Instructional Design & Distance Learning

A Brief OverviewByElaine Bontempi, Ph.D.Instructional Design & Distance LearningThis is a brief overview of Instructional Design, and how instructional design principles an be applied in distance learning1What is it?Why use it?Asks Three Basic QuestionsWhere are we going? (Analysis)How do we get there? (Design)How do we know weve arrived? (Evaluation)Instructional DesignAt the basic level, the instructional designers job is to answer three major questions:

Where are we going (ie, what are the objectives of instruction)How will we get there? (What is the instructional strategy and the instructional medium)?How will we know when we have arrived? (What should our tests look like? How will we evaluate and revise the instructional materials?)

These three questions can also be stated as major phases in an instructional design process:Instructional AnalysisInstructional StrategyEvaluation

Advantages of using Instructional Design Models are that they:

Focus on the learner (often times the ID is not a SME and they work closely with a SME to make information clearer to the learners)Supports effective, efficient, and appealing instructionSupports coordination between designers, developers, and those who are implementing the instructionFacilitates the distribution of instruction (can be duplicated and easily distributed)Facilitates the congruence among objectives, activities and assessment

2The first thing that Ive been asked by instructors that Ive worked with in the past when helping them to develop their courses is, What is Instructional Design and Why do I need an instructional designer to help me develop a class when I am a subject matter expert?

Dick & Carey ModelAssess NeedsToIdentify GoalsWrite PerformanceObjectivesDevelopAssessmentInstrumentsDevelopInstructionalStrategyDevelop&SelectInstructionalMaterialsDesign &ConductFormative EvaluationDesign &ConductSummative EvaluationRevise InstructionConductInstructionalAnalysisAnalyzeLearners&Contexts3Smith & RaganContextLearnersTaskDetermineOrganizational StrategiesDelivery StrategiesManagement StrategiesWrite &ProduceInstructionConductFormativeEvaluationReviseInstructionWrite TestItemsAnalysisStrategyEvaluation4ADDIE ModelThe ADDIE instructional design model provides a step-by-step process that helps training specialists plan and create training programs. The ADDIE design model revolves around the following five components: AnalysisDesignDevelopmentImplementationEvaluation

Analysis PhaseIn the analysis phase, the instructional problem is clarified, the instructional goals and objectives are established and the learning environment and learner's existing knowledge and skills are identified. Below are some of the questions that are addressed during the analysis phase:Learner analysisContent analysisContext Analysis

Design PhaseThe design phase deals with learning objectives, assessment instruments, exercises, content, subject matter analysis, lesson planning and media selection. These are steps involved in design phase:Document the project's instructional, visual and technical design strategyApply instructional strategies according to the intended behavioral outcomes by domain (cognitive, affective, and psychomotor).Design the user interface and/or user experienceCreate prototypeApply visual design (graphic design)

Development PhaseThe development phase is where instructional designers and developers create and assemble the content assets that were blueprinted in the design phase. In this phase, storyboards and graphics are designed. If elearning is involved, programmers develop and/or integrate technologies. Testers perform debugging procedures. The project is reviewed and revised according to the feedback received.

Implementation PhaseDuring the implementation phase, a procedure for training the facilitators and the learners is developed. The facilitators' training should cover the course curriculum, learning outcomes, method of delivery, and testing procedures. Preparation of the learners includes training them on new tools (software or hardware) and student registration.This is also the phase where the project manager ensures that the books, hands-on equipment, tools, CD-ROMs and software are in place, and that the learning application or website is functional.

Evaluation PhaseThe evaluation phase consists of two parts: formative and summative. Formative evaluation is present in each stage of the ADDIE process. Summative evaluation consists of tests designed for domain specific criterion-related referenced items and providing opportunities for feedback from the users which were identified

5WBID ModelAnalyzeEvaluationPlanningFull Implemen-tationSummativeEvaluation & ResearchFormativeEvaluation

Develop-mentInitialImplemen-tationDesignConcurrent Design6The first difference between WBID model and other ID models is the location of the evaluation. In most models, the evaluation is at the end, whereas in the WBID model, planning for the evaluation occurs immediately after the analysis stage. EARLY PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTATION WILL HELP ENSURE THAT FORMATIVE EVALUATION IS NO LONGER AND OVERLOOKED PROCESS IN INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN.

