Instructional Strategies - Autism State Conference
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Transcript of Instructional Strategies - Autism State Conference
Instructional Strategies to Increase Academic
Achievement in Learners with Autism Spectrum Disorders
Jennifer Alward, M.EdTrube Miller, M.Ed
Tawana Stallworth, M.Ed
DSM IV-TR Criteria for Autism
Qualitative impairment in social interaction
Qualitative impairments in communication
Restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped patterns of behavior, interests, and activities
A total of 6 or more from each of these 3 areas, with 2 from the social area and 1 each from communication and behavior:
American Psychiatric Association. (2000).
Dividing Line To be diagnosed with Autism, the child must have delays or abnormal functioning in at least one of the previous areas, with onset prior to age 3 years: (1) social interaction, (2) language as used in social communication, or (3) symbolic or imaginative play. For Aspergers Disorder to be diagnosed, there must be an absence of a clinically significant general language delay, and Absence of a clinically significant delay in cognitive development.
American Psychiatric Association. (2000).
Defining Characteristics of AS
I have trouble being organized and setting my priorities. Sometimes smells, sounds, or lights will bother me. I don’t always know others’ personal space boundaries. I may have a large vocabulary, but not comprehend the words I use.
I sometimes have terrible handwriting. It is very tiring for me to think and write at the same time. I have trouble recognizing stress. By the time I recognize it, I may be already displaying inappropriate behaviors.
Rationale for providing learning supports
Students with AS frequently experience significant academic problems, which are often related to social and communication deficits, obsessive and narrowly defined interests, concrete and literal thinking styles, inflexibility, poor problem-solving skills, poor organizational skills, and difficulty in discerning relevant from irrelevant stimuli (Frith, 1991; Siegel, Minshew, & Goldstein, 1996). Moreover, they frequently experience difficulty with generalizing information.
What does “impaired social interaction” look like?
Marked impairment in the use of nonverbal behaviors:
Eye-to-eye gaze, Facial expressions, Body posture, Gestures to regulate
social interactions, (i.e. waving hi and
bye)
Failure to establish peer relationships appropriate to developmental level.Lack of spontaneous seeking to share enjoyment, interest, or achievements with other people. Lack of social or emotional reciprocity.
What does “qualitative impairments in
communication” look like?Delay in, or total lack of, the development of spoken language. In individuals with speech, marked impairment in the ability to initiate or sustain a conversation with others.
Stereotyped and repetitive use of language or idiosyncratic language. (Echolalia).Lack of varied, spontaneous make-believe play or social imitative play appropriate to developmental level.
What does “restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped
patterns of behaviors…” look like?
Encompassing preoccupation with one or more items of interest that is abnormal either in intensity or focus. Apparently inflexible adherence to specific, nonfunctional routines or rituals.
Stereotypic and repetitive motor mannerisms (hand-flapping).Persistent preoccupation with parts of objects.
Defining Characteristics of Aspergers Syndrome (AS)
I find social situations confusing.I find it hard to make “small talk.”I say what is on my mind. I find it hard to figure out what others are thinking and feeling.I take things literally. I have difficulty making friends even though I want them.
I follow the rules and expect everyone else to do the same.I have very specific ways that do things. I sometimes have unusually narrow interests.I am good at picking up details and facts. I do not enjoy imaginative storytelling.
Academic Characteristics
When I am uncomfortable or uncertain of a subject I will do anything to avoid it. I may need some extra time to process instructions. Visual aids may help me understand even more.I can get over-stimulated or exhausted with lengthy activities. This can lead me to get anxious, angry, or frustrated.
I need to understand WHY something is meaningful to learn.
Learning Characteristics of Students with ASD
A tendency to be easily confused by ambiguous assignments that may have multiple components (Jackal, 1996)
Present content in a controlled fashion by structuring the lesson around key ideas to minimize ambiguity
Highlight the most important concepts Establish alternate modes for completing
assignments If task is complex with multiple components, break
the assignment down into clear and manageable pieces
Clearly specify your expectations for the assignment
We Know All This Now....
