Interactive Technology in Art Museum Exhibitions
Transcript of Interactive Technology in Art Museum Exhibitions
RunningHead:INTERACTIVETECHNOLOGY
InteractiveTechnologyinArtMuseumExhibitions
ACaseStudyonGiuseppeVasi’sRome:LastingImpressionsfromtheAgeoftheGrandTour
LauraC.Harrison
Master’sResearchCapstoneUniversityofOregon
March2011
PresentedtotheArtsAdministrationprogramattheUniversityofOregoninpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsfortheMaster'sofScienceinArtsManagement.
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Approvedby:__________________________________________
Dr.PhaedraLivingstoneArtsandAdministrationProgram
UniversityofOregon
Date:__________________
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Abstract
Existingscholarshipinmuseumlearningtheoryemphasizestheimportanceofmeaning‐
makingasitrelatestolearninginthemuseumsetting.Otherliteratureadvocates
interactivityasacatalystformakingmeaning.Thisresearchinvestigatesemergent
interactivetechnologiesasviableandeffectivetoolsformakingmeaningintheart
museum,focusingontheubiquitouscomputingcomponentsoftheJordanSchnitzer
MuseumofArt’sexhibit:GiuseppeVasi’sRome:LastingImpressionsfromtheAgeofthe
GrandTour.
Keywords:MuseumLearning,InteractiveTechnology,MeaningMakingintheArtMuseum
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Acknowledgements
IgratefullyacknowledgetheArtsandAdministrationfacultyfortheirexpertiseand
guidance.Warmestthankstomyresearchadvisor,Dr.PhaedraLivingstone,whohas
patientlyhelpeddirectmyeffortsforthiscapstone.
Iamdeeplygratefulformyfamily’ssupport,especiallymymother,whodefinestheword
resilientforme.ThankyoutoClayforyourgentleencouragementandlisteningear.AndI
wouldalsoliketoacknowledgemySofia,whohassacrificedmuchwhileyourmommywas
inschool.YouarethereasonItry.
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TableofContents
IntroductionandProblemStatement 6
Definitions 7
ResearchQuestions 8
Researcher’sRoleandMethodology 10
MuseumLearningTheory 12
LearningStyles 14
ContextualModelofLearning 15
TheArtMuseumandLearningTechnologies 17
InteractiveTechnologies 18
UbiquitousComputing:ACaseStudy 20
TechnologyandExhibitComponents 23
VisitorExperience 24
Conclusion 27
Figures 29
References 35
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Museummissionsshouldstateunequivocallythataneducationalpurposeis
imbeddedineverymuseumactivity.
‐AmericanAssociationofMuseums ExcellenceandEquityReport,1992
IntroductionandProblemStatement
Thetopicofhowvisitorslearninexhibitionsettingshasexpandedinrecentdecades
inmuseumstudiesliterature.Thisincludesinquiryregardingnewmuseumexhibition
theoriesandmethodsandinterestinidentifyingelementsofeffectiveexhibits.Current
scholarshipsupportsinteractiveexhibitsasaneffectivewaytoengageandmakemeaning
forvisitorsandenhancelearninginthesciencemuseumsetting(Muller,Edmonds,&
Connell,2006;Rahm,2003;Speaker,2001).Researchinthelastdecadehasalsofocused
onlearningintheartmuseumsetting(MacRae,2007;Danko‐McGhee,2006;Saava&
Trimis,2005),butfarlessconsiderationhasbeengiventotheinclusionofinteractive
technologyintheartmuseumsetting.Theexistingscholarshipthataddressesinteractive
technologyinartmuseumsisgenerallylimitedtotemporaryscience/arthybridexhibits
(Sassen&Zhu,2008)orinformationsystemswithintheartmuseum(Venkatachalam,
2004).
Inthecharacteristicallystaticartmuseumenvironmentwherelearningistypically
visuallybased,thispaperwillidentifyandinvestigatealternativetypesoflearning
opportunitiesthatcanbecarriedoutwithminimaldisruptionintheartmuseumsetting.
Thisassessmentwillincludeabriefoverviewofhowmuseumvisitorslearn,includinga
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discussiononpopularmuseumlearningtheoryandlearningstylesastheyrelateto
effectivemuseumexhibittechniquesandthemuseumvisitorexperience.Whilecase
studiesonemergentexhibittechniquesusinginteractivetechnologycanbefoundinthe
currentscholarship,studiesexaminingtheirsuitabilityintheartmuseumsettingare
conspicuouslyabsent.Myresearchaddressesthisgapinthescholarshipthroughan
inquiryonthesuitabilityandlimitationsoftheubiquitouscomputingcomponentsinthe
JordanSchnitzerMuseumofArt’s(JSMA)exhibit:GiuseppeVasi’sRome:Lasting
ImpressionsfromtheAgeoftheGrandTour.
Definitions
Cartography‐theartofmapmaking
Constructivism‐alearningtheoryinwhichthelearneruseshisorherpreviousbeliefsand
knowledgetoconstructnewmeanings
Ichnographic‐describesthedepictionofageographicalareaasagroundplan,with
topographicalfeaturesbeingrepresentedthroughoutlines
UbiquitousComputing‐(inthemuseumsetting)whencomputerelementsareembeddedin
theexhibit
Vedute‐(It.),“view,”thetermusedtodescribetheetchingsofthevedutisti
Vedutisti‐(It.),“viewmakers,”thetermusedtodescribeGuiseppeVasiandotherartists
whocreatedetchingsofRomeandothercities
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Verstehen‐(Ger.),“tounderstand,”atermthatmeans,“empatheticunderstandingthat
interpretivesocialsciencetakesasaprimarygoalforsocialresearch’(Neuman,2006,p.
87).
