INTEREST INVENTORIES 21 7

INTEREST INVENTORIES 21 7

Theme with which each Basic Interest Scale has its highest correlation.

Basic Interest Scales

The 25 Basic Interest Scales (BIS) were constructed using the statistical technique of cluster analysis to identify highly correlated items (Camp- bell, Borgen, Eastes, Johansson, & Peterson, 1968). The BIS were developed to focus on the measurement of only one interest factor per scale and, con- sequently, are easier to interpret than the heterogeneous Occupational Scales that incorpo- rate items representing several interest factors as well as likes and aversions in each scale.

The BIS-scale names, as indicated in Figure 9.7, describe the homogeneous item content and the interest trait measured by each scale. Like the GOT, standard scores based on a combined-sex General Reference Sample, and interpretive bars based on female and male General Reference Sam- ples are presented on the profile.

intervals. Median reliabilities over one month and three month periods for the General Occupational Themes were .86, and .81; for the Basic Interest Scales were .85, and .80; and for the Occupational Scales were .87 and .85 (Harmon, et al., 1994).

Because interest inventories are used to make long-term decisions, predictive validity is important. The Strong Interest Inventory has a long history of predictive validity studies for its various editions, however, no predictive validity data are available at this time for the 1994 Form. Data from earlier forms of the Strong show that, at least in the past, high scores on the Occupational Scales are related to occupations eventually entered; gener- ally, between one-half and three-fourths of the subjects in predictive validity studies enter occupations predictable from their earlier scores (Campbell, 1966; Dolliver, Irvin & Bigley, 1972; Hansen, 1986; Spokane, 1979). Studies assessing the usefulness of the Strong Interest Inventory for predicting college majors have found hit rates similar to those reported for occupational entry (Hansen & Swanson, 1983; Hansen & Tan, 1992).

Personal Styles Scales

Four Personal Styles Scales--Work Style, Learn- ing Environment, Leadership, and Risk Taking/ Adventure--also are reported on the Strong profile. All four of these bi-polar scales were standardized using the combined-sex General Reference Sample; interpretive bars based on female and male General Reference Samples are presented on the profile.

The Work Style Scale is intended to identify people who prefer to work with ideas, data, and things (low scores) and those who prefer to work with people (high scores). The Learning Environment Scale distinguishes between people who prefer academic learning environments (high scores) and those who prefer practical training (low scores). Similarly, the Leadership Scale is meant to identify those who prefer to do a task themselves or to lead by example (low scores) and those who like to be in charge of others (high scores). The Risk-Taking/Adventure Scale, as the scale name implies, measures the extent to which an individual is willing to take risks.

Reliability and Validity

The test-retest reliability of the scales on the Strong profile is substantial over short and long

Career Assessment Inventory

The first edition of the Career Assessment Inventory TM (Johansson, 1975; Johansson & Johansson, 1978) was developed for use with individuals considering immediate career entry, community college education, or vocational-technical training, and was modeled after the Strong Interest Inventory TM. In 1982, the decision was made to move from separate-sex to combined-sex Occupa- tional Scales. The enhanced version of the Career Assessment Inventory TM published in 1986 (Johansson, 1986) has been expanded to include several Occupational Scales representing professional occupations.

The enhanced Career Assessment Inventory TM

test booklet includes 370 items, and the profile reports three sets of scales: six homogeneous Gen- eral Themes, 25 homogeneous Basic Interest Areas and 111 heterogeneous Occupational Scales. The Career Assessment Inventory TM uses Holland's theory to organize the Basic Interest Areas and Occupational Scales on the profile, clustering together those that represent each of Holland' s six types (see Figure 9.8).

The General Themes and Basic Interest Areas are normed on a combined-sex reference sample composed of employed adults and students drawn

2 1 8 HANDBOOK OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT

Kuder Occupational Interest Survey Report Form

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FEMALE DI I * 11/13/95

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AVERAGE COMPUTATIONAL 79 OUTDOOR 74 LITERARY 79 COMPUTATIONAL 74 AVERAGE CLERICAL ~7 MUSICAL ~8 MUSICAL 61 MECHANICAL 57

LOW C L E R I C A L 55 MECHANICAL 20 LOW PERSUASIVE 13 PERSUASIVE 18 ARTISTIC 11 ARTISTIC 05 SOCIAL SERVICE 02 SOCIAL SERVICE 01