What Can We Do?
Instructional StrategyOrganization of an alphabetizing activity: materials are placed in containers and stabilized on tray; limited letters (A-E); no extraneous information; work space is defined.
Hume, K. (2006). Get engaged! Designing instructional activities to help students stay on-task. Reporter 11(2), 6-9.
Present content in a controlled fashion by structuring the lesson around key ideas to minimize ambiguity
Instructional StrategyOrganization of a math worksheet: limited number of problems and limited amount of space; worksheet is organized so student knows where to put responses.
Hume, K. (2006). Get engaged! Designing instructional activities to help students stay on-task. Reporter 11(2), 6-9.
• Present content in a controlled fashion by structuring the lesson around key ideas to minimize ambiguity
• Highlight the most important concepts
Instructional StrategyOrganization of an art activity: steps are listed sequentially for student to follow
Hume, K. (2006). Get engaged! Designing instructional activities to help students stay on-task. Reporter 11(2), 6-9.
• Establish alternate modes for completing assignments
• If task is complex with multiple components, break the assignment down into clear and manageable pieces
Instructional StrategyClarifying the sequence of steps: numbers (along with the container) are used to identify the order of steps in setting the table.
Hume, K. (2006). Get engaged! Designing instructional activities to help students stay on-task. Reporter 11(2), 6-9.
• If task is complex with multiple components, break the assignment down into clear and manageable pieces
Alternate Strategies for Older Students
Having the student make a list of adjectives or vocabulary words, as opposed to a writing assignment that has students use those vocabulary words in an essay or story
Giving the option of audio-or videotaping the assignment
Allowing students to use the computer to take notes or complete an assignment. Require some of the project to be written, but parts may be typed, audio taped, video taped or dictated orally
Learning Characteristics of Students with ASD
Students with ASD may have difficulty interpreting the importance of information and give undue attention to details (Mesibov et al., 2005).
It may be necessary to emphasize the most important aspects of the task or activity in an effort to make the meaning more salient. This may require the use of color coding, numbering, highlighting, or adding additional visual cues.
Instructional Strategy Clarifying the item to recycle: both pictures and an example of the actual object are used to highlight what item should be placed in each drawer
Emphasize the most important aspects of the task or activity, while using multiple examples for each skill is essential if generalization is to occur (Horner, Dunlap, & Koegel, 1988)
Hume, K. (2006). Get engaged! Designing instructional activities to help students stay on-task. Reporter 11(2), 6-9.
Instructional StrategyOrganization of desk area: all materials are placed in color coded folders and binders; school supplies are placed in a container on the desk.
Hume, K. (2006). Get engaged! Designing instructional activities to help students stay on-task. Reporter 11(2), 6-9.
Presenting materials by color coding, numbering, highlighting, or adding additional visual cues
Alternate Strategies for Older Students
Provide the student with visual material that allows him or her to follow along when the teacher is speaking:
When reading a book aloud to the class, give the student a copy of the book so he or she can read and follow along.
Write everything the student needs to know on a flash card. This can also be used later to study for tests.
Send home a summary sheet which emphasizes the most important information contained in the next day’s (or week’s) lesson.
Write out a step-by-step list of instructions that are sequential for the student. Show a completed model so the student knows what the completed assignment should look like.
Learning Characteristics of Students with ASD
Difficulty with processing high amounts of auditory information (Grandin, 2001; Klin & Volkmar, 2000)
There is substantial evidence that students with ASD have strengths in processing visual information in comparison to processing language or auditory information (Mesibov et al., 2005; Quill, 1997).
Instructional StrategyThe materials define the task in this activity capitalizing on the strengths of the student and providing more opportunities for practicing the skill independently (without relying on verbal directives from staff).