Viewsheds‐ontheNollimap,pinpointsthepositionofthevedutistiandhisfieldofvision
ResearchQuestions
Howandwhatvisitorslearninthemuseumsettinghasbeenthefocusofalternative
educationresearchforthelastseveraldecades.Researchsuggeststhat“over80%of...
learningisnotdoneinatraditionaleducationalsetting”(Boram,1992,p.121).This
revelationspeakstotheimportanceofthestudyoflearningspacesthatexistoutsidethe
classroom,suchasmuseums,andhowlearningtakesplaceintheseenvironments,aswell
asimplicationsforexhibitdesignasitfacilitateslearninginthemuseumsetting.Sharon
MacDonald(2007)explains,“Thefieldofmuseumvisitorresearchisnotwellcoordinated,
largelybecauseitspanssomanydisciplines”(p.149).Thisdiversityhasledtoseveral
widelyacceptedtheoriesinthemuseumeducationfield.Itisbeyondthescopeofthis
papertoaddresseachofthesetheories;ratheritfocusesonafewimportantapproaches
thatspeaktotheinteractivetechnologyintheexhibitGuiseppeVasi’sRome:Lasting
ImpressionsfromtheAgeoftheGrandTour,andthroughadetailedanalysisofthisexhibit.
Inthisinvestigation,theoverarchingquestionIseektoansweris:
•IsthetechnologyusedintheVasiexhibitappropriatefortheartmuseumsetting?
Sub‐questionsIanswerthroughthisinquiryinclude:
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•Doestheinterfacedisrupttheartmuseumenvironment?
•Whataretheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofubiquitouscomputingasusedinthe
Vasiexhibit?
•WhichmuseumlearningtheoriesaresupportedbythetechnologyusedintheVasi
exhibit?
Inaddition,thisresearchaddressesbroaderquestionsthatmayberelevanttothemuseum
profession.Thesefindingsmayhelpsupportconclusionsregardingmymainandsub‐
questions.Theseinclude:
•Whatexhibittechniquesenhancemuseumlearning?
•Howcanexhibitdesignersappealtothewidestaudiencepossible?
•Whatothertypesoftechnologyisbeingusedintheartmuseumsetting?
Thiscapstoneaddressesthesequestionsthroughresearchdrawnfromanextensive
literaturereview,aswellasadditionalcoursework.Onecoursethatcontributedtothis
researchwasanarthistorycoursethatfocusedontheGiuseppeVasiexhibitattheJordan
SchnitzerMuseumofArttaughtbyDr.JamesHarper.Thiscourseexplored18thcentury
Rome,duringthetimewhenGiuseppeVasiandhiscontemporariescreatedveduteofthe
city.Thevaryingperspectivesofthevedutisti,aswellasthedifferentrepresentational
approachesemployedbytheseartists,createacomprehensivepictureofwhatRome
lookedlikeinthe18thcentury.Thiscoursewassupplementedbytheexhibit:Giuseppe
Vasi’sRome:LastingImpressionsfromtheAgeoftheGrandTour,onviewattheJordan
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SchnitzerMuseumofArtthroughJanuary2,2011.Theubiquitouscomputingelements
employedintheVasiexhibitbecamethefocusofmycasestudy.
AnothercoursethatsupportedthisresearchwasaSpecialProjectsExhibitscourse
taughtbyDr.PhaedraLivingstone.Exhibitiondevelopmentwasthefocusofthiscourse
andstudentsactivelyresearched,designed,andcreatedasmallexhibitionfortheKnight
LibrarybasedontheUniversityofOregon’sSpecialCollectionsarchives.Aspectsof
exhibitiondevelopment,includingeffectivedisplaytechniquesandcontentdevelopment
wereamongthetopicsthatthiscourseaddressed.Icompletedbothoftheseclassesinthe
Fall2010quarter.
Researcher’sRoleandMethodology
Iamapproachingthisresearchfromtheinterpretivesocialscienceparadigm.Iam
workingofftheassumptionsthatartmuseumswishtocultivatefutureaudiencesandour
societyseesthevalueofeducation.Furthermore,Iembracethesocialvalueargument
regardingtheartsandtheirfundamentalimportanceineducation.Inthisinquiry,I
ultimatelyseekVerstehenandamveryinterestedindeterminingwhatholdsmeaningor
relevanceforvisitorsintheartmuseumcontext(Neuman,2006).Theacknowledgement
ofmuseumvisitors’“humanagency”(Neuman,2006,p.90)makessenseinthemuseum
settingwherelearningisvisitor‐drivenandlessdirectedthantraditionaleducational
settings.Consistentwiththeinterpretivesocialscienceparadigm,theevidenceIcollect
willbeprimarilyqualitative(Neuman,2006).
Mypersonalinterestintheexplorationofinteractiveexhibits,specificallyintheart
museum,developedasaresultofaseriesoffrustratingexperiencesatanartmuseumwith
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myyoungdaughter.Thisparticularartmuseumwas,atthistime,decidedly,andperhaps
intentionally,notfamily‐friendly.Iamapainterandsculptorandstudiedarthistoryin
college.Ialsoseeartistictendenciesinmychild,soIofcoursewishtofosterherloveof
art.However,afterseveralvisitstothisartmuseumthatendedintearsformydaughter,it
occurredtomethatbycontrast,ourtimespentatmoreinteractivemuseumswasnotonly
moreenjoyable,butalsomoreeducational.Itdisturbedmetothinkthatbyexposingherto
anaustere,authoritarianartmuseumenvironment,Icouldactuallyhavebeendiscouraging
herappreciationofart.Thisresultedinourgeneralavoidanceofartmuseumsforseveral
years,andevennowatage8,asIwritethis,sheislessthanenthusiasticaboutvisitingthe
artmuseum.
