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Integrating an Emotional IntelligenceFramework Into Evidence-BasedCoaching

Susan A. David

For coaching to continue to establish itself as a profession, coaches will needto learn what they can from the existing theory of, and research into, psy-chological development and change. They will also need to apply innovative,theoretically driven and empirically validated interventions. To this end,coaches may benefit from applying a framework of emotional intelligence asa heuristic tool within their practice. This framework encourages the coachand coachee to recognise, understand and assess the impact of emotions oncoaching goals, and encourages a solution-oriented appreciation of howthese emotions can be managed to bring about the outcomes desired.

First, this chapter will discuss recent conceptualisations of emotion andthe importance of an appreciation of the role of emotions in interventions.It will then describe the Mayer–Salovey model of emotional intelligence.This model’s four areas enable exploring emotions and strategising aboutthem and is a useful heuristic framework to integrate into coaching (Caruso& Wolfe, 2002; David, 2003). The last section reviews literature that suggeststhat it is essential for the coach to progress through all four areas of themodel to facilitate movement from self-reflection to insight, and to assist thepursuit of goals and change.

Emotions Are Important to the Change ProcessIn recent times there has been a renewed discourse on the functionality ofemotions (Campos, Mumme, Kermoian, & Campos, 1994; Stanton & Franz,1999). It has challenged the historical view of emotions as disorganising andirrational (Campos & Barrett, 1985; Mahoney, 1991) with the assertion thatemotions and their expression serve a fundamentally useful purpose

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(Bretherton, Fritz, Zahn-Waxler, & Ridgeway, 1986; Campos, Campos, &Barrett, 1989; Greenberg & Safran, 1987). Emotions provide clues to our-selves and others about how we view present and past situations. Theyenable us to evaluate our needs, desires, goals and concerns, and to directour efforts toward these (Greenberg & Paivio, 1997; Safran & Greenberg,1991). Empirical evidence in a range of areas, including coping (Stanton &Franz, 1999; Stanton, Parsa, & Austenfeld, 2002), social behaviour (Forgas,2001) and neuroanatomy (Bechara, Tranel, & Damasio, 2000; Damasio,1998), supports Darwin’s (1872/1965) tenet that emotions have importantadaptive value for the species.

Rather than treating emotions as a by- or end-product of interventions,a focus on the function of emotions and emotional information is increas-ingly being recognised as pivotal (Greenberg & Paivio, 1997; Greenberg &Safran, 1987; Linehan, 1993; Mahoney, 1991; Safran & Greenberg, 1991).Mahoney (1991) suggests that emotions are (1) vital to directing the indi-vidual’s attention, (2) pervasively and often tacitly involved in perception,learning and memory, (3) integrally related to cognitive development, and(4) important to a person’s sense of psychological change.

Emotions are central to self-regulation (Carver & Scheier, 1982, 1998)and change processes (Greenberg & Rhodes, 1991; Safran & Greenberg,1991), and a number of authors are cognisant of their role in coaching(Grant, 2001; Zeus & Skiffington, 2001). Grant and Greene (2001), forexample, highlight the reciprocal relationships between behaviour,emotions and thoughts, and the situation itself, in the pursuit of goals.However, in order to distinguish themselves from therapists, because of alack of confidence in negotiating emotions within a goal- and solution-focused framework, or because of the historical mistrust of emotionsreferred to previously, coaches may treat emotions as peripheral or incon-sequential. As they are critical to the individual’s experience (Mahoney,1991), ignoring them may result in an oversimplification of the individual’scontext and be a hindrance to change.

The Mayer–Salovey model of emotional intelligence (Mayer & Salovey,1997) may be a useful guide in coaching (Caruso & Wolfe, 2001; David,2003). This framework enables an exploration of the role of emotions in thecoachee’s nominated goals or current issues. It also encourages movementfrom a self-reflective, potentially ruminative focus on emotional experienceto an insight- and solution-oriented one (see Figure 1).

