Instructional Design ModelsKelly Moss

What is Instructional Design?

Lets begin by first stating the meaning of Instructional design as listed in literature.

There are many definitions of Instructional Design. Each are similar, however carry their own

spin on the term. I listed a few that I believe offer an accurate portrayal of the term.

“Instructional Design is the practice of creating instructional tools and content to help

facilitate learning most effectively. The process consists broadly of determining the current state

and needs of the learner, defining the end goal of instruction, and creating some "intervention" to

assist in the transition. Ideally the process is informed by pedagogically tested theories of

learning and may take place in student-only, teacher-led or community-based settings. The

outcome of this instruction may be directly observable and scientifically measured or completely

hidden and assumed. There are many instructional design models, but many are based on the

ADDIE model with the phases analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation.

As a field, instructional design is historically and traditionally rooted in cognitive and behavioral

psychology” (Instructional Design: Wikipedia).

“Instructional Design is the systematic development of instructional specifications using

learning and instructional theory to ensure the quality of instruction. It is the entire process of

analysis of learning needs and goals and the development of a delivery system to meet those

needs. It includes development of instructional materials and activities; and tryout and evaluation

of all instruction and learner activities” (Definition: University of Michigan).

“It is strategic planning of a course. It is a blueprint that you design and follow. It helps

us connect all the dots to form a clear picture of teaching and learning events” (Instructional

Design: Raleighway).

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I too have my own perspective on the term Instructional Design. I define Instructional

Design as developing instructional lessons tailored for each individual learner and situation. The

lessons are based on information compiled in various means from the learners to produce

maximum results and waste minimum time and resources.

There are more than 100 different instructional models from which to chose, such as the

ADDIE, the Dick and Carey, the Kemp, Rapid Prototyping, Robert Gagne’s, etc. However I will

be discussing three within this paper: The ADDIE, Dick and Carey, and Morrison, Ross, and

Kemp (also known as the Kemp Model).

The ADDIE Model

The ADDIE model is the basic foundation of almost all other ID models. The letters

spelling ADDIE are an acronym representing the five phases of the model. They symbolize

Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation. Instructional Designers and

training developers typically use the ADDIE model as a generic process for designing models. It

serves as a flexible and dynamic guideline for planning instruction and training. In the ADDIE

Model, each step has an outcome that feeds the subsequent step.

Analysis Design Development Implementation Evaluation

During the Analysis phase, the designer develops a clear understanding of the "gaps"

between the desired outcomes or behaviors, and the audience's existing knowledge and skills.

The Design phase documents specific learning objectives, assessment instruments, exercises, and

content. The Development phase creates the learning materials. The materials are delivered or

distributed to the student group during the Implementation phase. And after the delivery, the

effectiveness of the training materials is Evaluated.

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The encyclopedia, Wikipedia, best describes the various phases of the ADDIE Model

in greatest detail. Stated below are Wikipedia’s depictions of the Analysis, Design,

Development, Implementation, and Evaluation phases of the ADDIE Model.

Analysis Phase

“In the analysis phase, the instructional problem is clarified, the instructional goals and

objectives are established and the learning environment and learner's existing knowledge

and skills are identified. Below are some of the questions that are addressed during the

analysis phase:

Who is the audience and what are their characteristics?

Identify the new behavioral outcome.

What types of learning constraints exist?

What are the delivery options?

What are the online pedagogical considerations?

What are the Adult Learning Theory considerations?

What is the timeline for project completion?

Design Phase

The design phase deals with learning objectives, assessment instruments, exercises,

content, subject matter analysis, lesson planning, and media selection. The design phase

should be systematic and specific. Systematic means a logical, orderly method of

identifying, developing and evaluating a set of planned strategies targeted for attaining

the project's goals. Specific means each element of the instructional design plan needs to

be executed with attention to details.

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These are the steps used for the design phase:

Documentation of the project's instructional, visual and technical design strategy

Apply instructional strategies according to the intended behavioral outcomes by

domain (cognitive, affective, and psychomotor).

Design the user interface and user experience

Prototype creation

Apply visual design (graphic design)

Development Phase

The development phase is where instructional designers and developers create and

assemble the content assets that were blueprinted in the design phase. In this phase,

storyboards are created, content is written and graphics are designed. If e learning is

involved, programmers work to develop and/or integrate technologies. Testers perform

debugging procedures. The project is reviewed and revised according to any feedback

given.

