Interest Groups – Organizing for Influence

AP U.S. Government and Politics

Interest Groups• The pluralist theory of American politics claims that

society’s interests are best represented through group action.– Group influence has increased over the last few decades.– This has led to a rise in single-issue politics.

• Interest Group – Any organization that actively seeks to influence public policy.– Also called “factions”, “pressure groups”, and “special

interest”• They concentrate on policies directly affecting their interest.

The Interest-Group System• U.S. political structure contributes to group action.– Federalist No. 10 – Madison warns of interest groups and

counts on multiple groups competing for influence to protect interests of all Americans.

Reasons for so many interest groups:– Federalism and separation of powers - groups have many

entry points to influence public policy.– The First Amendment protects and encourages interest group

formation.– Social Movements – many interest groups were created in

response to demand for change.• Women’s rights movement, civil rights movement

The Development of American Interest– The first interest groups developed in the 1830s, as

communication networks improved.• Single-issue groups (women’s rights, slavery, education)

– After the Civil War, more interest groups developed.• Women’s Christian Temperance Union and The Grange began

formulating plans to pressure Congress to enact favorable laws.– In the Progressive Era featured the growth of interest

groups.• In 1886, the American Federation of Labor (AFL) was created

and led to the growth of labor unions.• In the 1890s, the first business groups and trade associations

were formed.

– In the 1960s and 1970s, many public interest groups, most of them with liberal ideologies, were created. • These were devoted to helping African Americans, the elderly,

the poor, consumers, the environment. • The civil rights movement and anti-war protests left many

Americans joining interest groups to support their views.– In the late 1970s, many conservatives joined religious

and ideological interest groups.• Recently, business interest groups have grown more popular,

while labor interest groups have seen their membership decline.

Why Join Interest Groups?• Several incentives exist for people to join interest

groups.– Many people join for friendship and because of shared

interest.– Others join for material incentives.• Ex. AARP offers discounts on products and services.

– Some join to accomplish a specific political, economic, or social purpose.

Types of Interest Groups• The largest single category of interest groups is made up of

economic groups.– They are organized for economic reasons and engage in political

activity to seek favorable activity from the government.– Business interest groups are the most numerous.

• They represent certain types of businesses or companies.• Typically lobby for decrease in taxes & government regulation.

– Agricultural interest groups focus on protecting and expanding farming subsidies in the U.S.

– Labor interest groups promote policies that benefit workers and unions.• Although less people are union members today than in the past, unions still

are successful in organizing public employees.

Types of Interest Groups, cont. – Professional groups represent the interests of professionals

such as lawyers, doctors, architects, and teachers.• Citizens (noneconomic) groups also have major

influence.– Citizens’ groups are drawn together by opportunities to

promote a cause in which they believe, not by economic benefits.

– Many of these are common cause groups, who seek to reform the political process to help what they believe is a worthy goal or purpose.• Religious groups, ideological groups, social groups

Types of Interest Groups, cont. – Environmental interest groups have increased rapidly

since the 1970s.• National Wildlife Federation, Environmental Defense Fund

– Single-issue groups focus their time and effort on one issue.• They pressure government on almost every conceivable policy.• Singular focus sometimes gives these groups an advantage

over groups with a broader focus.– Ex. National Rifle Association, National Audubon Society, the Sierra

Club

Interest Group Success• Three primary factors contribute to interest group

success.– Size and Resources – greater membership will allow the

group to raise more money.• More money allows the interest group to influence elected officials.

– Leadership – Strong leadership helps an interest group negotiate with members of Congress and sell its message to the public.

– Cohesiveness – Dedication and effort are very important to an interest group’s success.• If a group is cohesive in their efforts, it will help them achieve their

goals.

Economic Groups vs. Citizens Groups• Economic groups outnumber citizens groups.– They also have considerably more influence.– Economic groups offer private (individual) goods, which are

benefits that come exclusively to members of the group.• ex. Unions allowing access to higher paying jobs

– Citizens groups offer collective (public) goods, which are available to non-members as well as members.• ex. A clean environment

• The abundance of collective goods creates the free-rider problem.– Individuals (free riders) can gain incentives without having to

pay any of the group’s costs.

Inside Lobbying• Groups seek government support through lobbying.– Lobbying – the process by which interest group

members or lobbyists attempt to influence public policy through contacts with public officials.

– Two main techniques – inside (direct) lobbying and outside (indirect) lobbying.

• Inside (direct) lobbying involves direct communication between organized interests and policymakers, based on the value of close (“inside”) contacts with policymakers.

Inside Lobbying Techniques– Private Meetings between lobbyists and policymakers where

groups pitch their cause.– Testimony before congressional committees or before

bureaucratic agencies on issues important to the group.– Lobbyists often assist members of Congress in drafting

legislation and rules for implementation of laws.– Lobbyists often provide social perks to government officials

including fancy dinners, trips, and parties.– Lobbyists provide political information including poll

numbers on specific issues.– Lobbyists also assist by helping find candidates to nominate

for office.