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THESE ARE N E X T PHARMACIST .43 MOST SIMILAR: BANKER .40

DENTIST .40 ENGINEER .42 VETERINARIAN .39 FORESTER .41

MOST T . THE REST ARE

L I S T E D I N ORDER ACCT, CERT PUB .40 OF SIMILARITY: BOOKSTORE MGR .40 SCIENCE TCHR, HS 39 PHYSICIAN .37 MATH TCHR, HS .39 SCIENCE TCHR, HS 37 OPTOMETRIST .38 MATH TEACHER, HS .37 BOOKKEEPER .38 DIETITIAN .36 FLORIST .38 PSYCHOLOGIST 36

3 8 PERSONNEL MGR ARCHITECT .35 BOOKKEEPER 35

THE REST ARE SECRETARY .35 LISTED IN ORDER ARCHITECT 35 OF SIMILARITY: BOOKSTORE MGR .33

O F F I C E CLERK 3 3 PSYCHOLOGIST .36 LAWYER 33 PHOTOGRAPHER .35 FLORIST .32 BUYER 35 INSURANCE AGENT .32

35 POLICE OFFICER 31 LIBRARIAN SCHOOL SUPT .35 FILM/TV PROD/DIR .31 DENTIST .35 LIBRARIAN .31 PIIARMACIST .35 JOURNALIST .31 LAWYER 34 NUTRITIONIST .31

iREAL ESTATE ACT . 3 4 A U D I O L / S P PATHOL 30 iBANKER .34 BANK CLERK .30 IEXTENSION AGENT 34 PHYS THERAPIST 30 iPRINTER .34 INTERIOR DECOR .29 iTRAVEL AGENT 34 EXTENSION AGENT 29 iRADIO STATON MGR 33 X-RAY TECHNICIAN 29 PHYSICIAN 33 COUNSELOR, HS 27 TV REPAIRER . 3 3 COL STU PERS WKR . 2 7 JOURNALIST .32 DENTAL ASSISTANT .26 BLDG CONTRACTOR .32 ELEM SCH TEACHER .26 POSTAL CLERK .31 NURSE .26 FILM/TV PROD/DIR .31 BEAUTICIAN 25 X-RAY TECHNICIAN .31 REAL ESTATE AGT .24 COUNSELOR, HS .30 OCCUPA THERAPIST 23 SUPERVSR, INDUST .30 SOCIAL WORKER 23 CLOTHIER, RETAIL .30 DEPT STORE-SALES 20 PHYS THERAPIST .30 MINISTER .18 VETERINARIAN .30 RELIGIOUS ED DIR 14 ELEM SCH TEACHER 30 AUDIOL/SP PATHOL .29 INTERIOR DECOR .29 PLUMBING CONTRAC . 2 9 FARMER .29 POLICE OFFICER .28 WELDER .28 PODIATRIST .28 MACHINIST .27 PERSONNEL MGR .27 BRICKLAYER .27 INSURANCE AGENT .27 ELECTRICIAN .27 NURSE .27 AUTO MECHANIC .26 PLUMBER .25 SOCIAL WORKER .23 P A I N T E R r HOUSE . 2 3 .

¢ e ~ w l t h m u REST, CONT.

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BUSINESS ADMIN AGRICULTURE .35 HEALTH PROFESS BIOLOGICAL SCI .34 PSYCHOLOGY ECONOMICS .34 BUSINESS ADMIN .33 THE REST ARE ANIMAL SCIENCE .33 LISTED IN ORDER PSYCHOLOGY .31 OF SIMILARITY: PREMED/PHAR/DENT . 3 0 MUSIC & MUSIC ED .30 MUSIC & MUSIC ED

HOME ECON EDUC THE REST ARE FOREIGN LANGUAGE L I S T E D I N ORDER ELEMENTARY EDUC DF SIMILARITY: PHYSICAL EDUC

ENGLISH FOREIGN LANGUAGE .29 HISTORY SERV ACAD CADET .29 POLITICAL SCI ARCHITECTURE 28 NURSING ENGLISH .27 ART & ART EDUC ELEMENTARY EDUC 26 DRAMA SOCIOLOGY .25 SOCIOLOGY ART & ART EDUC .25 HISTORY .24 POLITICAL SCI .24 PHYSICAL EDUC .24

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S .30 F ,34 D .15 MO .29

Figure 9.9. Profile for the KOIS (Form DD). The Kuder Occupational Interest Survey Report Form is reproduced with the permission of National Career Assessment Services, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

from the six Holland interest areas; 75 females and 75 males from each of the six groups, for a total of 900 subjects, compose the sample. In addition to the standard scores based on a combined-sex sample, however, the Career Assess- ment Inventory TM profile presents bars for each scale representing the range of scores for females and males in the reference sample. These addi- tional data help to circumvent the problem of gender differences on some of the homogeneous scales.