The Mayer–Salovey Model of Emotional IntelligenceIn 1990, drawing on the rich and complex body of emotions literature, Mayerand Salovey introduced the psychological theory of emotional intelligence.Emotional intelligence is a composite of four interrelated abilities: to perceive,use, understand and regulate emotions (Mayer, 2001a; Salovey, Mayer, & Caruso, 2002). It is commonly defined as the “ability to perceive accurately,


Integrating an Emotional Intelligence Framework Into Evidence-based Coaching 59

appraise, and express emotion; the ability to access and/or generate feelingswhen they facilitate thought; the ability to understand emotions and emo-tional knowledge; and the ability to regulate emotions to promote emotionaland intellectual growth” (Mayer & Salovey, 1997,p.10). (For a conceptualoverview see Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2000a; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso,2002; Salovey et al., 2002; Salovey, Woolery, & Mayer, 2001.)

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Figure 1Using the Mayer-Salovey model as a heuristic framework in coaching (based on Caruso& Wolfe, 2001, 2002.)


Consistent with the functional perspective of emotions (Mayer, 2001b;Salovey, Bedell, Detweiler, & Mayer, 1999), emotional intelligence involvesadeptly processing emotionally laden information and using it to guide bothcognitive activities (such as prioritising and problem-solving) and construc-tive behaviours (Salovey & Mayer, 1990; Salovey et al., 2002). It is suggestedthat, contrary to the traditional view of emotions and thoughts as polaropposites, they are remarkably interdependent (Damasio, 1998; Forgas,2001; Mahoney, 1991) and together result in more sophisticated information-processing (Mayer, 2001b).

Each of the four abilities or branches is viewed as integral to emotionalintelligence (Mayer, 2001b). Perceiving Emotions concerns attending to andregistering emotional messages in oneself and others (Mayer et al., 2002;Salovey et al., 2002). In coaching, exploring the feelings of the client andother involved parties encourages the client to attend to emotions and toconsider alternative viewpoints.

Using Emotions to Facilitate Thought involves the integration of emotionwith thought (Mayer, 2001a). For example, feelings experienced may be animportant determinant of attitude (Zajonc, 1980), and the change in per-spective that can arise with mood shifts (Mayer, 2001b; Salovey et al., 2002)can enable the appreciation of a range of responses and a more creativeapproach to problem-solving and goal-striving. Findings from memorystudies, which show mood-congruent effects (Bless, 2001; Bower, 1981)suggest that a client’s propensity to recall only the unfavourable aspects ofthe situation may be influenced by a current negative mood.

Negative moods assist tasks that require detailed systematic processing,whereas positive moods assist those that involve creative problem-solving(Bless, 2001). With the Socratic method,1 coachees are often able to recog-nise the association between their negative feelings and a foreclosure onproblem-solving or a critical response to the issue and those involved. Theymay comment on a recent moment of clarity about the matter or a helpfulchange of perspective that has come about from feeling positive or relaxed.

A working knowledge of the findings from studies on the interactionsbetween feelings and memory, information-processing and creativity (Bless,2001; Dalgleish & Power, 1999; Gohm & Clore, 2002) is useful for thecoaching intervention. It enables coach and client to understand how theclient’s and others’ moods are influencing perspectives, attitudes and rea-soning; what effect these have on the approach that is being taken (e.g.,critical and detailed vs. accepting); and how they affect the ability to effec-tively create solutions. These research findings can also help explain whythe nominated development goals appear more desirable on some occa-sions than on others. In addition, for coaches who use a cognitive-behav-ioural approach, highlighting these relationships to the client can result ina powerful learning experience about the associations between emotions,thoughts and behaviours. In time, and as the coaching progresses throughthe framework to the Regulating Emotions branch, the awareness that



certain types of thinking are assisted by particular moods means that moodscan be sought out or created to facilitate the task at hand.

The third branch, Understanding Emotions, is an appreciation of howdifferent emotions are related, their causes and consequences, and howthey progress over time (Mayer et al., 2002; Salovey et al., 2001; Salovey etal., 2002). Examples include an awareness that a difficulty between a clientand one of his employees that is resulting in anger on both sides is likelyto lead to a dispute if not resolved, or that a new proposal is more likelyto be accepted at a meeting if the participants are experiencing feelings ofacceptance and light-heartedness.