Inside Lobbying Techniques, cont.– Many interest groups give ratings to members of

Congress on a scale of 1-100 citing how often that person supports the group’s cause.

– Interest groups will build alliances with other groups that share similar goals.• Allows them to pool resources and potential members.

– Interest groups will provide campaign assistance to politicians who are supportive of the group.• They can provide volunteers and financial support.

Lobbying in the Three Branches• Lobbyists can obtain legislative help through Congress

to achieve its goals.– Members of Congress also benefit from ties to lobbyists.

• Lobbyists will also target members of the presidential and vice-presidential staffs.– More of their focus in aimed at top officials of government

agencies.• Judicial rulings have made interest groups realize that

they can influence policy through the courts.– As interest groups resort to legal action they often face one

other in court.

Interest Groups in the Policy Process• Iron triangles and issue networks, in which many groups are

involved, make inside lobbying easier to understand.• An iron triangle consists of a small and informal but relatively

stable set of bureaucrats, legislators, and lobbyists who seek to develop policies beneficial to a particular interest.– Together, these groups will determine many of the policies

affecting their interests.– Groups embedded in iron triangles have an inside track to well

positioned legislators and bureaucrats. • Because they have something to offer in return, the relationship becomes

“clad in iron.”• Groups provide lobbying support for agency programs and campaign

contributions to members on Congress.

Example – Why is tobacco not illegal?

House and Senate Agricultural Subcommittees

Dept. of AgricultureTobacco farmer interest groups – tobacco lobby

House and Senate representatives, sympathetic to tobacco, receive campaign funds and support from tobacco by interest groups, and the representatives make sure that tobacco farmers are defended through legislation. DOA agency executes the legislation while relying on the Congressional budget. The interest groups provide the DOA with valuable information to effectively execute laws.

-COMMON INTEREST – Keep tobacco alive = keep their jobs alive

Issue Networks• An issue network is an informal grouping of officials,

lobbyists, and policy specialists (“the network”) who come together temporarily around a policy or problem (“the issue”).– Today, issue networks are more frequent than iron triangles.– Unlike iron triangles, issue networks are built around

specialized interests and knowledge.• Participants come from a variety or areas including interest groups,

gov’t agencies, members of Congress and also include lawyers, consultants, academics, ect.

– Unlike iron triangles, once the issue is dissolved the network will disband.

Outside (Indirect) Lobbying• Based on the use of public pressure to influence officials.– Interest groups use public relations to create public sympathy or

support for a position by making that position look favorable. Also known as “climate control”

– Lobbying designed to persuade officials that a group’s policy position has strong constituent support is known as grassroots lobbying.

– Interest groups will enlist their constituents as lobbyists to contact policy makers on their behalf.

– Sometimes they resort to unconventional pressure through strikes, protests, and boycotts.• Civil Rights’ Movement• Sometimes these can turn violent and create backlash against the group.

Political Action Committees• Many interest groups get involved in electioneering.– Electioneering – direct group involvement in the

electoral process.– Examples: helping to fund campaigns, getting members to work for

candidates, and forming political action committees.

• A group’s election contributions are funneled through its political action committee (PAC).– A PAC is the organization through which an interest

group raises and distributed funds for election purposes.• By law, the funds must be raised through voluntary

contributions.

• A PAC can back as many candidates as it wants, but it is limited on how much money it can give to a single candidate.• About 60% are associated with businesses.• They give about 8x as much to incumbents.

Political Action Committees, cont.• PAC influence has been hotly debated.– Critics claim that PACs give interest groups too much influence on

Congress.– Supporters claim they have a right to be heard and express

themselves with money.• Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (2010) allows corporations

and spend unlimited amounts on campaigns, as long as the money isn't coordinated directly with candidates and parties – led to the creation of SuperPACs.

• PACs give interest groups a level of access to lawmakers that citizens lack.– Congress is unlikely to outlaw PACs because they are unwilling to

eliminate a source of campaign funds.

Regulating Lobbyists and Interest Groups• Lobbyists and interest group activity are subject to

federal regulation.– Lobbyists (those who spend 20% of their time lobbying

Congress) must register with both House and Senate.– They must file quarterly reports detailing their spending.– The House has adopted a ban on gifts, while the Senate

adopted a $50 limit on gifts.– Both houses outlawed all-expense paid trips.

The Group System – Indispensible but Biased• Pluralist theory holds that organized groups are a source of

sound governance.• Pluralists argue that the promotion of special interest often benefits

society as a whole.• Interest groups can address issues that parties neglect.• Pluralists feel that competition keeps any one group from becoming too

powerful.

• There are flaws in pluralism.• Interest group liberalism – the tendency of officials to support demands of

self-interested groups.• Groups get what they want, even if their priorities don’t match those of

society as a whole.• Interest group membership is skewed toward the upper class, leading to

the wealthy having more influence on government.

A Madisonian Dilemma

– Madison’s solution to the problem of factions has become part of the new problem.• Checks and balances were designed to

prevent a majority group from dominating politics.• Instead, we have many smaller factions

gaining the support of well-placed policymakers.