The Occupational Scales of the enhanced version of the Career Assessment Inventory TM were developed using the empirical method of contrast samples to select items that differentiated combined-sex criterion and general reference samples from each other. The combined-sex criterion samples fall short of the goal of equally representing females and males within the sample (e.g., 0

female aircraft mechanics, 0 male medical assis- tants, 0 female purchasing agents, and 0 male sec- retaries). The author attempted to improve the psychometrics of the scales by doing separate-sex item analyses if the separate-sex samples were large enough. In most instances, however, the sample representing one sex or the other was too small to produce reliable item analyses (e.g., 22 male bank tellers, 16 female dental laboratory techni- cians, 12 male bookkeepers, and 20 female enlisted personnel). In fact, 64 of the 111 Occupational Scales were developed using criterion samples that included less than 50 subjects representing one sex or the other (45 scales with < 50 female subjects and 19 scales with < 50 male subjects). Conse- quently, the exploration validity, for the scales developed with unbalanced female-male ratio criterion samples, is questionable for the underrepre- sented gender.

INTEREST INVENTORIES 21 9

Kuder's Interest Inventories

The Personal Preference Record (Form A) was published in 1939 by Frederic Kuder and included seven almost independent homogeneous scales. Kuder added two more homogeneous scales in 1943 (Form B) and another homogeneous scale in 1948 (Form C). The Kuder General Interest Survey (Form E) (Kuder, 1988) measures the 10 interest areas of Form C but expresses the items in language that is easier to understand. The first edition of the Kuder Occupational Interest Survey (Form DD) was published in 1966; the latest additions and revisions are reported in the Kuder Occupational Interest Survey Form DD, General Manual (Kuder & Zytowski, 1991).

General Interest Survey (Form E)

The General Interest Survey (Form E) is composed of homogeneous scales that measure interest in 10 broad areas: Outdoor, Mechanical, Computa- tional, Scientific, Persuasive, Artistic, Literary, Musical, Social Service, and Clerical. Kuder origi- nally developed the scales by grouping related items on the basis of content validity; later he used item analyses to determine groups of items (scales) with high internal consistency.

The item booklet contains 168 forced-choice triads reported to be at the sixth grade reading level. The respondent compares each of the three activities with the other two and ranks them as most preferred (M) and least preferred (L).

The General Interest Survey (GIS) may be hand- scored or machine-scored; both techniques produce raw scores that are entered on a profile sheet. The respondent's raw scores, in turn, are compared with percentile distributions of either norm groups of girls or boys in grades 6 through 8 or grades 9 through 12.

The Kuder Preference Record-Vocational (Form C) is an earlier form that was designed for use with students in grades 9 to 12 and with adults. It uses more difficult vocabulary than does Form E but measures the same 10 areas of interest.

Kuder Occupational Interest Survey (Form DD)

The Kuder Occupational Interest Survey (KOIS) (Form DD) is composed of 100 triads of activities similar to those of the Kuder-Form E already described. The profile includes 104 Occupational

Scales and 39 College Major Scales that, like the Strong Interest Inventory, compare the respondent' s interests to those of people in criterion samples. Unlike the Strong, the KOIS does not use the empirical method of contrast groups for scale construction. Instead, the individual's responses are compared directly to those of the criterion samples, and scores are reported as Lambda coefficients, which do not allow comparison of scores across different persons' profiles as can be done with standard scores. Thus, a respondent' s KOIS scores derive meaning only from the rank each scale occupies among all of the scales.

This form of the Kuder must be machine scored; the respondent receives the profile illustrated in Figure 9.9. The 109 Occupational Scales represent: (a) 33 occupations (66 scales) that were developed using both female and male criterion samples, (b) 32 that are based on male criterion samples only, and (c) 11 based on female criterion samples only. The 40 College Major Scales represent 14 majors (28 scales) that are based on female and male criterion samples, eight based on male samples only, and five on female samples.