The fourth branch, Regulating Emotions, concerns the ability to use theknowledge gained from the first three branches (Mayer, 2001b) to regulateone’s own feelings and others’ (Mayer, 2001a). It is important to note that“regulating” emotions does not mean the suppression (Caruso, Mayer, &Salovey, 2002; Mayer et al., 2000a), minimisation (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso,2000b) or control of emotions. Rather, it involves being open to bothpleasant and unpleasant feelings (Mayer, 2001b) and translating these intoconstructive action (Greenberg & Paivio, 1997; Salovey, Hsee, & Mayer,1993). In many cases, moderate levels of emotion management will be mostadvantageous (Salovey et al., 2002).

For example, a recently promoted manager who has been complainingabout a team of employees is able to use information from the first threebranches to recognise the team’s feelings of apprehension and her ownconcerns about failure and rejection (perceiving). She is able to appreciatehow these have contributed to mutual avoidance of some key businessissues and to her critical internal dialogue about the team’s behaviour(using). She acknowledges that the team has previously been cohesive,cooperative and open, but predicts that if the present situation continuesshe will become increasingly angry and defensive and that they are likelyto become distrustful of her leadership skills (understanding). With thisknowledge, the coaching turns to actively planning how she can manageboth her own and the team’s emotions to enhance the likelihood of a goodresult (regulating).

Mayer et al. (2002) make a distinction between experiential (branches 1and 2) and strategic emotional intelligence (branches 3 and 4). When appliedto coaching, the first two branches are predominantly about the experienceand exploration of emotions, whereas at branches 3 and 4 the coachingmoves toward actively strategising with and about emotions. So at the under-standing branch (3), the individual notes some of the possible feelings of theparties involved, what feelings they would like for themselves and others, andacknowledges that intervening may increase the likelihood of a good result.As coach and client move to the managing branch (4), they focus on active,tactical planning to achieve it.



The Importance of Progressing to the Regulating EmotionsBranch of the Emotional Intelligence FrameworkAt its core, coaching facilitates the client’s regulation and direction of inter-personal and intrapersonal resources (Grant, 2001). It is through self-regu-lation that the individual is able to pursue lower-order targets that, in turn,increase their likelihood of achieving longer-term goals (King, 2001; Tice &Bratslavsky, 2000). Carver and Scheier (1982, 1998) suggest that the abilityto reflect upon and evaluate one’s thoughts, behaviour and feelings; todevelop insight into them; and to use this knowledge to further enhanceperformance are central to the self-regulatory change-cycle. The emotional-intelligence framework advances self-reflection about emotions to insight-ful, action-oriented management of them.

Research indicates that the self-reflection facilitated by this framework(i.e., attending to, recognising and expressing emotions) is potentially ben-eficial, and that a lack of attention to or overinhibition of emotions can bedeleterious. A key feature of alexithymic individuals is a dispositional diffi-culty in identifying and describing subjective feelings (Apfel & Sifneos,1979; Taylor, 2000). Empirical studies demonstrate that alexithymia is asso-ciated with a range of somatic illnesses and a limited capacity to discrimi-nate among different emotional states, to think about and use emotions tocope with stressful situations, and to empathise (Parker, Taylor, & Bagby,2001; Taylor, 2000; Taylor, 2001; Taylor & Bagby, 2000). In a study onwritten emotional disclosure, the difficulty-describing-feelings dimension ofalexithymia was associated with lower positive mood, greater emotionalinhibition, and less introspective content in written essays (Páez, Velasco, &González, 1999).

Interventions directed at both clinical and nonclinical populations thatspecifically encourage processing and expressing emotion have beendemonstrated to have positive effects (Esterling, L’Abate, Murray, &Pennebaker, 1999; Stanton & Franz, 1999). For example, research on emo-tional disclosure through expressive writing, where individuals areinstructed to write briefly and repeatedly over a few days about a person-ally significant topic (King, 2002) has produced robust evidence ofimproved longer-term psychological and physical wellbeing (Esterling et al.,1999; King, 2002; Niederhoffer & Pennebaker, 2002; Pennebaker, 1997. Fora review see Smyth, 1998.) Although the focus of these studies has typicallybeen on negative events of the past (Esterling et al., 1999), recent researchhas demonstrated the benefits of writing about anticipated events such ascoping with a potentially stressful situation (Cameron & Nicholls, 1998).