AsIwatchmychildlearnandgrow,itseemsobviousthatwhensheisplayingwith
something,interactingwithsomething,sheislearning.Thisobservationledmetowonder
howartmuseumscouldengagechildrenandfosterfutureaudienceswithoutalienating
theiradultaudiences.Ialsoaskedhowexhibittechniquesemployedintheartmuseum
couldbeimprovedtoappealtoawideraudienceandenhancetheartmuseumexperience.
ThecomputingcomponentsthatIexploreinthisresearchareofcoursejustonewayto
createengagement,butthroughouttheliteratureIreviewed,thereisageneralattitudeof
reticencetoincludecomputertechnologyintheartmuseumsetting.Iwouldarguethatthe
younggenerationisunlikeanywehaveseenbefore.Somuchofwhattheydo,andhow
theyinteract,istranslatedthroughtechnologicalinterface.“AsofMarch31,2009,thePew
InternetandAmericanLifeProjectfoundthat87percentofyouthages12‐17usethe
Internet;ofthese,75percentuseinstantmessagingand48percentofthoseIMeveryday”
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(Stogner,2009,p.385).Thisimmersionincommunicationthroughtechnologywould
suggestthatyouthpreferitandmaypossiblydemanditaspartofelectiveactivities.
Thefuturesuccessoftheartmuseumasaninstitutionmaydependonthealteration
ofexhibittechniquestoappealtotheyoungergenerationandsecureafutureaudienceasa
result.ArecentstudyconductedbytheAmericanAssociationofMuseumsfoundthat
childrenaged5to9arethe"criticalageforconvertingchildrenintolifelongmuseum‐goers
andadvocates"(CenterfortheFutureofMuseums,2008,p.15).Andwhilethisresearch
addressesanexhibitthatistargetedtowardanadultaudience,partofmyargumentforthe
inclusionofinteractivetechnologyintheartmuseumsettingacknowledgesageneral
paradigmshifttowardsafutureaudiencethatdemandstechnologicalinteraction.One
objectiveofthisinquiryistoseehowthiscanbedonewithouteclipsingtheeducational
missionoftheartmuseumandwithoutalienatingcurrentadultaudiences.
Whilethisinquirymayhaveimplicationsfortheartmuseumfieldasawhole,the
focusislimitedtothediscussionoftheubiquitouscomputingcomponentsusedinthe
JordanSchnitzerMuseumofArt’sexhibit:GiuseppeVasi:LastingImpressionsfromtheAge
oftheGrandTourandassuch,canonlybeusedtodrawconclusionsaboutthetechnology
usedinthisexhibit.ThecomplexsubjectmatteroftheVasiexhibitwascreatedforan
adultaudienceandtheevidencecollectedandobservationsmadeonlyreflectsthe
responsesofthataudience.
MuseumLearningTheory
JohnFalkandLynnDierking,(1995)inPublicInstitutionsforPersonalLearning
establishsevenmajorinfluentialfactorsinthelearningprocessastheyapplytomuseum
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audiences.Thefirstoftheseincludestheinfluenceofpriorknowledgeandexperienceon
perception.AsJeremyRoschelle(1995)pointsout,"Thereiswidespreadagreementthat
priorknowledgeinfluenceslearningandthatlearnersconstructconceptsfromprior
knowledge"(p.37).Perceptionandmemory,FalkandDierking(1995)argue,are
inextricablylinkedtolearning.Theabilityofthemuseumvisitortoperceiveandidentify
anobjectisdirectlyinfluencedbyhisorherpastexperience.Previousknowledgeand
experiencesupportandshapenewexperiencesandadditionallycreatepersonalmeaning
formuseumvisitors.DouglasWorts(1992)advancedtheideathatanoptimalexhibit
experienceisdependentonthe“personalmeaninggeneratedbythevisitor”(p.157).
Personalmeaningmakingiscrucialtotheconstructionofavisitor’sown
understanding(Hein,1998).Thisprocessiscentraltoconstructivistpedagogy,which
postulatesthat“learningrequiresactiveparticipationofthelearnerinboththewaythat
themindisemployedandintheproductofthatactivity,theknowledgethatisacquired”
(Ibid,p.34).Prevailingalternativeeducationtheorychampionsconstructivismasoneof
themosteffectiveapproachesinmuseumlearning.GeorgeHein(1998)explains,
“Constructivismprovidesthemostcomprehensiveandeleganttheorytoconsiderhow
visitorscanbothusetheirpreviousbeliefsandknowledgetoconstructnewmeaningsand
howtheycanactivelycarryoutthisprocess”(p.154).
Applyingconstructivistprinciplestocreateeffectiveexhibitsrequireseveral
considerations.AccordingtoMelindaMayer(2005),“Twoessentialfeaturesarerequisite
toconstructivistlearning.First,theparticipantmustbeactivelyengagedinthelearning
process.Second,whatislearnedmustbeconfirmednotthroughexternalcriteriaofthe
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discipline,suchasarthistory,butthroughthevisitor’sownsense‐makingmechanism”(p.
14).
LearningStyles
Tofulfillthesedirectives,considerationmustbegiventothemodesthroughwhich
themuseumvisitorgathersinformation,orwhatmuseumeducatorscalllearningstyles.
Thetheoryofmultipleintelligences(MI),aspresentedbyHarvardpsychologistHoward
Gardner,isatheoryoflearningstylesthatchallengesthenotionthatasinglenumber,an
intelligencequotient(I.Q.),definesanindividual’sintelligence.Gardnerarguesfor“the
existenceof...discrete‘intelligences’inhumanbeings,combinableindifferentwaysto
formanintellectualrepertoireofdifferentintelligences”(Hopper&Hurry,2000,p.26).