A second difference between the WBID Model and traditional ID models is in the use of tryout groups during formative evaluation. ID models such as Dick & Carey model, advocate the use of tryout groups (one to one, small group, and field trials) at the end of the development stage. The WBID Model, however, not only includes such tryout group activities, but also systematically integrates opportunities for experts and learners to review the instruction at the beginning of and throughout design. The WBID Model, not only includes such tryout group activities, but also systematically integrates opportunities for experts and learners to review the instruction at the beginning of and throughout design.

The third difference is in the early, preliminary planning of summative evaluation found in the WBID Model as compared to other ID models, although detailed planning of summative evaluation occurs after the WBI has been used by a large number of learners, which is similar to processes in traditional ID models. The main purpose of this early preliminary planning is to ensure that data on the existing instructional situation can be obtained prior to the WBI being adopted and implemented.

The Fourth difference is the Concurrent design of WBID, where the design, development, and the conducting of formative evaluation occur concurrently, following the evaluation planning stage.

THE WBID MODEL ACCOUNTS FOR THE INFLUX OF NEW INFORMATION, CHANGES WITH WEBSITE LINKS, AND NEW INNOVATIONS FOUND IN THE LEARNING MANAGEMENT SYSTEM, COMPUTER HARDWARE, OR SOFTWARE APPLICATIONS AND UTILITIES.

Front End AnalysisContext AnalysisSubstantiate need for instructionDescribe learning environment (computers, equipment, access to instructors, resources, etc)Learner AnalysisWho are your learners? (age, demographics, etc)What are their experiences/capabilities/skill levels/language?Learning Task Analysis (content)Write Instructional GoalDetermine type of learning goals (Gagne)Information processing analysis of goalPrerequisite analysis of goalWrite Performance Objectives for goal and each of the pre-requisites

AnalysisThere are basically 3 components to any analysis phase:Analyzing the Context (also called the Needs Analysis or Needs Assessment, or sometimes the front ends analysis or gap analysis)Substantiate a need for instruction (make sure it is not a motivational or other issue such as lack of training, new equipment, etc)Describe learning context (access to equipment, teachers, resources, etc)Analyzing the LearnersWho are your learners? Language/Skill levels/age/developmental stages/prior learning/demographics

Analyzing the Learning TaskThe final product of the learning task analysis is a list of objectives that explicitly describes what the learners should know or be able to do at the completion of instruction and the prerequisite skills and knowledge that learners will need in order to achieve that objective.7Are there learning goals that are not being met by our students?Is existing instruction being delivered efficiently?Has the program hired and retained competent staff?Is instruction unappealing, and therefore, impeding the motivation, interest, and perseverance of learners?Is instruction for unreached learning goals being presented already?Should new learning goals be added to the curriculum?Has there been a change in the composition of the learner population?Determining the Need for a Needs AnalysisOne can determine whether or not a formal needs assessment is necessary by answering the following six questions:

If there are learning goals that are not being reached by an acceptable percentage of the students, then these goals are possible candidates for the development for instruction.Instruction that requires the expending of effort, time, and other resources beyond that needed by alternate or revised instruction can be considered inefficient. Inefficient instruction often indicates that an alternate form of instructional delivery is appropriate, such as multimedia, course management systems, etc.If learners are unmotivated and uninterested in the instruction, their perseverance in the learning task and pleasure in learning, in general, may be substantially reduced.If instruction for unreached goals is already being delivered, then the first thing that should be considered is a revision of the current instruction.Sometimes, there are changes in educational philosophies or pressures from interest groups that might cause new learning goals to be added to the curriculum.Often there is a change in learner composition that requires new instruction. For example, changes in military students, changes in demographics of students (ex: minority groups, women, etc).8One can determine whether or not a formal needs assessment is necessary by answering the following six questions:

Three Component Objectives:Terminal behavior/performanceConditions of demonstration of the behaviorPerformance statement or criterion

Writing a Performance ObjectiveExamples:

Given a list of 20 chemical elements and their symbols in random order, the learner will match the element name with the symbol. At least 18 of these matches must be correct.

Given a short essay exam, students will provide a response to each question with at least 70% accuracy.