Hume, K. (2006). Get engaged! Designing instructional activities to help students stay on-task. Reporter 11(2), 6-9.
Decreases amount of auditory stimulation while proving instruction through visuals
Instructional StrategyGraphic and Visual Organizers
Students with ASD benefit more from having one already developed for them.
http://www.specialconnections.ku.edu/cgi-bin/cgiwrap/specconn/main.php?cat=instruction§ion=main&subsection=udl/graphic
This also helps with maximizing comprehension and content retention.
Graphic Organizers cont.
Hierarchical- can also provide a concise visual representation of key concepts and their supporting concepts and ideas, but enable this information to be described in a linear manner.Unit Organizer-can be used to tie information from a unit of study together into one document. GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS
Additional Strategies for Older Students
Send home outlines of upcoming curriculum topics or a book that will be presented to the class.
Suggest background (reference) material, such as a video that goes along with the book or the topic.
Have the students read up on a future content area at home so they have a basic understanding of what will be presented in the lesson.
Provide the student with extra set of texts for home to prevent forgetting needed academic materials.
Instructional StrategyGuided Notes – http://www.specialconnections.ku.edu/cgi-bin/cgiwrap/specconn/main.php?cat=instruction§ion=main&subsection=udl/guidednotes#examples
Learning Characteristics of Students with ASD
Students with ASD may find it challenging to pay attention to classroom instruction, particularly when the content is not related to their particular area of interest (Marks et al., 2003).
Incorporating the unique interests of students with ASD into the content and/or layout of instructional activities may increase both engagement and meaning.
Instructional StrategyReading comprehension activity using Thomas the train.
Hume, K. (2006). Get engaged! Designing instructional activities to help students stay on-task. Reporter 11(2), 6-9.
Instructional StrategyFine motor lacing activity incorporating Dora the Explorer.
Hume, K. (2006). Get engaged! Designing instructional activities to help students stay on-task. Reporter 11(2), 6-9.
Instructional StrategyPackaging activity featuring McDonalds products.
Hume, K. (2006). Get engaged! Designing instructional activities to help students stay on-task. Reporter 11(2), 6-9.
Alternate Strategies for Older Students
Embed additional activities within the lesson to increase the student’s interest and motivation for listening to the class lecture.
Develop a list of words that might be said during a lecture. Give the student a marker and a list of those words. Every time a word is spoken, the student should highlight the word they hear.
Relate the material to the student’s preoccupations (interests).
For a student excited by dates, have him or her answer questions about what date a given event occurred.
Importance of Time on Task
The amount of time a student with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is actively attending to and interacting with his/her environment has been cited as one of the best predictors of positive student outcomes (Iovannone, Dunlap, Huber, & Kincaid, 2003).
Increasing Time on Task
Minimize adult interactions during the times that the student is off task.
Set up alternative “cueing” systems for bringing the student back to the task at hand.
Secret signal.
Use white boards to write down directions or instructions. As the student finishes with each direction they can cross it off the board.
Nonverbal prompting.
Learning Characteristics of Students with ASD
Students on the spectrum may demonstrate rigidity or inflexible behavior if classroom scheduling is inconsistent or absent.
Providing a predictable environment and routine is an important component of classroom programming for students on the autism spectrum (Iovannone, Dunlap, Huber, & Kincaid, 2003).
Provide concrete and specific information and expectations.
Provide specific concrete beginning and ending points, even with activities that may continue over several days or class periods.
Prepare the student ahead of time.
Instructional StrategyVideo priming for field trip to zoo.
Additional visuals to support comprehension
Instructional StrategyA product sample.
Provide specific concrete beginning and ending points, even with activities that may continue over several days or class periods
Instructional StrategiesAntecedent Management Strategies.
Antecedent intervention approaches focus on structuring the environment to prevent problems and enhance motivation (Kerns, & Clemens, 2007).