Theseincludelinguistic,logical‐mathematical,musical,bodilykinesthetic,spatial,
interpersonal,intrapersonal,naturalist,spiritual,andexistentialintelligences.Gardner’s
educationalapproachadvocatesthepresentationofcentralconceptsinvariouswaysthat
accommodatedifferentintelligences:“Eachstudentwillbeexposedtoarangeof
approaches/activitiesrepresentingcentraldimensionsoftheconceptortopic,because
eachmethodofrepresentationimpartsimportantanddifferentinsightsforunderstanding.
MIisanimportanttoolindesigningthesealternativemethodsofunderstanding”(Cohen,
2001,p.49).
WhileGardner’stheorywasnotdevelopedspecificallyformuseumoreducational
purposes,ithasbeenadoptedbymuseumlearningtheoriststoguideinformation
presentationinthemuseumsetting.VeteranexhibitplannerKathleenMcLean(2005)
explains,“Alimitedapproachwillappealtoonlyalimitedsegmentoftheaudience.If
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exhibitplannersaretoprovidesomethingforthewidestpossiblerangeofmuseum
visitors,exhibitionsmustaccommodatealltypesoflearners”(p.9).Thisclearlysupports
theargumentforthenecessityofmultiplemodesofinformationretrievalinexhibition
practices.
ContextualModelofLearning
TheconsiderationofmultipleintelligenceshasbeencategorizedbyFalkand
Dierking(1992)asanimportantaspectofavisitor’spersonalcontextintheContextual
ModelofLearning(CML).Compatiblewithconstructivism,CMLisamodeloflearningthat
“framesvisitorlearningasoccurringthroughtheoverlappingandinteractingcontextsof
thepersonal,socioculturalandphysical”(Mayer,2005,p.15).Asamuseumvisitor
interactswithexhibitcomponents,eachcomponentheorshepaysattentiontobecomes
partof“thevisitor’simmediatecontext‐his[orher]constructedexperience...[It]is
filteredthroughthepersonalcontext,mediatedbythesocialcontext,andembeddedwithin
thephysicalcontext”(Falk&Dierking,1992,p.4).CMLisalensthroughwhichmuseum
educatorscanassessinternalandexternalfactorsthataffectamuseumvisitor’s
experience.Includedinthismodelarequestionsofmotivation,perception,processingand
memory,aswellasretrievalandtransfer.
Motivationaspartofthepersonalcontextisasignificantfactorintheassessmentof
exhibitefficacy.Simplyput,“...individualspaymoreattentiontothethingsinwhichthey
havemoreinterest.Interestsarepredictablybaseduponpriorexperiences,knowledge,
andfeelings‐aclassicfeedbackloop”(FalkandDierking,1995,p.11).Mihaly
CsikszentmihalyiandKimHermanson(1995)classifymotivationaseitherextrinsicallyor
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intrinsicallyrewarding.Extrinsicmotivationisrewardedthroughexternalmeans“to
obtainpraiseortoavoidpunishment”(p.67).Museumeducationresearchismore
concernedwithpinpointingthefactorsassociatedwithintrinsicmotivation.
CsikzentmihalyiandHermanson(1995)pointtocuriosityandinterestasnatural
intrinsicmotivators.Curiosityisdefinedas“thelikelihoodofinvestingpsychicenergyin
novelstimuli”(p.68).Interest“referstoadifferentiallikelihoodofinvestingpsychic
energyinonesetofstimuliratherthananother”(Ibid,p.69).Usingthesenatural
propensities,exhibitdesignersusewhatisknownas“thehook”toincitecuriosityand/or
interestandencouragethemuseumvisitor’sinteractionwithexhibitcomponents.
Interactionisimperativeforlearning.“Byanydefinition,”explainsGeorgeHein(1998),
“therecanbenolearning(ormeaningmaking)ifthere’sbeennointeraction.Inorderfor
learningtooccurinthemuseum,thevisitorhastoattendtosomething”(p.136).
Interactivityand/orengagementbecomemoreeffectivewhenpresentedwith
“subsequent,reinforcingexperiences”thatenhancethelearner’sassimilationofexhibit
content(Falk&Dierking,1995,p.11).Theseconsiderationsinfluenceprevailingpractices
inmuseumcontentpresentation,suchasinformationlayeringandthecreationof
narrative.Inordertocreatemeaningfulexperiencesforvisitors,somepractitionershave
implementedwhatonestudycallsa“funnelapproach”toexhibitdesign(Schauble&
Bartlett,1997,p.784).Theideaistopullthemuseumvisitorinwiththeoverarchingideas
oftheexhibitandembeddeeperandmoredetailedinformationwithinlayersoftheexhibit
forthosewhoseekadeeperunderstanding.
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Theapplicationofvariousmethodsofinteractivetechnologyisonewayexhibit
plannersandeducatorscreatemuseumexperiencesbasedonmuseumlearningtheories.
Whenappliedinmeaningfulways,technologicalinterfaceactsasacatalystforthevisitor’s
learningexperience,helpingthevisitortoconstructpersonalmeaningandnavigate
throughlayersofinformation.