Assigned to a virtual team and a motivational case, students will identify the motivational problems , and provide an intervention strategy based upon at least two of the motivational theories discussed in class.9Objectives can be written at the lesson level, the course level, or various intermediate levels such as units, blocks, or chapters. Typically try to adhere to the three-component objective, which is a verbal statement of learning outcomes that include three parts:

Given a short essay exam, students will provide a response to each question with at least 70% accuracy.

Assigned to a virtual team and a motivational case, students will identify the motivational problems , and provide an intervention strategy based upon at least two of the motivational theories discussed in class.

Examples of Performance Objectives10Organizational StrategyIntroductionBodyOpportunities for practice with feedbackConclusionAssessmentDelivery StrategySelection of technological toolsManagement StrategyHow will you manage your online courses?Development of Instructional Strategies11Examples of Organization of Material in DL Courseshttp://www.ou.edu/cls/online/lstd2333/

http://www.ou.edu/cls/online/lstd2700pd/

http://www.ou.edu/cls/online/lstd5790motivation/

http://www.learn.ou.edu

http://www.excelsior.edu

12Some estimated attrition rates between 30-70% (Bouhnik & Marcus, 2006;Tyler-Smith, 2005)Personal motivation cited as #1 contributor to attrition in D.L. (instructional design was listed as 2nd) (Tyler-Smith, 2005)Isolation is a major problem in D.L.Self regulation an issueWhy is Motivation Important in Distance Learning?13Kellers ARCSFlow (Csiskszentmihalyi, 1990)Intrinsic & Extrinsic Motivation/SDT (Deci & Ryan)Goals (Dweck & Elliot)Cultural Diversity (Ogbu)

Motivational Theories14AttentionRelevanceConfidenceSatisfactionKELLERS ARCS MODEL15ATTENTIONStrategies are to gain and sustain learner attention and interest in instructional materials.

RELEVANCEMaterial must be relevant or useful in meeting students needseither relating to personal goals or relevant to everyday life/work

CONFIDENCEBuild confidence in learnerspromote expectations of success

SATISFACTIONLearners must enjoy and be satisfied with the learning. In other words, it must be meaningful and they must be able to use the newly required skills in authentic learning experiences.

Example Application of Kellers ARCS ModelAttention1. Incongruity & Conflict: Use contradictions; play devils advocate.2. Concreteness: Use visual representations, anecdotes and biographies.3. Variability: Change instructional format, media, layout and design, novel stimuli, images, audio files, etc.4. Inquiry: problem solving activities/Case Studies5. Participation: games, simulations, case studies, collaborative activities, discussion boards/chats/social networking7. Novel Stimuli: video clips/YouTube/PBS online documentaries/audio clips/podcasts/Flickr/Relevance

1. Experience: connect new learning w/ existing knowledge; relate to learner interests2. Present Worth: explicitly state the current value of the instruction3. Future Usefulness: Relate instruction to future goals4. Modeling: Peer-modeling, etc.5. Assessment: e-portfolios, journal activities, research projectsConfidence1. Learning Requirements: Advise students of requirements (goals/objectives)2. Difficulty: sequence activities in increasing difficulty3. Self Confidence: Foster using confidence strategiesSatisfaction1. Natural Consequences: Allow students to use newly acquired skills in realistic, successful settings.2. Unexpected Rewards: Include student expectation of extrinsic reward (for boring tasks only) or use a surprise reward3. Positive Outcomes: Provide feedback, praise, personal attention, motivation-immediately16ATTENTIONStrategies are to gain and sustain learner attention and interest in instructional materials.

RELEVANCEMaterial must be relevant or useful in meeting students needseither relating to personal goals or relevant to everyday life/work

CONFIDENCEBuild confidence in learnerspromote expectations of success

SATISFACTIONLearners must enjoy and be satisfied with the learning. In other words, it must be meaningful and they must be able to use the newly required skills in authentic learning experiences.