Picture or written schedule http://www.mayerjohnson.com http://www.do2learn.org/disabilities/diagnosis/auti
sm_strategies.htm
Antecedent Strategies for Stress/Anxiety
Use of predetermined quiet spot.Use of a social story to explain the quiet spot. Use visuals for a reminder of quiet spot. Use stress barometer to determine realization of feelings of stress. Have a “safe place and person” assigned to student. Teach relaxation and problem solving skills.
Concrete Problem Solving Formula
Name the problem (what is the problem, why is it a problem?)Claim the problem (whose problem is it?)Aim the problem (what can I do about it?)Tame the problem (what is the plan to resolve the situation?)
Moyes, 2004
Alternate Strategies for Older Students
Priming: method of previewing information or activities that a student is likely to have difficulty with before the student is engaged in the challenging situation.
Modified Social Stories
Video Priming
HomeworkAssist the family in developing an appropriate homework setting.Create a homework schedule and limit the amount of time required. Modify the amount of homework required. Review the student’s schedule for opportunities to complete the homework during the school day. Provide a written checklist of the homework requirements with the tasks broken down into smaller parts.
Ernsperger, 2004; Myles, 2005
Florida PBS
Basic Principles of Behavior
Behavior DefinedAnything we SAY or DOIt is HOW WE REACT to our environmentBehaviors are often LEARNED and continue because they serve a PURPOSE or FUNCTIONWe engage in behaviors because we have learned that a DESIRED OUTCOME occurs
Florida PBS
Defining Behavior
Poor impulse controlAngry, hostile, resentfulPaying attentionStubborn
Lying on the floor and refusing to moveHigh pitched screamsHitting with fistKicking over chairsCompleting workcrying
Observational Definition From primary to precise
Primary s:“There is too much fighting at our school
PreciseThere were 30 more ODRs for aggression on the playground than last year, and these are most likely to occur from 12:00-12:30 during fifth grade’s recess because there is a large number of students, and the aggression is related to getting access to the new playground equipment.
The ABC’s of Behavior: A = AntecedentB = BehaviorC = Consequence
Florida PBS
The ABC’s of Behavior:
Understanding the function of behavior is the first step in changing the behaviorUnderstanding comes from repeated observation of:
A – Antecedent (stimulus/trigger before the behavior) B – Behavior (the observable and measurable act) C – Consequence (occurrence after the behavior that serves to maintain or increase frequency of behavior)
Florida PBS
Antecedent Interventions
Rules, procedures, high levels of structurePrecorrection – errorless learningProvide reminders
Picture schedules Pictures of appropriate behaviors Timers
Provide choicesEnsure high levels of academic success
Opportunities to respondProvide effective and functional instruction Teach student to self-monitor desired behaviors
Scheuermann, Sherman Professional Development, 2007
Applied Behavior Analysis Operant Conditioning Behavior Principles
Reinforcement is the KEY!
Positive Reinforcement Implemented directly after
behavior You are adding something Increases behavior
Negative Reinforcement Implemented directly after
the behavior You are taking away
something aversive Increases Behavior
Punishment Implemented directly &
consistently after behavior
Adding or taking away Decreases behavior Natural consequences
for behavior Used as a LAST resort
Extinction Where a previously
reinforced behavior is no longer reinforced
Decreases behavior
Three Procedures to Reduce Behavior
Eliminate the Behavior’s Motivative Operation
Terminate the Behavior’s Reinforcement Contingency
Replace the Behavior with an Alternative Response
Effective Delivery of Reinforcers
Value/Motivation Effort/ContingencyRate/Schedule Magnitude/SizeImmediacy
Functions of BehaviorThe purpose or reason the behavior occurred
Why is it important for us to know the function/purpose of the problem behavior?