TheArtMuseumandLearningTechnologies
KurtNeugebauer,theAssociateDirectorofAdministrationandExhibitionsatthe
JSMA,predictedinalectureonNovember30,2010thattheuseofmultimediatechnology
willbecomestandardinartmuseumexhibitions.AccordingtoNeugebauer,technology,
whenappliedcorrectly,“accentuatestheartwithouttakingawayfromit.”Butsomeart
museumshavebeenslowtoembracenon‐traditionalinteractiveexhibitpractices,
especiallytechnology‐basedexhibitcomponents,foranumberofreasons.Encouraging
interactivityinanenvironmentfullofpreciousobjectsandartworksthatvisitorsare
prohibitedfromtouchingishistoricallyunconventional.Environmentdisruptionis
anotherconsideration,andcostisnearlyalwaysafactor.Onecriticofinteractive
technologieshasarguedthatwhiledigitaldevicesareveryexpensivetoimplementand
maintain,theydoverylittletobringinadditionalrevenuetoartmuseums(Schwarzer,
2001).Otherdetractorscallattentiontotheironyofthevisitor“lookingdownatcomputer
screenswhilestandinginfrontofapainting”(Ibid,n.p.).Thiswouldpointtoquestionsof
authenticityandexperience,andtheriskofleadingvisitorstorelytooheavilyonthe
technologicalinterface.AsMarjorieSchwarzer(2001)observes:
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Indeed,manyartconnoisseursmaintainaestheticnotionsofartviewingas
transcendentandselfevident,inlittleneedofexplanation.Are[thedevices]so
distractingthattheyruinthechanceforelevatedexperienceswithart?Or,by
providingmoreinformation,dotheyactuallyincreasevisitorappreciation?”(n.p.).
Somemuseums,however,seethevalueincultivatinginterestinyounger
generationsandhaveimplementedtechnologiesthattendtoattractthem.“Thereisno
substituteforinteractionwithoriginalworksofart,"saysthedirectoroftheNational
Gallery,EarlA.PowellIII."Wehavefoundthatcarefulusesofdigitaltechnologyhavenot
diminishedtheviewingorlearningexperiencesforourvisitors...Asamatteroffact,the
technologyappearstoattractmoreoftheyoungergenerationtothegallerytoseetheart”
(CitedinPollack,1999,n.p.).
InteractiveTechnologies
Museumtechnologyfallsintoseveralcategories.Mostcurrentapplicationsof
technologyinartmuseumsinvolvethevisitor’sabilitytoretrieveadditionalinformation
fromweb‐basedinformationsystemsordatabases.Audiotours,wherethevisitorrentsa
handheldaudiodevice,havebeeninuseformanyyearsintheartmuseumsetting.More
recently,variousmuseumshavedevelopedprogramsthatusesomeformofPersonal
DigitalAssistants(PDAs).AlessexpensiveoptioninvolvesiPoddownloadsofferedon
manymuseumwebsites.Cellphonetoursarealsogainingpopularity.Andthereis
ubiquitouscomputing,inwhichthetechnologyisembeddedintheexhibit.Acasemaybe
madeforeachoftheseapplicationsastheyenhancethemuseumexperienceandcreate
learningopportunities.
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In1997,theEuropeanUnionlaunchedastudyonwhatmightbeconsideredthe
ultimatePDA.NamedHyperInteractionwithinPhysicalSpace(HIPS),thissubjectofa
three‐yearlongstudymadeacasefortheproblemofasystemofferingtoomuch
information.TheHIPSsystemusesaglobalpositioningsystem(GPS)totrackartmuseum
visitors’positioningwithintheartmuseum,analyzesthevisitor’spreferences,andoffers
informationbasedonthatdata.Accordingtooneresearcher,“whentheviewerstandsin
frontofanartwork[thevisitor]isassailedbyaninformationoverflow”(Venkatachalam,
2004,p.183).Thisdistractsthevisitorandpreventshimorherfromengagingwiththe
artwork,accordingtoHIPScritics(Ibid).WhilethepotentialofHIPStechnologyisstill
beingconsidered,thiscostprohibitiveandsomewhatintrusivetechnologyprovidesagood
exampleoftechnologyeclipsingthemuseumlearningdirective.
iPodtoursandcellphonetoursareacomparativelyinexpensivewayvisitorsmay
nowenhancetheirartmuseumexperience.Manymuseumsoffertoursontheirwebsites
fordownloadpriortoanartmuseumvisit.Butitcouldbearguedthatthemuseum
experiencebecomesanisolatedonewhenthevisitorsarelisteningtoprerecordedaudio
andnotinteracting.Studieshaveshownthatdialogueduringamuseumvisitisan
invaluablevehicleforconstructionofmeaning(e.g.,Weier,2004).
Andfinally,scholarshiponubiquitouscomputingsuggeststhatitishighlyeffective
forcreatingmeaningandengagementforvisitorsinthemuseumsetting.Whilethereare
moreandmoreexamplesofubiquitouscomputingbeingusedintheartmuseumsetting,it
hasmostoftenandmostsuccessfullybeenusedinscienceandhistorymuseums(Hall&
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Bannon,2006).Questionsofenvironmentdisruptionandcostareconsiderationswhen
assessingthesuitabilityofubiquitouscomputingintheartmuseumsetting.
UbiquitousComputing:ACaseStudy
Theargumentforimplementationofinteractivetechnologyasanexhibitcomponent
intheartmuseumisonlyvalidifthetechnologyisappropriateforthepresentationofthe
exhibitcontent.ThiscasestudyexaminestheexhibitpresentedattheJordanSchnitzer
MuseumofArtentitled,GiuseppeVasi’sRome:LastingImpressionsfromtheAgeoftheGrand
Tour.Called“themostambitiousexhibitioninthemuseum’snearlyeighty‐year
history,”(Hartz,2010,p.7)thisisthefirsttimethattheJSMAhasattemptedtouse
ubiquitouscomputingasanexhibitcomponent.Inadditiontotraditionalexhibitmethods,
Vasi’sRomeutilizesgraphicimagingtechnologytoofferthevisitorinnovativewaysto
accessandcompareinformation.Thisinquiryseekstojustifytheuseofcomputinginthis
exhibitbydescribingthedeepercontentmadeavailabletothemuseumvisitorthroughthe
useofthecomputerkiosks,identifyadvantagesandlimitationsofthistechnology,and
throughtheconsiderationofvisitorfeedback.
