Education

Department curriculum materials).

Additionally, some place a special emphasis on students learning about the culture of

their country, such as the baccalauréat général in France, the Matriculation

Examination in Finland and the havo and vwo in the Netherlands.

This emphasis on national citizenship and understanding is clearly a factor in

determining the extent to which students are required to study their own national

history at one end of the spectrum and are expected to develop a wider continental

or world view at the other. Related to this is the extent to which the qualifications or

assessments offer choice to teachers on what content to teach. In some, such as the


Ofqual 2012 250

baccalauréat général in France or the New York Regents Diploma, there is no choice

of course content, but in others, most notably the A level, there is very wide choice.

Of the countries which do require students to study their own national history the

weightings vary. In the Edexcel A level, students spend a minimum of 25 per cent on

their national history as do students in the Matriculation Examination in Finland. The

New York Regents Diploma is entirely focused on US history whilst that for the

Gāokăo places Chinese history firmly at the centre of its content. Of the rest, the

Republic of Ireland Leaving Certificate course requires 50 per cent on Irish history,

the baccalauréat général requires at least 50 per cent on French history, the

Netherlands havo and vwo courses include one component dedicated to Dutch

history, and the course from the NCEA in New Zealand can be studied entirely on

topics from New Zealand history (although this depends on the optional topics

chosen).

Only one qualification, the Edexcel A level, mentions the provisionality of history,

although others describe historical interpretation as being open to debate. The New

South Wales HSC specification describes history as a “contested dialogue between

past and present” (Higher School Certificate assessment materials). Perhaps only in

the New York Regents Diploma, the People’s Republic of China Gāokăo and the

CSAT in the Republic of Korea does there appear to be a view of history as

uncontested with a definitive narrative version.

Whilst these diverse senior secondary qualifications have very different purposes,

these differences by themselves do not indicate different levels of demand. In some

the content is more high profile, notably Finland’s aims to teach students the principal

“trends of Finnish and world history” (Finnish curriculum materials). In others,

historical skills are also strongly emphasised. It is not possible to make a direct link

between the relative status of content and skills in specifications and their level of

demand due to the many other variables.


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Issue 9: School-based assessment

Should there be more teacher- and school-based assessment with the potential

to stretch students, especially where oral examinations are part of the system?

Within the assessment of senior secondary qualifications internationally, there is a

strong emphasis on the use of internal assessment. In A levels there is a degree of

school-based assessment for the subjects included in this study (with the exception

of mathematics); however this is often less pronounced than in the other education

systems in this study.

The emphasis on internal assessment varies considerably by education system or

qualification. In the Alberta Diploma, Netherlands havo and vwo and New South

Wales HSC, for example, the school-based assessment mark makes up 50 per cent

of the final mark for the qualification. In the New York State Regents Diploma and the

Republic of Ireland Leaving Certificate (Established), the qualification is fully

externally assessed. However, most qualifications contain some elements of internal

assessment, which combine with the results of external examinations to give an

overall grade.

A minority of education systems promote the use of internal assessment over

external examinations. In Norway’s Vitnemål, a student’s progress is assessed by

teachers to provide the information for the overall achievement marks on the

student’s school leaving certificate. External examinations are required in up to five

subjects, one of which must be home language. In all other subjects, a student is still

assessed, but this is managed within the school and the results are reported

centrally.

The design of the school-based assessment varies by system and the nature of the

subject or skills being assessed. Across the qualifications studied, the internally-

assessed tasks include a range of different approaches, with the potential to test

numerous relevant skills in a demanding way. In New South Wales, for example,

school-based assessments may include “tests, written or oral assignments, practical

activities, fieldwork and projects” (Board of Studies NSW assessment materials).

It is of particular note that many systems use oral tests (both externally and internally)

to assess subject knowledge and skills across all of the four subjects studied in this

report (Denmark STX, Finland Matriculation Examination, IB Diploma, New Zealand

NCEA, Norway Vitnemål). These oral examinations appear to be extremely

demanding forms of assessment and an educationally beneficial part of the

programme on offer.

In the Denmark STX history assessment, the 30-minute oral examination is based on

10‒15 pages of very challenging pre-released material. These materials relate to one

of the 15 stages of the curriculum covered and come in a variety of formats, including


Ofqual 2012 252

tables of data, pictures and extracts of text. In the examination, the student must set

out, analyse and discuss one or more of the issues connected with the topic that they

are allocated. In the first ten minutes the student presents the historical problem(s)

and their relationships with the completed curriculum stages. The examination then

continues in the form of a 20-minute dialogue between the examiner and examinee.

The flexibility and complexity of questioning that such an approach allows was

considered very demanding. Having to demonstrate these skills would be valuable to

a student looking to progress to higher education.