To understand why the behavior is occurring To find an appropriate replacement behavior To develop the best behavior support plan To target the appropriate antecedents and
consequences
Florida PBS
Functions of Behavior
Behavior has two major functions: To get something
To get a preferred task or activity To get the attention of an adult or peer To get a specific item or object
To get away from something (avoid) To get away from a specific task or activity To get away from an adult or child To get away from a specific item or object
Florida PBS
Functions of Behavior
ATTENTIONTANGIBLE
(objects & activities)
SENSORY
GET AWAY
GET
Florida PBS
Functions of BehaviorOne behavior can have multiple functions
Example: John can hit at home in order to get out of cleaning his room and other times he can hit in order to get adult attention.
Florida PBS
Functions of BehaviorSeveral behaviors can have the same function
Example: John can use multiple behaviors such as hitting, screaming, and running away in order to get out of cleaning his room.
Florida PBS
Children misbehave for a reason
Many students have learned that their inappropriate behavior is the most effective, more predictable, most efficient way to get attention, power, or status. Also, these students learn at a young age, that they can sometimes avoid difficult, disliked tasks or activities as a result of their inappropriate behavior
Scheuermann, Sherman Professional Development, 2007
Misbehavior sometimes represents a failure to learn a more appropriate alternative
A good rule of thumb: If you seldom or never see the student behave
appropriately in similar situations, assume he does not know HOW to exhibit the expected behavior.
Scheuermann, Sherman Professional Development, 2007
Children of all ages behave best when the environment is clear and predictable
When they can predict success; When they can predict reinforcement; When they understand what is expected of them; When they know the rules and limits.
Scheuermann, Sherman Professional Development, 2007
Functions of Behavior
Remember, the goal is to understand the function or purpose of the problem behavior in order to develop an effective behavior support plan
Florida PBS
Behavioral Objectives Components
Identify the Learner
Identify the Target Behavior
Identify the Conditions of Intervention
Identify Criteria for Acceptable Performance
ExampleGoal: Jason will master basic computation facts at the first-grade level.
Objective: Given a worksheet of 20 single-digit addition on problems in the form 6 + 2 and the written instruction “Find the sums,” Jason will complete all problems with 90% accuracy for 3 consecutive math sessions.
“Without data, you’re just another personwith an opinion”
Leahy & Muniz, APBS Conference, 2008
Data Collection Data may be collected on:
entire classroom of students select individuals within classroom
Target those select individuals that are responsible for the bulk of incidences ORTarget the entire class to obtain more specific information if many students are engaged in problem behavior or to help clarify problem areas Herrmann & White, APBS Conference, 2008
Identify & Analyze the Problem
Direct Observation Data Frequency/Event Recording Duration Recording Scatter Plot Anecdotal/ABC Time Series Recording
Herrmann & White, APBS Conference, 2008
Steps in Functional Behavior Assessment (FBA)
Collect data A. Indirect: opinions about behavior B. Direct: observation in contexts where behavior occurs
Analyze dataDevelop hypothesesDevelop intervention (Behavior Intervention Plan)
Modify antecedents Teach new skills Reinforce prosocial alternatives Use behavior reduction interventions
Monitor interventionAdjust if needed
Scheuermann, Sherman Professional Development, 2007
Frequency/Event RecordingSpecial Connections
http://www.behaviordoctor.org/files/tools/BehaviorCountExample.docA method of recording a tally or frequency count of behavior occurring during an observation periodUsed to track specific problem behavior(s)Example:
Counting the number of times students yell out in class or how often students are out of their seat in
class.
Herrmann & White, APBS Conference, 2008
4 Strokes for Every PokeLanyard
20 beadsStart in the morning with all 20 beads on your left side
Every time you compliment a child on their appropriate behavior move a bead to the right side.
Every time you reprimand a child move 4 beads back to the left side.
permission to use & copy with credit to original author
copyright Riffel 2008
Paper clipsPut 30 paper clips in your left pocket or a cup on the bus.Every time you compliment a child, move a paper clip into the other pocket or cup. Every time you “get after” a child, move 4 paper clips back to where they started.