ThisexhibitdocumentsRomeasitappearedinthe18thcenturythroughprints,texts
andotherimagescreatedbyGiuseppeVasiandothervedutisti.Vasiandhis
contemporariesusedseveraldifferentmethodstorecordRomeandVasi’sRomecombines
thesevariousapproachestocreateacomprehensiveimageoftheEternalCity,astheGrand
Touristswouldhaveperceiveditinthe18thcentury.
AccordingtoJohnPinto(1976),thedevelopmentofgeometricperspectivegreatly
influencedvisualrepresentationinRenaissanceartandarchitecture.Theuseofgeometric
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perspectiveresultsintheillusionofspaceanddepthonatwodimensionalsurface.The
veduteofRomeinthe18thcentury,traditionallyrenderedingeometricperspective,suchas
Vasi’sseriesofviewsinhisDelleMagnificenzediRoma(1747‐1761)offerthearmchair
touristanimmediatevisualunderstandingofalocation’sappearanceandscale.These
images,accurateintheirdepictionofarchitecturaldetailandspecificandidentifiable
topography,alsousedvisualdevicesthatsometimesbenttherulesofgeometric
perspectivetocreateamoreeffectiveimage.Asco‐curatorandarchitectJamesTice
(2010a)explains,Vasiemployedboth“visualconventionsandinventions,allow[ing]himto
evokemanyplacesinRomemoreeffectivelythanscientificallyconstructedperspectiveor
modernphotographywould”(p.67).These“inventions”thatVasiusedtocommunicate
theessenceofplace,especiallyforsomeonewhoisnotfamiliarwiththesightsofRome,are
detectablethroughacomparisonwithotherimages.
AvariationongeometricperspectiveisusedintherenderingofVasi’spanoramic
viewaswell(fig.1).Illusionofdepthonatwodimensionalsurfacereliesonasingle
observerstationedatafixedpointinspace.Pintoacknowledgesthelimitationsofcorrect
perspectiveintherepresentationofcomplexobjectssuchasvastgeographicallocations,
whereinrealitytheobserverwouldbephysicallyunabletoseeanentireareaallatonce.
ArtistsinthetimeofVasiusedvisualdevicestocompensateforimpossibleviews.“The
depictionofcitiesinobliqueprojection,”explainsPinto(1976),“aswellasthefamiliar
bird’seyeview,permittedanillusionoftotalvision.InRenaissanceplansofthistype,”
suchasVasi’sProspettodiCittàRomavistodalMonteGianicolofrom1765,“citiesare
shownasifseenfromasingleelevatedviewpoint,fromwhichtheprojectedlineofsight
meetstheearth’ssurfaceatanobliqueangle”(p.35).
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Thismethod,however,resultsinthedistortionofspatialrelationships.To
communicatespacebetweenobjectsmoreaccurately,artistsdevelopedtheichnographic
approachinrepresentation(fig.2).Thisapproach,typicallyusedbymodernday
cartographers,depictsageographicalareaasagroundplan,withtopographicalfeatures
beingrepresentedthroughoutlines.Theichnographicapproachplacestheviewerabove
theareawith“aninfinitenumberofviewpoints,allperpendiculartoeachtopographical
feature”(Ibid,p.35).Pintoassertsthattheichnographicplan“constitutedanew
conceptualattitudetowardtherepresentationofcities,inwhichquantitativetopographical
relationshipsweregivenvisualpriorityoverbothsymbolicvaluesandtheactual
appearanceofthecity”(Ibid,p.35).Spatialrelationshipswereconveyedwithfarmore
accuracythroughichnographicrepresentation,butsuchplanswerelesscapableof
communicatingthefeelorimpressionofacity(Ibid).GiovanniBattistaNolli’sLaPianta
Grandefrom1748isanexampleof“anichnographicplan,”asexplainedbyJimTice
(2010b),that“presentsthecitywithanexactitudethatallowsonetoimmediatelycompare
size,positionandshape”(n.p.).
MarioBevilacqua(2010)observesthatwhilecartographyandcityscapeare
decidedlydifferentapproachestovisuallyrepresentingalocation,theyareoftenusedin
conjunctionwithoneanother.Furthermore,theinclusionofindividualviewsoflandmarks
addsanadditionallayerofdepthforviewers’comprehensionofalocation.Inthecaseof
Vasi’snumerousetchingsofviewsofRome,itisverylikelythatheusedNolli’s
ichnographicplanasaguide(Ceen,2010).Allbut17ofVasi’s238viewsfromtheten
booksoftheMagnificenzecanalsobelocatedonNolli’smap.“Vasi’smethodfordepicting
hisviews,”JimTice(2010a)explains,“canbebetterunderstoodbysystematically
INTERACTIVETECHNOLOGY
23
reconstructinghisstationpointsandviewshedsontheNollimapandthencomparingthe
resultantviewswithphotographstakenfromthesamevantagepoints”(p.69)(figs.3&4).
TechnologyandExhibitComponents
GiventhecomplexityofVasi’sRome’ssubjectmatter,theexhibit’scuratorsdesigned
acomparativeapproachmadepossiblethroughseveralinteractivekiosksplaced
strategicallythroughouttheexhibit(fig.5).ThekiosksconsistofAppleiPadsencasedin
protectivehousing.ThekiosksintheexhibituseGeographicInformationSystem
technology,andthisplatformwasdevelopedfortheImagoUrbiswebsiteandsubsequently
thisprojectbytheInfoGraphicsLabintheGeographyDepartmentattheUniversityof
Oregon.ThekiosksallowvisitorstoviewVasi’sviewshedspositionedonNolli’smapas
wellascurrentphotos.OtherkiosksallowvisitorstocomparevariousviewsofRomeas
interpretedbyothervedutisti,suchasPiranesi,Canaletto,WittelandPanini,andcompare
themtoVasi’sprintsfromtheMagnificenzeandcurrentphotographs(figs.6,7,&8).