In 1985 (Zytowski), a new profile for the KOIS was designed and 10 Vocational Interest Estimates (VIE scales) were added to the existing Occupa- tional Scales. The VIE section of the profile is described as a short form (i.e., fewer items are included on each scale) of the earlier Kuder instruments that measure homogeneous or global areas of interests. Reliabilities of the new scales are acknowledged by Zytowski (1985) as less than those for Form E or Form C, precipitating the decision to call the scales "estimates" of interests.

The VIE scales are reported on the profile in rank order with divisions into high (75th percentile), average, and low (25th percentile) portions, as are the Occupational Scales and College Majors, based on percentile ranks (See Figure 9.9). The separate-sex norm samples for the VIE are composed of high school and college students and individuals from private agencies (N = 1631 women and 1583 men). The profile also offers instructions for converting the VIE percentiles to Holland codes by combining the various scales. For example, the Outdoor and Mechanical Scales are combined to estimate Holland's Realistic type, and Computa- tional and Clerical are combined to represent the Conventional type.

Reliability and Validity. An inventory, such as the KOIS, which provides rank-ordered results

220 HANDBOOK OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT

intended to discriminate interests within the respondent rather than to discriminate among people, has special requirements for analyses of reliability. Test-retest reliability can be assessed only in terms of the consistency of the order of scores for each subject from one testing to the next. Kuder and Diamond (1979) reported individual two-week test-retest Occupational Scale reliabilities com- puted for high school and college-age students; the median reliability for all cases was .90. Zytowski (1985), using college students (N = 192), reported profile stability of .80 for the VIEs over a two-week interval.

A large predictive validity study for the KOIS (Zytowski, 1976) involved over 800 women and men who were located 12 to 19 years after taking the Kuder. Fifty-one percent were employed in an occupation predicted by their scores on the KOIS.

a series of factor analyses to identify the 289 items that had high correlations with factor scores on their own scales and low correlations with other JVIS scales. The 10 General Occupational Themes later were constructed by factor analyzing the 34 Basic scales.

Standard score norms for the Basic and Theme scales are based on a combined-sex sample of female and male high school and college students. Interpretive bars representing the percentile distributions of scores of the females and males on each scale allow individuals to infer how their scores compare with that of other people. The Educa- tional and Occupational Classifications involve analyses of an individual's entire profile of Basic scales compared to model profiles of college students in various academic majors and of people employed in a wide variety of occupations.

Jackson Vocational Interest Inventory

The Jackson Vocational Interest Survey (JVIS) (Jackson, 1977), appropriate for high school and college students and adults who need assistance with educational and career planning, is composed of 289 forced-choice items describing occupational activities. The 34 homogeneous scales that measure work roles and work styles each contain 17 items estimated to be at the seventh-grade reading level. The work-role scales include five that char- acterize specific occupations (e.g., Engineering, Elementary Education) and 21 that represent a cluster of jobs (e.g., Creative Arts, Social Science). The eight work-style scales measure preferences for environments that require certain behaviors (e.g., Dominant Leadership, Accountability). The hand-scored JVIS profile includes only the 34 Basic Interest Scales; the machine-scored profile also includes 10 General Occupational Themes measuring broad patterns of interests that reflect the respondent's orientation toward work rather than interests (e.g., Logical, Enterprising); 17 broad clusters of university major fields (Educational Classifications) and 32 occupational clusters (Occupational Classifications).

Development of the 34 homogeneous Basic Interest Scales relied on a theory-based technique of scale construction. The process began with iden- tification of the interests to be measured from pre- vious research in vocational psychology. Then 3,000 items were written to represent the interest constructs. Finally, the item pool was submitted to

Vocational Interest Inventory

The Vocational Interest Inventory (VII) (Lun- neborg, 1976, 1981), designed for use with young people, is similar to the JVIS on several dimensions. First, the interests to be measured were selected on theoretical considerations. The eight homogeneous scales of the VII were developed to represent the eight groups described in Roe's theory of occupational classifications: Service, Busi- ness Contact, Organization, Technical, Outdoor, Science, General Culture, and Arts and Entertain- ment. Second, the scales were constructed using a series of factor analyses that reduced the initial item pool to the final 112 forced-choice items. The eight scales each contain 28 response choices that have high correlations with factor scores on their own scales and low correlations with other VII scales. Third, the scales were normed on a combined-sex sample of students. According to the author (Lunneborg, 1981), scores on only two scales were unaffected by gender, and thus, the VII may have the problem of bias in interpretation for one sex or the other.