Implementation Phase

During the implementation phase, a procedure for training the facilitators and the learners

is developed. The facilitators' training should cover the course curriculum, learning

outcomes, method of delivery, and testing procedures. Preparation of the learners

includes training them on new tools (software or hardware) and student registration.

This is also the phase where the project manager ensures that the books, hands-on

equipment, tools, CD-ROMs and software are in place, and that the learning application

or website is functional.

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Evaluation Phase

The evaluation phase consists of two parts: formative and summative. Formative

evaluation is present in each stage of the ADDIE process. Summative evaluation consists

of tests designed for domain specific criterion-related referenced items and providing

opportunities for feedback from the users which were identified” (The ADDIE Model:

Wikipedia).

“The ADDIE model has been criticized by some as being too systematic, that is, too

linear, too inflexible, too constraining, and even too time-consuming to implement. As an

alternative to the systematic approach, there are a variety of systemic design models that

emphasize a more holistic, iterative approach to the development of training. Rather than

developing the instruction in phases, the entire development team works together from the start

to rapidly build modules, which can be tested with the student audience, and then revised based

on their feedback” (Kruse, 2001).

“One commonly accepted improvement to this model is the use of rapid prototyping. This

is the idea of receiving continual or formative feedback while instructional materials are being

created. This model attempts to save time and money by catching problems while they are still

easy to fix” (ADDIE Model: Learning-Theories).

Dick and Carey

Another well-known instructional design model is the Dick and Carey model, also known

as the Systems Approach Model. Walter Dick and Lou Carey originally published the model in

1978 in their book entitled The Systematic Design of Instruction.

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The components within this model are “executed iteratively and in parallel, rather than

linearly”. Dick and Carey developed a model that utilized “design field by championing a

systems view of instruction as opposed to viewing instruction as a sum of isolated parts” (Dick

and Carey Model: Wikipedia). The model focuses on the interrelationship between context,

content, learning and instruction, and addresses instruction as an entire system. “It also follows

the Gagneian approach (from Robert Gagne who developed the Conditions of Learning Theory),

to instructional design, incorporating conditions of learning and stressing a hierarchical analysis

and approach to designing instruction” (Dick and Carey Model: Wikibooks).

According to Dick and Carey, "Components such as the instructor, learners, materials,

instructional activities, delivery system, and learning and performance environments interact

with each other and work together to bring about the desired student learning outcomes" (Dick

and Carey Model: Wikipedia).

The Dick and Carey Model includes the following components:

Stage 1: Identify Instructional Goals

Stage 2. Conduct Instructional Analysis

Stage 3. Identify Entry Behaviors and Learner Characteristics

Stage 4: Write Performance Objectives

Stage 5. Develop Assessment Instruments

Stage 6. Develop Instructional Strategy

Stage 7: Develop and Select Instructional Materials

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Stage 8: Design and Conduct Formative Evaluation of Instruction

Stage 9: Design and Conduct Summative Evaluation

 (Dick and Carey Model: InstructionalDesign.org).

The Kemp Design Model

The Morrison, Ross and Kemp (also known as the Kemp) instructional design model

takes a holistic approach to instructional design. Virtually all factors of the learning environment

are taken into consideration. Its systematic and nonlinear design defines nine different

components that are contentiously implemented and evaluated. (Kemp Model: Edutechwiki).

The nine components to the Kemp design are:

1. Identify instructional problems, and specify goals for designing an instructional

program.

2. Examine learner characteristics that should receive attention during planning.

3. Identify subject content, and analyze task components related to stated goals and

purposes.

4. State instructional objectives for the learner.

5. Sequence content within each instructional unit for logical learning.

6. Design instructional strategies so that each learner can master the objectives.

7. Plan the instruction message and delivery.

8. Develop evaluation instruments to assess objectives.

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9. Select resources to support instruction and learning activities.

(Kemp Model: InstructionalDesign.org).

The wide, oval shape of the model portrays the iterative cycle that involves continuous

planning, design, development, and assessment to insure effective instruction, while also

allowing the design to be revised as needed. The authors state that a designer can start at any

point in the process, as well as change the order of the steps and revisions as needed in the

project.

(Kemp Model: Edutechwiki).