Proposes distinctions between intrinsic and extrinsic motivations.Based upon several mini theories including:CET OITBNTSELF DETERMINATION THEORY (Deci & Ryan)17Behavior Non-Self Determined Self DeterminedMotivation

RegulatoryStyles

Perceived Locus ofCausality

RelevantRegulatoryProcessesAmotivationNon-RegulationExtrinsic MotivationExternalRegulationIntrojectedRegulationIdentified RegulationIntegratedRegulationIntrinsic MotivationIntrinsic RegulationImpersonal External Somewhat Somewhat Internal Internal External Internal Nonintentional, Compliance Self-Control Personal Congruence, InterestNon-valuing, External Ego- Importance Awareness Enjoyment,Incompetence, Rewards & Involvement, Conscious Synthesis InherentLack of Control Punishments Internal Valuing With Self SatisfactionFigure 1. The Self-Determination Continuum Showing Types of Motivation with their Regulatory Styles, Loci of Causality, and Corresponding Processes.From Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well being, by R.M. Ryan and E.L. Deci, 2000, American Psychologist, January, p. 72

18Asynchronous (choice in time/schedule)AssignmentsTeam members Always on or anytime anywhere

SDT and DL: Need for Autonomy19Mastery oriented learningHuman Information Processing (chunking)FlowPractice with feedbackSDT & DL: Need for Competence20Social NetworkingNing.comSKYPEYackpackRecordPadiPodDel.icious.comFlickrSDT & DL: Need for RelatednessSocial Networking software can be used for Increasing the sense of community and decreasing the sense of isolation. It can also increase learner support.There are several social networking programs that would be useful for satisfying the need for relatedness and increasing that sense of community and belonging.

Ning.com: is a great way for introductions and responses to intros from other students. It is similar to facebook where you can upload images, and other media files, provide favorite links, etc but is being promoted within education environments (Pearson, Wiley, etc)

SKYPE or ooVoo:Group discussionsTeacher to student tutoring/Q&A/Office hrs, feedback on assignments, etcCollab work such as teamwork.

YackPack1 on 1 or group audio messages or realtime chats

RecordPadRecord MP3 voice messages and send to students in email or post in CMS

iPodRecord lectures/postAudacity free file conversion and compression

De.licious.comFor social bookmarking (annotated bibliographies on a topic and share with class members)

Flickr (and other media sharing software programs)Ex: architecture or art classes---can share imagesE-portfolios

21Flow: the state in which people are so intensely involved in an activity that nothing else seems to matter; the experience itself is so enjoyable that people will do it even at great cost, for the sheer sake of doing it.

Flow is a function of two variables:Perceived challengesPerceived skills

Flow Theory (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990)22Flow Theory & DLLearners need to operate a complex system, so the feeling of control and the degree of interactivity are important.

Liao (2006) found that:Interactivity has the greatest effect over flow experiences in a DL environmentThe type of interactivity matters:Learner-Instructor Interaction = positive relationshipLearner-Interface Interaction = positive relationshipLearner-Learner Interaction = no relationship23Evaluation Stage has two parts:Formative Evaluation Summative EvaluationEvaluation24FORMATIVE:A formative evaluation is conducted while the instruction is being implemented. Its purpose is to identify any weaknesses in instruction and ultimately, to improve instruction, determining whether instructional goals have been met, identifying any problems with delivery of instruction, learner satisfaction, etc.

Many schools and industries overlook the evaluations and this is a major error. Rather than simply having smiley checks for students to submit at the end of each unitwhether or not they liked the course, pros and cons, etc. a more inclusive evaluation should be conducted that looks at student scores, whether or not learning goals have been met, whether or not technology is working, the interface design, accessibility, as well as student satisfaction.

SUMMATIVE:Studies the effects of the instruction that provides information to the stakeholders on how well it has worked within the organization. The summative evaluation is used to make decisions on whether or not to continue a program or adopt new materials.

EffectivenessEfficiencyAppeal & UsabilityEvaluation Criteria25EFFECTIVENESS= is measured by determining whether learners achieved the instructional goals. Based upon the standards stated in the behavioral objectives. Effectiveness can be measured though pre and posttests regarding concepts and procedures.

EFFICIENCY= measures whether or not there was a savings (in time, money, or other resources) as a result of the WBI intervention. Efficiency can be measured by documenting instructors time in preparation, facilitation, and scoring/feedback. Can also be measured examining costs to learners.

APPEAL= involves gaining and maintaining learners attention on and interest in the instructional task. Appeal usually focuses on the motivational aspects of the instructional content. Appeal can be measured by assessing students opinions about the course content, activities, message design, and delivery system. It can also be assessed through expert review of motivational factors.