3x5 index cardTears for positives
Tears for negatives
11 to
5
Duration RecordingSpecial Connections
A method of recording the amount of time that a behavior occurs – Define with clear beginning and end of behaviorUsed for behaviors that last more than a few secondsExamples:
Recording the time spent off task Recording the time spent out of seat Length of time taken to comply with a request
Herrmann & White, APBS Conference, 2008
Scatter PlotSpecial Connections
A method of recording occurrence and nonoccurrence of behavior across activities, routines, and time periods, providing a visual display of patterns – Identifies patterns of responding in natural settings – May suggest possible sources of environmental controlExample
Record occurrence of talking out and the specific times of the occurrence/subject being taught when the behavior is exhibited.
Herrmann & White, APBS Conference, 2008
ABC RecordingSpecial Connections
A method of recording the antecedents and consequences of specific target behaviors.
Identify events that precipitate the behavior Identify variables that maintain the behavior Identify behavior and environmental patterns Aides in determining function of the behavior
ABC
AntecedentBehavior
ConsequenceBehavior
What happened before the behavior? What triggered the behavior?
What a person says or does (Define)
Immediately follows the behavior.
Under what circumstances does the behavior occur?
What outcomes are produced?
Baseline Data Collection Guidelines
Define the behavior that you wish to observe.
Be specific…Observational Definition Decide which type of behavioral recording is best suited to monitor the behavior.Determine if observation data should focus on select individuals or the entire classroom.Decide who will observe the behavior.Decide how long your observations will last.Observe and record classroom behavior.Collect observation data until patterns emerge.
Transition Strategies Dim the lights when a new activity is about to occur, provide a 5 minute verbal warning, or cue card. Allow the student to move through a transition before other students. Provide a visual schedule and place question mark or other signal to alert that a change will be taking place. Provide picture cues of what is coming next.
Social Interventions Two social skill interventions from Carol Gray (TheGrayCenter.org).
Comic Strip Conversations Social Stories
Comic Strip Conversations
Uses simple drawings to illustrate conversations between two or more people.Uses eight symbols to represent basic conversational skills. Uses different colors to describe emotional content of statements, thoughts and questions.May provide insight into a student’s perspective of a situation. May be uses as a prerequisite activity before developing a social story.
Social StoriesDefined by Carol Gray in 1991. The story is a process that ends in a product. Product is a short story that describes social situation, concept or social skill in a format that is meaningful to the student. Results strive to create a sensitivity in students and improved social responses or social behaviors.
Formula 1 directive sentence:
identify a response or choice to a situation by gently guiding the person’s behavior.
make sure to develop these sentences paying careful attention to literal interpretation.
begin sentence with “I will,” “I can,” or “I will try.” may also be a series of response options.
Formula Continued…2 – 5 descriptive, perspective, and affirmative sentences.
Descriptive: free of opinion, truthful statements of fact, majority of the story, and contains answers to the “wh” questions.
Perspective: describes an individual person’s internal thoughts, feelings, beliefs, opinions, motivations, and physical conditions, may describe internal state of student whom story is being written for.
Affirmative: enhance meaning of other statements, express a shared value or opinion of a culture, usually immediately follows a descriptive, perspective, or directive sentence.
Back to School IdeasCreate a student profile for students with ASD.Develop a list of reinforcements. Create reinforcement bags or buckets for students. Color code school subjects and folders.Map of school (if new to building).Make checklists for each class (includes class schedule & required materials). List peer buddies and/or trusted adults. Written classroom rules and teacher expectation. Ernsperger, 2004; Myles, 2005
6 Core Elements of Effective Educational Programming
Individualized supports & services for students and families;Systematic instruction; Comprehensible/structured learning environments;Specialized curriculum content; Functional approach to problem behavior; and Family involvement.