The nine small ovals represent the nine basic steps of the design process. The two, larger

surrounding ovals represent the ongoing process of the activities throughout the project. The

first oval (Revision and Formative Evaluation) is implemented at each stage of the development

process, making the learning materials highly effective by the end of the project, if carried out

carefully and concisely. The second oval (Planning Activities, Project Management, Arranging

Necessary Services to support the implemented project and instruction, and any Summative

Evaluations), contains crucial elements, however, are sometimes overlooked, or not given the

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appropriate amount of attention by the designer, due to deadlines and budgets. Often designers

who are on time restraints and tight budgets are not able to implement the numerous tests and

revisions they would have liked to do, resulting in materials that may not have undergone all

aspects that the model implies. (Overview of Instructional Systems Design).

Its central focus of the Kemp Model is the learner needs and goals, and is small scale,

making it adaptable for individual lessons. The model is particularly useful for developing

instructional programs that blend technology, pedagogy and content to deliver effective, reliable,

and efficient learning and seems to encourage designers to work in all areas defined.

While this model focuses on content analysis, like other educational design models, it

sets itself apart by also placing emphasis on support and service (Kemp Model: Edutechwiki).

A Comparison of the Dick and Carey Model and the Kemp Model.

Although the Dick and Carey Model and the Kemp follow the basic instructional design

pattern of Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation, the Dick and Carey

model follows a more behaviorist approach, linking stimulus and response, which in this case

would mean instructional materials to the learning of the material. The instruction presented in

the Dick and Carey model is broken down into smaller pieces, or “sub-skills” that should be

mastered in order for the learners to obtain the projected behaviors. The Kemp model appears

more useful for large-scale instructional design process, involving several team members and

multiple types of resources, while the systematic approach of the Dick and Carey model makes it

difficult to adapt multiple team members and different types of resources.

While both models contain nine components/steps, that seem to consist of similar

methods, the Kemp model claims that not all nine of the listed elements are necessary to

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complete the design process. On the other hand, the Dick and Carey model states that all nine

components are essential and should not be skipped. The nine components of each model are

listed below to use for comparison.

The Dick and Carey Model

Stage 1: Identify Instructional Goals

Stage 2. Conduct Instructional Analysis

Stage 3. Identify Entry Behaviors and Learner Characteristics

Stage 4: Write Performance Objectives

Stage 5. Develop Assessment Instruments

Stage 6. Develop Instructional Strategy

Stage 7: Develop and Select Instructional Materials

Stage 8: Design and Conduct Formative Evaluation of Instruction

Stage 9: Design and Conduct Summative Evaluation

The Kemp Model

1. Identify instructional problems, and specify goals for designing an instructional

program.

2. Examine learner characteristics that should receive attention during planning.

3. Identify subject content, and analyze task components related to stated goals and

purposes.

4. State instructional objectives for the learner.

5. Sequence content within each instructional unit for logical learning.

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6. Design instructional strategies so that each learner can master the objectives.

7. Plan the instruction message and delivery.

8. Develop evaluation instruments to assess objectives.

9. Select resources to support instruction and learning activities.

Although both models could be used by Instructional Designers of any experience level,

the Dick and Carey model may be favored by beginner instructional designers because of the

step-by-step descriptions to follow, while more experienced designers may favor the Kemp

model because it allows not only creativity, but helps the designers start the process from any

step.

The Kemp model differs from the Dick and Carey for several reasons. It considers

instruction from the perspective of the learners, it provides a continuous approach to the

application of instruction, it puts more emphasis on management techniques of the design

process, and the nine steps listed in the Kemp Model are interdependent, and do not necessarily

have to be implemented in the order in which they were listed. Even the appearances of the

models listing the nine components differ. The Kemp design is circular rather than linear as

opposed to the Dick and Carey Model.

According to Yavuz Akbulut, “both models appear to have a systems focus. However,

Gustafson and Branch (2001) classify the MRK (Kemp) model as a classroom orientation ID

model and the DC (Dick and Carey) model as a system orientation ID model. The classroom

focus involves teachers in deciding appropriate content, strategies, media usage and evaluation.

It is of interest primarily to teachers who look for instructional solutions to learning problems.