Another common style of internal assessment is a self-directed research project. In

the New Zealand NCEA, practical research projects are built into a range of courses.

In chemistry, students carry out open-ended investigation which allows students to

design and carry out their own experiments in support of a research project. In

history, internal assessment requires students first to plan and carry out independent

historical research and then to communicate and present that research in context.

These offer innovative ways of assessing students’ understanding of the issues. Both

of these examples were felt to be particularly demanding.

In the study of English, most education systems use internal assessment tasks as

part of their overall assessment process. These include conventional essay-writing,

creative and recreative27 writing, and oral presentations. Where coursework is not

included in a qualification (Republic of Ireland Established Leaving Certificate), this

was felt to hamper students’ opportunities for independent research. Coursework

helps to develop independent thinking and decision-making and allows students to

experiment with their own writing and responses to texts; it also caters well for all

levels of the ability range.

In England, most of the A levels included in this study allocate around 20 per cent of

available marks to internally-assessed tasks; this is with the exception of the Edexcel

A level in Mathematics, which contains no internally-assessed content. In other

education systems, however, the study of mathematics is no less likely to be

internally-assessed than any other subject. Several mathematics

qualifications involve school-based assessment where up to 50 per cent of the final

grade is made up of such assessment tasks. Such tasks can broaden a qualification

and allow students to be tested on the application of IT, extended problem-solving

and the use of mathematics as a tool for modelling, all of which cannot be tested in

an examination environment.

27 Recreative: literally, “create anew”. A re-creative task is based upon source materials and requires

the student to consider the content from an alternative viewpoint and produce a new text, often in a

different genre from that of the original, which is supported by textual evidence from the original

material.


Ofqual 2012 253

Issue 10: Multiple choice

Multiple-choice questions are common in other education systems at senior

secondary level. They are not common in A levels. Multiple-choice questions

can be used to test large amounts of content and assess skills such as the

ability to use the English language. These can be difficult to test by other

means. Should we revisit the use of multiple-choice questions in A level

assessments?

The A levels in the this study do not use multiple-choice questions in any of the

external examinations studied. This absence of multiple-choice testing is in contrast

to many of the international assessments and qualifications at senior secondary

levels. Various education systems incorporate multiple-choice questions into their

examinations and in some cases, these questions are demanding and enhance the

assessment as a whole.

A limited number of qualifications or assessments rely on the use of multiple-choice

questions throughout. One example of this is the Republic of Korea CSAT. The

CSAT is entirely externally assessed through multiple-choice papers with five

possible answers for each item. All subjects in the CSAT are assessed over the

course of one day. The People’s Republic of China Gāokăo has a similar format, with

all subjects tested over the course of three full days.

The heavy use of multiple-choice questioning in the CSAT and Gāokăo is particularly

relevant given their context. The examination duration for both of these is relatively

short. With this time restriction a question style which tests a student’s ability to recall

the large amount of information they have acquired as part of the course, in a time-

efficient manner, is an effective way to ensure testing of a large part of a curriculum

in a short period of time. In the case of the Chinese system in particular, the volume

of students taking the examination is also significant. Multiple-choice testing provides

one of the most efficient and reliable options for marking. In these cases the use of

multiple-choice questions is vital for the manageability of the test.

Other education systems draw on multiple-choice questioning to a far lesser degree.

In these cases, multiple-choice items are most likely to be part of the assessment of

mathematics and chemistry. In chemistry, the nature of the questions very much

reflects the rationale of the course. Where a course emphasises the acquisition of

knowledge, the questions require recall. Often such questions are in the form of

multiple-choice items (see for example, the Alberta Diploma and the New South

Wales HSC). The demand of these questions is variable. The multiple-choice

questions in the Alberta Diploma chemistry examinations require simple recall from

the syllabus, logic and analysis or recognition, with very little opportunity to test

higher-order thinking skills.


Ofqual 2012 254

In the mathematics element of the Alberta Diploma, 82 per cent of the total marks

available for the final examination are awarded for multiple-choice questions. The

demand of the questions was judged to be significantly lower than that of A level

Mathematics. Similar findings were made about the use of multiple-choice items in

the HKDSE and the ACT test.

However, there are examples of assessments where multiple-choice questioning has

been used to build greater demand. The People’s Republic of China Gāokăo and the

Republic of Korea CSAT employ extremely stretching multiple-choice questions.

These questions are often worth a significant number of marks but there is no facility

for part-marks and students lose just as many marks for one arithmetical slip as for a

non-attempt of the question or a wild guess.

Whilst A level Mathematics and Chemistry do not currently include multiple-choice

questions, they do incorporate a number of short-answer questions. In contrast, the

assessment of A level English and History include none of these short-answer

questions; assessment is instead based on extended essay and source questions.

This is therefore a significant difference in approach when we consider that in many

of the international qualifications or assessments studied, multiple-choice questions

are also used to assess these disciplines.