UNIACT

The revised edition of the unisex version of the ACT Interest Inventory (UNIACT-R) (Swaney, 1995) is a component in several of American College Testing's programs including the ACT Assessment Program used by college-

INTEREST INVENTORIES 221

bound students in planning for college and in DISCOVER, a computer-based career-planning system for high school and college students and adults. The test booklet includes 90 items that are evenly distributed across six scales (15 items per scale) that are intended to assess interest in Hol- land's six types: Technical (Realistic), Science (Investigative), Arts (Artistic), Social Service (Social), Business Contact (Enterprising), and Business Operations (Conventional). In addition, 60 of the 90 items are used in the Data/Ideas and Things/People Summary Scales (30 items per scale).

The item pool for the UNIACT-R was developed with an emphasis on identifying items that (a) represented Holland's six types and (b) had a 10 percent or smaller sex difference in the percentages of "like" responses. Rational scale-construction techniques were used to initially assign items to each scale, and empirical analyses were used as a follow-up to make final refinements in the item composition of each scale.

Three sets of norms are provided for the UNIACT-RmGrade 8 (N = 4,631), Grade 10 (N = 4,133), and Grade 12 (N = 4,679)mwith the intention that users will select the norm group that most closely resembles the age range of the students in their program. The median three-week test-retest reliability coeffi- cient for the six Basic Interest Scales is .82. The coefficients for Data/Ideas and Things/Peo- ple over the same interval are .87 and .82, respectively. Evidence of convergent and diver- gent validity and criterion-related validity con- tribute to the construct validity of the UNIACT-R and are reported in the manual (Swaney, 1995).

Interpretation of the UNIACT-R incorporates ACT's World-of-Work Map which arranges groups of similar jobs into 12 regions that are analogous to 12 pieces of a pie. The 12 regions represent various combinations of data, ideas, things, and people work-tasks that proceed around the circle in the same order hypothesized by Holland: Technical (R), Science (I), Arts (A), Social Service (S), Business Contact (E), and Business Operations (C). Clients are encouraged to explore occupations in the region indicated by their six Basic Interest Scale scores as well as in adjacent regions.

STABILITY OF INTERESTS

The degree to which interests are stable is important to the predictive power of inventories. If interests are fickle and unstable, interest inventory scores will not explain any of the prediction variance.

Stability of interests was one of the earliest con- cerns of researchers in interest measurement (Strong, 1943). Cross-sectional and longitudinal methods have been used in a plethora of studies to document that interests are stable even at relatively young ages of 15 or 16 years. By age 20 years, the stability of interests is obvious even over test-retest intervals of 5 to 10 years, and by age 25, interests are very stable (Hansen & Swanson, 1983; Johans- son & Campbell, 1971; Swanson & Hansen, 1986).

During the long history of the Strong Interest Inventory, over 30 occupations have been tested at least three times: in the 1930s, 1960s, and 1970s/ 1980s. Analyses of these data have shown that interests of randomly sampled occupational groups are stable (Hansen, 1988a). Figure 9.10, a profile of interests for lawyers collected in the 1930s, 1960s, and 1970s, illustrates the typical finding for all the occupations:

1. The configuration of the interests of an occupation stays the same over long periods of time, and

2. even when interests change to some small extent, the relative importance of various interests stays the same. (Hansen, 1988a)

USE OF INTEREST INVENTORIES

Interest inventories are used to efficiently assess interests by a variety of institutions including high school and college advising offices, social service agencies, employment agencies, consulting firms, corporations, and community organizations such as the YWCA.

Career Exploration

The major use of assessed interests, usually reported as interest-inventory scores, is in career counseling that leads to decisions such as choosing a major, selecting an occupation, making a mid-career change, or preparing for retirement. First, counselors use the interest-inventory profiles

222 H A N D B O O K O F P S Y C H O L O G I C A L A S S E S S M E N T

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to develop hypotheses about clients that may be discussed, confirmed, or discarded during career exploration. Then, the interest scores and profile provide a framework for interest exploration and a mechanism for helping the client to integrate her or his past history with current interests.

Inventory results serve as a starting point for evaluating interests, as an efficient method for objectively identifying interests, and as a structure for the counseling process. Inventory results help some counselees to increase the number of options they are considering; some use the results to begin to narrow the range of possible choices. Others only want to confirm educational or vocational decisions that they already have made.