In a study by King (2001), a group of individuals was randomly assignedto write for 20 minutes per day over four days about their “best possibleself” (i.e., a personalised representation of their life in the future, imaginingthat everything had gone as well as it could have). Three other groups wereallocated to write about a control topic, a life trauma, and a combination of


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trauma (for the first two days) and best possible self (for the last two days),respectively. Controlling for prewriting mood, those in the best-possible-selfgroup had more positive emotions immediately postwriting, and assessmentthree weeks later demonstrated that this group had significantly greater psy-chological wellbeing. In addition, despite there being no differencesbetween the groups on measures of health before the intervention, at a five-month follow-up, the best-possible-self group and trauma-only group hadsignificantly lower illness than the control and combination topic groups.

These results suggest that the reflection on, and expression of, emotionsthat is encouraged by this framework may help coaching clients to regulatetheir emotional experiences. Consistent with the proposal that coachingshould be solution-focused (Grant, 2001), studies on writing interventionsindicate that to derive benefits from emotional expression, the focus need notbe on negative events. Rather, it can be aimed at positively reframing a diffi-cult experience (King & Miner, 2000), anticipating coping responses(Cameron & Nicholls, 1998), and pursuing goals (King, 2001, 2002).

It is important to note that although those who are adept at assessingand expressing their emotions may be more skilful in negotiating their envi-ronment (Salovey, Bedell, Detweiler, & Mayer, 2000), excessive self-reflec-tion on emotions and/or limited progression to clarity, insight and actionmay actually impede the attainment of goals. Swinkels and Giuliano (1995)found that individuals who report a tendency to extreme or hypervigilantmood-monitoring ruminate more, and have greater negative affect andmore intense affective reactions. In contrast, those who have greater clarityabout their mood states and are able to discriminate and label them expe-rience more positive affect, higher self-esteem, and greater satisfaction withtheir social support. When individuals who are dysphoric ruminate on theirmoods, they are more likely to prolong periods of distress (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998) and to be poor problem-solvers (Lyubomirsky, Tucker,Caldwell, & Berg, 1999).

Similarly, research examining self-reflection and insight that included,but was not limited to, the emotional domain, found that self-reflection wasassociated with anxiety and stress, whereas insight was associated with cog-nitive flexibility and self-regulation, and less depression, anxiety, stress andalexithymia (Grant, 2001). Grant proposed that individuals who are experi-encing difficulty in attaining goals are overly engaged in ruminative self-reflection rather than being focused on solutions and behaviour change. Hedemonstrated initial support for this hypothesis by finding that when indi-viduals in a structured life-coaching program pursued goals that they hadpreviously struggled to attain, levels of self-reflection decreased whereasinsight increased.

Turning again to the writing research, a closer examination also indi-cates that it is not the disclosure of emotions per se that is beneficial (Smyth,1998). In a computerised linguistic analysis of six writing samples fromacross a range of studies, Pennebaker and colleagues (Pennebaker &



Francis, 1996; Pennebaker, Mayne, & Francis, 1997) found that betterphysical-health outcomes were predicted by those who used more positiveemotion words, a moderate number of negative words (those with veryhigh and very low numbers of negative words had poorer health), anddemonstrated increased causal and insightful thinking. These and otherstudies suggest that the mechanism underlying the benefits of emotionaldisclosure is the cognitive work that results from exploring emotionallysalient events and the construction of a coherent and insightful under-standing of them (King & Miner, 2000; Niederhoffer & Pennebaker, 2002).

These converging lines of research suggest that a focus on, and explo-ration of, a client’s emotional experience is necessary but not sufficient forthe coaching intervention, and that progressing from exploration to insightand management is important. The emotional-intelligence framework pre-sented here greatly facilitates this process. It takes cognisance of emotionsas central to the client’s experience and demonstrates an appreciation of theinterrelationships of these emotions to thoughts and associated behaviours.When all four aspects of the model are addressed, it provides a structuredsolution-oriented means of facilitating progress from self-reflection toinsight and planning.

ConclusionCoaching aims to facilitate the change that is necessary for clients to achievetheir life- and performance-enhancement goals. Emotions are central tohuman experience and an appreciation of their role in the process of changeis an essential component of comprehensive coaching interventions. Theemotional-intelligence framework presented in this chapter is a useful toolthat is compatible with evidence-based and theoretically driven coaching thatis embedded in a positive, functional and solution-oriented paradigm.

Endnote1 The Socratic method uses questions and summary statements to gain insight into the

client’s beliefs and behaviours.

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