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However, the MRK model suggests both instructional and non-instructional solutions and

assigns flexible roles to members of a larger team. … If the output of instructional design rather

than the ID process is taken into account, the MRK (Kemp) model could be considered as a

classroom orientation model since it leads to an output of one or few hours of instruction,

whereas systems-orientated models lead to an output of a whole course or curriculum” (Akbulut,

Yavuz. 2007).

The Value of Instructional Design Today as it Relates to the Changing Nature of

Society and Learners

The ADDIE, Dick and Carey, and Kemp models hold significant importance to today’s

thriving society. Companies are forced to compete against eachother for business, and therefore,

have begun implementing these designs to improve the production of employees and the

company as a whole. These and other numerous design models enable an Instructional Designer

to come in, assess the company/employees at their current disposition, and develop an

appropriate strategy for improvement, that is specifically tailored to meet their individual needs

and desires. While each design model is similar in its own retrospect, they also present numerous

differences, allowing the designer to pick the model that best suits the learners and/or situation,

and produce a desirable outcome.

The use of these ID models are not only evident in the workplace, they are utilized daily

by educators within the classroom. While educators may not refer to the models specifically by

name, they continuously evaluate, plan, implement, and reevaluate students to assess

comprehension and plan future instruction. These models serve as a template to meet the needs

of various learners at a differentiated level of instruction rather than teaching to the class as a

whole. The expectations of teachers have risen from simply assigning readings out of the

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textbook and giving a chapter test, to assessing individual learners with pretests, teaching lessons

accordingly to meet the individual needs of students, and then administering a posttest to

evaluate whether to re-teach or continue onto the next concept. Instructional design is becoming

increasingly evident in all aspects of today’s society, resulting in a higher standard of learning.

The Value of Instructional Design in Schools

As previously stated, Instructional Design is a highly effective tool that is implemented in

the schools as an ongoing process. Teachers follow the ID models by first finding out the GPS

(State Standards) that align with that grade/subject, research lessons on the Internet and other

printed materials to use as resources and serve as tools to teach the concept, look through the

student textbook to see if and materials could be utilized these in the lesson as well, and make

short pre-assessments that gives immediate feedback assessing prior knowledge. After assessing

how much of the concept/material the students already know, the teacher must then plan several

lessons/activities on various levels of intellectual capacity (having little or no knowledge of the

concept, having some knowledge of the concept, and having great knowledge of the concept and

needing extended activities to challenge the students). Finally, the teacher must make a post-test

to administer assessing what the students learned to either plan the next lesson or give use as a

tool to re-teach.

While all teachers should use Instructional design models to plan, teach, and evaluate

progress, I feel as though the models would vary depending on the individual situation, students,

objectives, etc. Chapter 1 in Designing Effective Instruction states, “a number of different

considerations appeal to educators and instructional designers as each starts planning. …each of

us selects an order or sequence of our own to treat these elements.” (Designing Effective

Instruction)

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No matter what model the teacher decides to implement, there are four key components

that need to be addressed,

1. Learners – “defining the characteristics of the target audience” (Designing Effective

Instruction). Such as assessing prior knowledge.

2. Objectives – “specify exactly what the learner must master” (Designing Effective

Instruction). Such as using the Georgia Performance Standards.

3. Methods – “how the subject content or skill is best learned” (Designing Effective

Instruction). Such as using internet support, textbooks, and other available resource to

present the material.

4. Evaluation – “used to assess the learner’s mastery of the objectives” (Designing Effective

Instruction). Such as assessing the student’s mastery of the concept by administering the

post-test.

My Role as an Instructional Designer

My role as a future Instructional designer has many duties. It is to not only give the

learner access to all things needed to learn the material, whether it be a safe learning

environment, materials, such as pencils and paper, a trusting relationship with the teacher, or just

the information itself presented in easily understandable manner, but is to also be available for

students to come to for questions, or clarification of a lesson as needed.

It is the Instructional Designer’s responsibility to continuously assess the students’

knowledge of the material and plan accordingly to either move on to the next concept if the

students were able to master the skill, or revise and re-teach the lesson if results show that the

concept needs to be redelivered. Chapter 1 in Designing Effective Instruction states, that

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“Knowing the basic principals of instructional design can help to ensure that what is produced

serves a necessary purpose, meets the needs of students, is attractive and well organized, is

delivered in an appropriate mode, and is continually evaluated and improved.”