In both English and history, the most demanding style of question tends to be the

extended, unstructured questions requiring substantial argument and synthesis.

Despite this, this study found that multiple-choice items can also be demanding,

depending on the content and skills that they are designed to test. They are also

useful in varying the pace of an examination and catering for the lower-achieving

students. However, if over-used they may also hamper the more able, especially

when used to test unseen material. Multiple-choice questions are not suitable for

some of the key skills involved in the study of certain subjects. In English, for

example, it is impossible for students to undertake critical responses to texts (apart

from those offered in the answer options) through multiple-choice questions. This

prevents students from demonstrating skills considered very important for entry to a

UK university to study English-related subjects.

The ACT English Test uses multiple-choice questions to test students’ understanding

of the conventions of writing and rhetorical skills as demonstrated by texts. Similarly

the ACT Reading Test uses multiple-choice questions to test students’ understanding

of prose passages. The texts are selected to represent materials commonly

encountered in the first year of higher education. In this first test, the higher-attaining

students are hampered by the rigid constraints of the multiple-choice format, and are

prevented from demonstrating any flair, originality, opinion or nuanced understanding

of writers’ methods. However reading the unseen texts and successfully answering

the volume of questions within the time allowed requires a high level of specific

literacy and comprehension skills.


Ofqual 2012 255

8.1 Next steps

This was the first study in our six-year research programme to investigate the

demand of assessments commonly taken by learners internationally in comparison

with those taken by learners in England.

Alongside our work on revising A level qualification and subject criteria, we are

planning further international comparative studies to feed into other future reforms in

the English qualification system. We have invited education systems to become

involved in upcoming studies looking at assessments at lower secondary level and at

upper primary level. We are also exploring the possibility of reviewing student work

from other high-performing education systems, and investigating the features of

independent research, projects and extended essays at senior secondary level

across education systems.


Ofqual 2012 256

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Appendix: Subject panel members and affiliations Mathematics Role Organisation

Pat Morton Panel leader Independent

Sally Barton Panel member Joint Mathematical Council

Brian Crossland Panel member Independent

Mike Dixon Panel member Cambridge International A level / Pre-U

Neil Hendry Panel member IBO

Tony Holloway Panel member The Welsh Government

Joe Kyle Panel member Universities UK

Duncan Lawson Panel member Universities UK

Bronwen Moran Panel member Edexcel

Sara Neill Panel member CCEA (Regulator)

Keith Pledger Panel member Edexcel

Roger Porkess Panel member Joint Mathematical Council

Chris Thompson Panel member Board of Studies NSW – New South Wales, Australia

Kevin Wallis Panel member Independent

Johan Yebbou Panel member L’inspection générale de l’éducation nationale (IGEN)

Chemistry Role Organisation

Sarah Askey Panel leader Independent

Fiona Clark Panel member IBO

Anna Croft Panel member Bangor University

Derek Denby Panel member OCR

Gina Grant Panel member Board of Studies NSW – New South Wales, Australia

Ian Hotchkiss Panel member Independent

Stuart Jones Panel member The Welsh Government

Robert Maguire Panel member CCEA (Regulator)

Marie-Blanche Mauhourat Panel member L’inspection générale de l’éducation nationale ‒ France

Joseph Newman Panel member Cambridge International A level / Pre-U

Rob Ritchie Panel member OCR

Yvonne Walls Panel member Independent


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English Role Organisation

Jenny Stevens Panel leader Independent

Janice Ashman Panel member AQA

Adrian Beard Panel member AQA

Caroline Bentley-Davies Panel member Independent

Barbara Bleiman Panel member Universities UK

Russell Carey Panel member Independent

Don Carter Panel member Board of Studies NSW – New South Wales, Australia

Judith Catton Panel member New Zealand Qualifications Authority

Andrew Green Panel member Universities UK

John Hodgson Panel member NATE

Elmer Kennedy-Andrews Panel member CCEA (Regulator)

Ian McNeilly Panel member NATE

Julian Pattison Panel member Cambridge International A level / Pre-U

Alison Whitehurst Panel Member IBO

History Role Organisation

Dave Martin Panel leader Independent

Arthur Chapman Panel member Historical Association

Ian Connor Panel member CCEA (Regulator)

Jenny Gillett Panel member IBO

Richard Harris Panel member Historical Association

Elin Jones Panel member The Welsh Government

Jennifer Lawless Panel member Board of Studies NSW – New South Wales, Australia

Angela Leonard Panel member Edexcel

Sarah Richardson Panel member Universities UK

Geoff Stewart Panel member Edexcel

Patrick Walsh-Atkins Panel member Cambridge International A level / Pre-U

John Warren Panel member Independent

Alex Woollard Panel member Independent

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