Selection andPlacement

Interest inventories also are used to assess interests during employment selection and placement evaluations. Among qualified candidates, interest inventories help to identify those most likely to complete the training program and stay in the pro- fession (Berdie & Campbell, 1968; Reeves & Booth, 1979). Even after initial selection, interest inventories may be used to help an employee find the right job within the company (Dunnette & Kirchner, 1965; Hansen, 1994).

Research

Researchers use measures of interests (e.g., check-lists, self-estimates, rating scales, interest inventories) to operationalize interest traits, investigate the origin and development of interests, explore changes or stability in society, and understand the relationship between interests and other psychological variables such as abilities, satisfaction, success, and personality. Studies assessing the structure of interests and also the interests of various occupational groups provide information for understanding the organization of the world of work and the relationships among occupations.

Most interest inventories are constructed to measure vocational interests. Recent research, however, indicates that instruments such as the Strong Interest Inventory TM measure not only vocational interests but also leisure interests (Cairo, 1979; Varca & Shaffer, 1982). Holland (1973) has pro-

posed that instruments measuring his six personality types also can identify a respondent's preferences for environments and types of people as well as job activities.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

The frequency of test use in counseling has not changed appreciably in the last 30 years; however, use of interest inventories has increased while use of other tests (e.g., ability, aptitude, achievement) has decreased (Engen, Lamb, & Prediger, 1982; Watkins, Campbell & McGregor, 1988; Zytowski & Warman, 1982). A wide variety of new interpretive materials, career-guidance packages, and interactive computerized systems for inventory interpretation and career exploration is available. Thus far, evaluations of the use of interest inventories indicate that various modes and mediums of presentation are equally effective (Hansen, Neu- man, Haverkamp, & Lubinski, 1997; Johnson, Korn, & Dunn, 1975; Maola & Kane, 1976; Miller & Cochran, 1979; Rubinstein, 1978; Smith & Evans, 1973; Vansickle & Kapes, 1993; Vansickle, Kimmel & Kapes, 1989). The trend in the future, with decreasing budgets and personnel in educational institutions, will be toward even greater use of computers for interest- inventory administration and interpretation and for integration into computerized career-counseling modules.

Techniques for developing reliable and valid interest inventories are available now, and the construction methods have reached a plateau of excel- lence in reliability and validity. Therefore, publishers can direct their efforts toward an increased emphasis on interpretation and counselor competency. Test manuals traditionally were written to provide data required by the American Psy- chological Association's Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (1985); now, interpretive manuals are prepared in addition to technical manuals to help the professional max- imize the usefulness of inventory results (Hansen, 1992; Holland, 1971, 1987a; Zytowski, 1981). Increasingly publishers are attempting to develop testing packages that integrate interest inventories with other psychological measures such as personality inventories or self-efficacy measures (e.g., the Strong and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator). Unfortunately, these packages have been released by publishers without expending much effort to


collect data to assess the validity of using the instruments as a package.

As the use of interest inventories expands to new populations, research must also move in that direc- tion to aid in understanding the characteristics of the populations as well as the best methods for implementing interest inventories with them. The cross-cultural use of interest inventories also is increasing the demand for valid translations of inventories and for data on the predictive accuracy of inventories normed on U.S. populations for non- English-speaking respondents (Fouad & Spreda, 1995).

SUMMARY

Interest inventories will be used in the future as in the past to operationalize the trait of interests in research. Attempts to answer old questions, such as the interaction of interests and personality, success, values, satisfaction, and ability will perse-

vere. Holland's theory undoubtedly will continue to

evoke research in the field. Studies designed to understand educational and vocational dropouts and changers, to analyze job satisfaction, to understand the development of interests, and to predict job or academic success will draw on Holland's theoretical constructs for independent variables and on interest inventories to identify interests. Exploration of vocational interests always has been a popular topic in counseling psychology; the increased use of inventories and career guidance programs indicates that interest inventories will continue to be an important component in psycho-

logical research.

NOTES

1. Strong Interest Inventory is a trademark of the Standford University Press.

2. Career Assessment Inventory is a trademark of NATIONAL COMPUTER SYSTEMS, INC.

3. Campbell Interest and Skill Survey is a trademark and "CISS" is a registered trademark of David P. Campbell, Ph.D.

4. Strong Vocational Interest Blanks is a registered trademark of the Stanford University Press.

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