Reflection on Instructional Design Models

Although there are numerous models from which to choose, the basic ID concept of

continuously meeting individual needs is the overlaying factor in each. While choosing an

appropriate model for the learner/situation holds significant importance, the learner’s

understanding and improvement is the most desired outcome of the entire Instructional Design

process.

Adapting the Models to Meet the Needs of Students

The benefits of Instructional Design are numerous. Instructional Design puts the focus

back on the students/learners rather than on a timeline of having things done. These days,

teachers are so concerned about having all content covered in time for the Standardized Test

(CRCT), it seems as though their lessons are based more on a timeline rather than on student

needs and capabilities. Teachers feel as though they can’t “waste” too much time on one concept

because they will run out of time to cover all the rest of the material in a certain timeframe.

By using the Instructional Design method, teachers may be able to teach more

effectively, allowing the students to gain more meaning of the concept the first few lessons, and

not have to waste time re-teaching the material over again, or moving on to the next concept

without student mastery. Some things the teacher needs to know about a class or student could

be student demographics, learning styles, physical/emotional needs, handicap accommodations,

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etc. When informed about the students, a teacher will be able to plan for, and present the

material in a more affective manner.

How I gained a better understanding of the AASL Standards

Standard 1: Use of Information and Ideas

1.4 Stimulating Learning Environment – This research helped me understand how a

stimulating learning environment aids in producing positive results. I now firmly believe

that in order to have a stimulating learning environment, the teacher, or instructional

designer, must address all needed components of the lesson and/or process for the student

to remain actively engaged in the lesson. By keeping the learner engaged in the lesson,

there is more probability that they will retain the information presented resulting in

positive results.

Standard 2: Teaching and Learning

2.2 Effective and Knowledgeable Teaching - I have also gained a better understanding of

the meaning of “effective and knowledgeable teaching”. While this term refers to

numerous aspects of instruction, I will explain one area that I have focused on throughout

this assignment: assessment.

In order to teach effectively, the instructional designer must assess the learner’s

knowledge at various times throughout the lesson. This process should begin by first

assessing prior knowledge to determine a starting point for the instruction, and

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subsequently follow-up after initial instruction to re-assess before continuing on with

further instruction. This information enables the instructor to make effective and

knowledgeable decisions for instructional purposes.

Standard 3: Collaboration and Leadership

3.2 Instructional Partner: Although instructional design is a collaborative process that

can involve teams of people, the most important relationship I have found in doing this

research is that of the instructor and the learner. The two must work continuously

together and collaborate in order for the process to produce positive results. The

collaboration is more like a working relationship where one partner asks for help and the

other offers resources to improve the problem.

Standard 4: Program Administration

4.3 Comprehensive and Collaborative Strategic Planning and Assessment: Throughout

this research project, I have come to find one underlying factor between all ID models.

While each model varies in particular aspects, they all must possess strategic planning

and assessment in order to be successful. The planning for each situation revolves

around the projected outcome of the learners. If the crucial elements are addressed and

altered to meet the needs of each individual learner, the outcome will be positive. The

only way this can be made possible is through comprehensive and collaborative strategic

planning and assessment.

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Works Cited

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theories.com/addie-model.html>

“ADDIE Model.” Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. March 5, 2009. April 6, 2009.

<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ADDIE_Model.>

Akbulut, Yavuz. “Implications of Two Well-Known Models for Instructional Designers in

Distance Education: Dick-Carey versus Morrison-Ross-Kemp.” ERIC Database: Online

Submission. April 1, 2007. 7 pages. Aril 5, 2009.

<http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/

28/0c/62.pdf>

“An Overview of Instructional Systems Design.” University of Alberta. October 1, 2004. April

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<www.umich.edu/~ed626/define.html>

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<http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Instructional_Technology/Instructional_Design/Dick_&_C

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arey>

“Dick and Carey Model.” Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. April 6, 2009. April 6, 2009.

<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#Dick_and_Carey>

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"Instructional Design." Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. April 6, 2009. April 6, 2009.

<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design.>

“Kemp Design Model.” Edutechwiki. June 4, 2007. April 5, 2009.

<http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Kemp_design_model>

“Kemp Model,The.” InstructionalDesign.org. 2009. April 5, 2009.

<http://www.instructionaldesign.org/models/kemp_model.html>

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