Visitorsalsohaveaccesstomanyoftheactualphysicalprintsandpaintings.
Thekiosksaresilentandintuitive.SimpleinstructionsarevisiblebelowtheiPads,
andtheprogramiseasytonavigateastheinformationislayeredinalogicalmanner.As
withalltechnology,thereisthepossibilityofmalfunction.InhislectureonNovember30,
2010,KurtNeugebauermentionedthatWi‐Fistability,whichisessentialforthekiosk
function,hasalsobeenaproblemattimes.Buttheseissuesarerelativelyminorconcerns
whenoneunderstandstheadvantagesofthistechnologyandthegreatercontentmade
availablethroughitsuse.Thetechnologyismeanttoenhancetheactualartifacts,not
replacethem,andallowvisitorstoaccessdeeperlayersofinformationtocreatea
INTERACTIVETECHNOLOGY
24
comprehensiveunderstandingofthesubjectmatter.AsJillHartz(2010),theexecutive
directorattheJSMAexplains,thisexhibitisa“multifacetedprojectthat,throughitsvaried
platforms,deepensourunderstandingofVasi,theartandarchitectureofhisperiod,Roman
patronage,urbandesign,andtheGrandTour,andhelpsarticulatethelessonsofRomefor
ourlivesandcitiestoday”(p.8).
VisitorExperience
Atwo‐hourfocusgroupwasheldonAugust6,2010,priortotheexhibitopening.
Thegoalofthisgroupwastogatherfeedbackandgenerateideasregardingexhibitcontent,
evaluatethetouchscreensandlabelsusedintheexhibit,aswellasdiscusstheexhibit’s
marketingstrategies.Accordingtothefocusgroupreport,“Participants[rangedinage]
fromteenagerstoseniors,andincludedhighschoolstudents,UOstudents,UOfaculty/staff,
communitymembers,museumvolunteers,K‐12teachers,andmembersoftheLatinoand
AsianAmericancommunities”(Kaplan,2010,p.1).
Onthesubjectofexhibitcontent,membersofthegrouprevealedthattheabilityto
relatetheexhibitcontenttoone’sownlifewasofparticularconcern.Questionsof
alienationfromthelivesofthearistocraticGrandTouristswereraisedbyfocusgroup
members.“TheGrandTour,”explainedKaplan(2010),“wastheluxuryofaprivileged
class,morethantravelistoday.Thiscouldbebothfascinatingtosomeandalienatingto
ethnicgroupswhoserolewasmoreasaservantduringthesetimes”(p.1).Asa
participatingobserver,Iwouldarguethatthecontentbecomesmoreaccessibleand
comprehensiblethroughthetechnologicalinterface.Thecontentpresentedthroughthe
kiosksconstantlyreferredtothevisitor’sowntimeperiodviacontemporaryphotographs,
INTERACTIVETECHNOLOGY
25
allowingthevisitortocompareandcontrast18thcenturyRomewiththecityofthepresent
daytocreateapersonalconnection.Visitorswereencouragedtoimaginethemselvesas
18thcenturyGrandTourists,touringtheexhibitmuchliketheGrandTouriststouredRome.
Ispeculatethatbecauseallpresent‐daymuseumvisitorswereremovedfromthetime
periodpresentedinthisexhibitionbynearlythreecenturies,itrequiredaleapofthe
imaginationforallvisitors,regardlessofethnicityorsocialstatus,toidentifywiththe
GrandTourists.Therefore,thenarrativeoftheexhibit,expressedthroughlabelsand
enhancedbyinteractivetechnology,playedacrucialroleinsupportingthegenerationof
personalmeaningforvisitors.
Otherconcernsoftheformativefocusgroupincludedthepossibilityoftheacademic
subjectmatteronlyappealingtoalimitedsegmentofthemuseumaudience.Engaging
children,membersofthefocusgrouppredicted,couldbeproblematicconsideringthe
exhibit’scomplexnature.Indeed,thisexhibitwasnotcreatedwithchildreninmind.The
abilityaffordedbythekioskstojumpbetweenimages,however,createdanengagingvisual
activitythatcouldbeenjoyedbyvisitorsofallages,eventhosewholackedtheabilityto
read.OnseveraloccasionsIobservedschool‐agedchildrenplayingwiththekiosksand
engaginginconversationwiththeiradultcounterpartsregardingtheirownobservations.
Thefocusgroup’soverallresponsetotheiPadswasfavorable.TheiPads
encouragedthevisitortoparticipateinaconstructivistlearningexperiencethroughactive
engagement.“Participantslikedthatthetechnologyprovidedadditionaldepthtotheir
looking,”accordingtothefocusgroup’sreport(Kaplan,2010,p.1).Participantsalso
commentedontheabilitytofocusonandenlargeareasofinterestasanassetofthe
INTERACTIVETECHNOLOGY
26
technology.Thecarefullayeringofinformationhelpedguidethevisitorlearning
experienceasthevisitornavigatedthedifferentlevelsofcontent.Thecrossreferencingof
thevariousartists’workwitheachother,modernphotographs,andpreparatorydrawings
wasmadepossiblethroughtheinteractivekioskswhereaswithoutthem,thecomplex
subjectmatterwouldhavebeendifficulttopresent.