Iovannone, Dunlap, & Huber, 2003
Target Behaviors & Interventions of Individualized Supports & Services
Increase social engagement with peers
Functional use of children’s unique obsessive behaviors as play themes
Increase engagement in tasks & schedules
Picture activity schedules & graduated guidance
Target Behaviors Interventions
Self-initiation of question-asking & generalization
Motivational procedures (incorporation of preferred items, natural reinforcers)
Decreasing rates of disruptive behavior & increasing engagement in instruction
Task interspersal (difficult/easy); least to most prompting; progressive time delay
Increase engagement & on-schedule behaviors
Photographic activity schedules and graduated guidance
Target Behaviors & Interventions of Systematic Instruction
Increase on-task behaviors & school performance
Self-management
Increase discrete behaviors (language, social behaviors, motor skills, etc.)
Intensive DTT compared to eclectic treatment
Target Behaviors Interventions
Target Behaviors & Interventions of Comprehensible Environment
Target Behaviors Interventions
Facilitating transitions between activities
Visual schedules, sub-schedules, “finished” boxes, and timers
Increase acquisition of daily living skills
Pictorial self-management system
Decrease disruptive behavior during transitions
Video priming
Target Behaviors & Interventions of Specific Curriculum Content
Target Behaviors Interventions
Effects of switch training on functional communication
Least-to-most prompts
Increase conversational exchanges
Script-fading with embedded textual cues as stimulus
Increase social participation with peers
Peer mediation
Target Behaviors & Interventions for Problem Behavior
Target Behaviors Interventions
Decrease challenging behaviors & increase appropriate behaviors
School team-based functional behavior assessment
Reduction in challenging behavior
Functional analysis & antecedent manipulations
Decrease challenging behavior
Functional behavior assessment
Target Behaviors & Interventions in Family Involvement
Target Behaviors Interventions
Decrease challenging behavior and increase appropriate behavior
Parent training of functional behavior assessment
Prevention of challenging behavior
Social stories as antecedent intervention in home setting
Freebies!!http://www.behaviordoctor.org/files/tools/ca
ughtyouredhandedcards.dochttp://www.behavioradvisor.com/11583.htm
lBehavior Chartshttp://www.latitudes.org/behavioral_charts.
htmlWelcome Back to School!!ProTeacher! Behavior management and pos
itive discipline plans and strategies for elementary school classsroom teachers in grades K-6 for setting limits and preventing unwanted behaviors through routines and rules resources.
References American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). Washington, DC: Author
Barnhill, G. P. (2001). Social attribution and depression in adolescents with Asperger Syndrome. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 16, 46–53.
Ozonoff, S., Rogers, S. J., & Pennington, B. F. (1991). Executive function deficits in high functioning autistic individuals: Relationship to theory of mind. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 32, 1107–1122.
Baron-Cohen, S., Leslie, A. M., & Frith, U. (1985). Does the autisitc child have a “theory of mind”? Cognition, 21, 37–46.
Myles, B. S., & Adreon, D. (2001). Asperger syndrome and adolescence: Practical solutions for school success. Shawnee Mission, KS:Autism /Asperger Publishing
Frith, U. (1991). Autism and Asperger syndrome. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Myles, B. S., & Southwick, J. (1999). Asperger syndrome and difficult moments: Practical solutions for tantrums, rage, and meltdowns. Shawnee Mission, KS: Autism/ Asperger Publishing.
Siegel, D., Minshew, N., & Goldstein, G. (1996). Weschler IQ profiles in diagnosis of high-functioning autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 26, 389–406.
Barnhill, G. P., & Myles, B. S. (2001). Attributional style and depression in adolescents with Asperger syndrome. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 3, 175-183.
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Hume, K. (2006). Get engaged! Designing instructional activities to help students stay on-task. Reporter 11(2), 6-9.
Iovannone, R., Dunlap, G., Huber, H., & Kincaid, D. (2003). Effective educational practices for students with autism spectrum disorders. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 18, 150-166
Williams, K. (1995). Understanding the student with asperger syndrome: guidelines for teachers. Focus on Autistic Behavior, 10, 9-16.