USABILITY= refers to the ease of use and access to the instruction, and how easy and intuitive it is to navigate through the website. Usability is an important factor in WBI evaluation. Usability can be assessed by asking users about the ease of use and intuitiveness of navigation.4 Main Areas for ReviewInstructional GoalsInstructional ContentTechnologyMessage DesignFormative Evaluation26There are 4 main areas for review in the formative Evaluation

INSTRUCTIONAL GOALSare reviewed for accuracy, clarity, completeness, congruence with content activities and assessment (how much they line up with each other)

INSTRUCTIONAL CONTENTaccuracy and appropriate sequencing of content

TECHNOLGYfunctional errors, typos, spelling, grammar. Links, and support

MESSAGE DESIGN---aesthetically pleasing (graphics, text, sequence, minimal distractions)3 Main Questions Based Upon 3 Evaluation Criteria: EffectivenessEfficiencyAppeal/UsabilityFormative Evaluations27

Note: Table from David-Shivers & Rasmussen (2006). Web-Based Learning: Design, Implementation, and Evaluation. Saddle River, NJ: Pearson28Davidson-Shivers and Rasmussen (2006) suggested the following questions be asked when evaluating criteria and categories.

Note: Table from David-Shivers & Rasmussen (2006). Web-Based Learning: Design, Implementation, and Evaluation. Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.29

30Simplest methods Testing, questionnaires, surveys, expert and end-user reviews, observationsJustify methods/tools Samples of the actual instrumentsExample: https://eval.ou.edu/

Evaluation Methods?31Types of Evaluation DesignTrue Control GroupPre/PostPost-test onlyNon-Equivalent Control GroupSingle Group Time-SeriesPre-test/Post-test32TRUE CONTROL GROUP:Random assignment to groups. One group receives program A, while another group receives program B or no instruction at all.Pre-Post is a very good design.Post test only is useful when a pretest might interfere with the program effects in some way, or when a pre test is not available or would take too much time. Pretests can interfere if administered too close in time to the post test.

NON-EQUIVALENT CONTROL GROUPThis is very useful in schools.This is often used when you cannot randomly assign students to programs, but you must work with intact classrooms.

SINGLE GROUP TIME SERIESLongitudinal same groupSuccessive-same CATEGORY of people, but more than one group.The same measurement is made on the same group of people at regular intervals, several times before and several times after the program. It is better than the before and after design.It is an excellent way to measure formative, on-going evaluations.

PRETEST-POSTTESTStudents in one group are measured once before and once after the programReferencesBouhnik, D. & Marcus, T. (2006). Interaction in distance-learning courses. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 57 (3), pp 299-304.Chatham-Carpenter, A., Seawel, L., & Raschig, J. (2010). Avoiding the pitfalls: Current practices and recommendations for e-portfolios in higher education. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 38(4), pp. 437-456.Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience. New York: Harper and Row.David-Shivers & Rasmussen (2006). Web-Based Learning: Design, Implementation, and Evaluation. Saddle River, NJ: PearsonDeci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The 'what' and 'why' of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 227-268. Keller, J. M. (1983). Motivational design of instruction. In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional-design theories and models: An overview of their current status. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Keller, J. M. (1984). The use of the ARCS model of motivation in teacher training. In K. Shaw & A. J. Trott (Eds.), Aspects of Educational Technology Volume XVII: staff Development and Career Updating. London: Kogan Page.Keller, J. M. (1987). Development and use of the ARCS model of motivational design. Journal of Instructional Development, 10(3), 2-10. John Kellers Official ARCS Model WebsiteReeve, J., Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2004). Self-determination theory: A dialectical framework for understanding socio-cultural influences on student motivation. In D. M. McInerney & S. Van Etten (Eds.), Big theories revisited (pp. 31-60). Greenwich, CT: Information Age Press.Smith, P. & Ragan, T. (2004). Instructional Design (3rd Ed). Wiley/Jossey-Bass.Tyler-Smith, K. (2005). Early Attrition among First Time e-Learners: A Review of Factors that Contribute to Drop-out, Withdrawal and Non-completion Rates of Adult Learners undertaking eLearning Programmes . Journal of Online Learning and Teaching. Found online: http://jolt.merlot.org/Vol2_No2_TylerSmith.htmVansteenkiste, M., Simons, J., Lens, W., Sheldon, K. M., & Deci, E. L. (2004). Motivating learning, performance, and persistence: The synergistic role of intrinsic goals and autonomy-support. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 246-260.

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