Commentswerealsorandomlycollectedfromahandfulofinformalinterviews
conductedaftertheexhibitopened.Again,thegeneralresponsetotheiPadcomponents
waspositive,andmanyofthevisitorsindicatedthatthetechnologywasaccessibleandthat
thetechnology“broughttheetchingstolife”(Taylor,2010,p.1).Accordingtothedatathat
hasbeencollected,visitorsacrossvariousagegroups,fromdifferenteducationlevelsand
backgroundsfoundwaystoconnectwiththeVasiexhibitexperience.Thismaybeinpart
duetothemultiplemodesofinformationpresentationthatappealtoavarietyoflearning
styles.
Andfinally,researchindicatesthatwhile“visitorswantthemuseumexperienceto
bememorable,theyalsowantittobeenjoyable”(Mayer,2005,p.16).Allinformation
collectedtodateonthevisitorexperiencewithintheVasiexhibitsuggeststhatitis
entertainingaswellaseducational.Successfulexhibitsbydefinitionmustkeepthe
audiences’attention,andclearlytheVasiexhibitaccomplishedthis,partiallyduetoits
interactiveandentertainingelements.Inaddition,asuccessfulexhibitmustappealtoa
wideaudience.JillHartz(2010),executivedirectoroftheJordanSchnitzerMuseumofArt,
describesthegoalsofthisexhibitionas,“nurturingnewscholarshipandgivingitalively
visualandpublicpresencefordiverseaudiencesintheacademy,thecommunity,and
INTERACTIVETECHNOLOGY
27
beyond”(p.10).Thisisanimportantachievement,especiallyconsideringtheacademic
andcomplexnatureofthesubjectmatter.
Conclusion
Thispaperapproachesthesubjectoftechnologyintheartmuseumsettingfromthe
perspectivethatiftechnologyistobeused,itmustbeappropriatefortheexhibit.Thegoal
hereistointegrateengagingtechnologyandenhanceexhibitswithoutdisruptingtheart
museumenvironmentandalienatingtheartmuseum’spresentaudience.Whenappliedin
carefulways,theadvantagesoftheintegrationofcomputingincludetheabilitytoconvey
complexinformationlikethatfoundintheVasiexhibitinamoreconciseand
comprehensiblemanner.Alsobeneficialisthepotentialtoattractawider,morediverse
audiencethroughtheuseofvariousmodesofexhibitcontentpresentation.Theonusof
selectingexhibitcontentthatcanbesuccessfullyandappropriatelymediatedthrough
interactivetechnologylieswithartmuseums’educationandexhibitsdepartments.“Many
artmuseumshavealonghistoryofcreatinginnovativewaysofmediatingvisitor
experienceinthegalleries,”explainKarenKnutsonandKevinCrowley(2009),butthereis
muchtoconsiderintheprocessofinterpretation:“[Artmuseums]mustmakehardchoices
abouttheinformationthatistobeprovided.Eachartworkmightbeusedtoexplainissues
ofculturehistory,patronage,geography,techniques,artistintention,ortheoriesofbeauty,
amongotherthings”(p.3).Clearly,then,thediscussionofwhetherubiquitouscomputing
isappropriateforaparticularexhibitmustbeevaluatedonacase‐by‐casebasis.
Therecanbelittleargumentthattheuseofcomputertechnologyisthemedium
throughwhichthechildrenandyoungadultsofthiseracommunicateandentertain
INTERACTIVETECHNOLOGY
28
themselves.Itismycontentionthatconcessionsmustbemadebyartmuseum
professionalstoembraceemergenttechnologiesiftheywanttheirmuseumstoremain
relevanttofuturegenerations.Engagement,resultinginmuseumlearning,isthenatural
resultofappropriateusesofinteractivetechnology.
BruceWyman,thedirectoroftechnologyattheDenverArtMuseumputsthe
successfulintegrationoftheartmuseumandtechnologyintoperspective:
Realandvirtualworldsshouldblendtothepointwherethey'rejustdifferentlenses
intothemuseumexperience...Theolddefinitionsdon'tapplyanymore.Moving
backandforthbetweenthesemodesissecondnatureforpeopletoday."Talking"to
someonecanmeaninperson,onthephone,byemail,orthroughsocialnetworking.
It'salljusttalking.Theprimaryfocusisontheexperience;technologyissecondary.
(CitedinFischer&Levinson,2010,n.p.)
TheVasiexhibitexemplifiesthesuccessfulintegrationofthedisplayofbeautiful,important
worksofartwithengagement‐creatingtechnologyinwhichthetechnologyisunobtrusive
buteffective.
INTERACTIVETECHNOLOGY
29
Figure1.GiuseppeVasi,1765.Prospetto
dell’almacittàdiRomavistodalMonteGianicolo.PanoramaofRome.VincentJ.Buonanno.
INTERACTIVETECHNOLOGY
30
Figure2.GiovanniBattistaNolli,1748.LaPianteGrandediRoma.MapofRome.VincentJ.Buonanno.
INTERACTIVETECHNOLOGY
31
Figure3.Giuseppe,Vasi,1752.PiazzadellaRotonda,fromtheseriesDelleMagnificenzediRomaanticaemoderna(BookII,Plate25).Vasi’sviewofthePantheon.VincentJ.Buonanno.
Figure4.DetailofNolli’sMapofRomeshowingthePantheon,1748.VincentJ.Buonanno.
INTERACTIVETECHNOLOGY
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Figure5.KiosksintheexhibitionVasi’sRome:LastingImpressionsfromtheAgeoftheGrandTour.JonathanB.Smith.
INTERACTIVETECHNOLOGY
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Figure6.GuiseppeVasi,1754.PonteAdriano,fromtheseriesDelleMagnificenzediRomaanticaemoderna(BookV,Plate86).RobertoPiperno.
Figure7.PhotographofPonteAdriano,2009.RobertoPiperno.
INTERACTIVETECHNOLOGY
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Figure8.GasparvanWittel,1682.PonteAdriano.RobertoPiperno.
INTERACTIVETECHNOLOGY
35
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