Instructional Design

CBP 2002 CIT203 Computer Based Learning 1

Instructional Design

Instructional Design

Study of effect of CBL material and approaches

Helps us design and build CBL materials

Learning Theory

Study of cognitive (mind) processes that enable us

to learn

Useful in understanding the way we think and

operate

Very useful to build thinking machines

Today


What is IDT ?

“An attempt to relate specific events of instruction to learning processes and learning outcomes” (Gagne 83)”

Reilgeluth (1999) describes the characterstics of IDT as :

• An orientation towards design, not description

• Identification of methods and situations

• Hierarchy of methods, variety of outcomes

• Methods are probabilistic not deterministic

•IDT theory has an underlying value or philosophy


Brief History

• The Soviet launch of Sputnik (1954) initiated US federal funds to education. UK Responds via Nuffield Foundation.

• B.F.Skinner's elaboration of the theory of reinforcement and its application to learning that established the Programmed Instruction Movement.

• 1956 Benjamin Bloom’s ‘ Taxonomy of Educational Objectives …’ intended to help cognitive assessment, later used to specify instructional outcomes and the design of instruction to attain them.

• The 1960s: Instructional Systems Development put by the military into their training procedures.


.. More ..

• In 1965, Robert Gagne published The Conditions of Learning, • analysis relating different classes of learning objectives to corresponding designs • task analysis to break instructional task into subtasks and sequences• Norman Crowder and Gordon Pask introduced branching or non-linear sequencing.• A shift from norm-referenced to criterion-based testing was noted.

• The 1970's: Cognitive approach was still dominant Ausubel, Bruner, Merrill, Gagne on instructional strategies.

• Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak design the Apple I Computer (1976)


… up to date

• 1980’s PC’s Rapid adoption of instructional systems by American businesses.

• Microcomputer instruction (CBI/CBT) flourished in this decade with the emphasis on design for interactivity and learner control. Systems Thinking

• 1990’s designing learning environments based on a constructivistic approach to learning and multimedia development.

• Hypertext and hypermedia influence the field and cross cultural issues are bridged using the Internet.


Trends

• Basic Shift from Industrial Age to Information Age Thinking

• Move from Standardization to Customization

• Driving forces are new communication and computer technologies.


Gagne

Between 1949-1958, Gagne was director of the perceptual and motor skills US Air Force Lab. Here he developed "Conditions of Learning” theory.

• His theory states that there are different levels of learning outcomes.

• Each requires different type of instructional event

• Different internal and external conditions are needed for each learning type.


Gagne’s Outcomes

Intellect - Discrimination Recognizing that two classes differ

Intellect - Rule Apply procedure to do a task

Intellect – Concrete Classifying by physical features

Intellect – Higher Rule Apply complex procedure

Cognitive strategies Select process to solve problem

Verbal information recitation from memory

Motor skills Performing a physical task

Attitudes Choosing to behave according to a belief

These outcomes are the results of the learners’ internal processes of learning and they provide the learners with the improved performance

which we desire.


Instructional Events

• Gaining attention. Give the learner a stimulus to make him receptive.

• Tell learners the learning objective. What they will learn to do.

• Stimulating recall of prior learning Firing up existing relevant knowledge.

• Presenting the stimulus Display the content.

• Providing learning guidance. Help understanding (semantic encoding) by providing organization & relevance.

• Eliciting performance Ask the learner to respond, to demonstrate learning

• Providing feedback Give informative feedback on the learner's performance.

• Assessing performance then give feedback, to reinforce learning.

• Enhancing retention and transfer to other contexts, to generalise the learning by using varied examples.


Gagne’s ID Procedure

1. Identify the learning outcomes we wish to achieve.

2. Break down into a hierarchy of dependent learning outcomes and pre-requirements give a hierarchy of simple outcomes

3. Identify the conditions or processes internal to the learner that must occur to achieve those outcomes.

4. Specify what external conditions or instruction must occur to achieve these internal conditions.

5. Record the learning context.

6. Record the characteristics of the learners.

Analysis Phase


ctd

7. Select media for instruction - how will we deliver the instructional events?

8. Plan to motivate the learner by incentives,mastery or achievements.

9. Apply the Nine Instructional Events to each learning outcome.

Design Phase

Test Phase

10. Trial the materials with students as it is designed (formative evaluation).

11. After the instruction has been used, a summative evaluation can judge its effectiveness.


Merrill -1-

Real World Proble

m

ActivationIntegration

Demonst-ation

Application

Call up previous experience. Fire up relevant stored mental models

Show don’t say!

Concepts – examples Procedures – demos Processes – visualisation

Behaviour - modelling

Learning works best when you are called to use your knowledge

Transfer skill into your lives. Go public, join in discussion.


Merrill -2-

Activation• Start where the child is

• Recall, relate, describe, apply knowledge from past experience

• Courseware can provide a substitute for this experience

• Trend to introduce “themes” into instruction eg ‘golf’. These can often distract and so hinder learning


Merrill -3-

Demonstration• Multiple representations, alternative points of

view

• Knowledge is both specific and general. Students learn from specific examples

• Appropriate use of media

Application• App must be consistent with stated objectives

• App to a sequence of varied problems

• Access to feedback, context-sensitive help


Merrill -4-

Categories of Application• Information-about practice requires recall

• Parts-of practice requires locate, name each part

• Kinds-of practice needs identification of new eg’s

• How-to practice requires learner to do the procedure

• What-happens practice requires learner to predict result of a process

Integration• Publicly demonstrate, discuss new knowledge

• Learner can create new personal way to use knowledge


Gardner - Multiple Approaches

aesthetic

narrative

numeric social

Hands-onexistential

Entry pointsTelling analogies

Approaching the Core

Multiple approaches based

on multiple intelligences

Emphasis on ‘Going Public’

Understanding Content, not Problem Solving !


Constructive Learning Environments (Jonassen)

Goal

Scaffolding

Learners’ Performance

• “The goal of the learner is to solve the problem or complete the project “

• The problem / project drives the learner. Learn to solve!

• The problem should be ill-defined so some aspects are “emergent and defined by the learner”

• Through a progression of tasks, scaffold is gradually removed


Jonassen Quotes

“… you must provide interesting, relevant and engaging problems to solve … The problem should not be overly subscribed. Rather it should be ill defined or ill structured, so that some aspects of the problem are emergent and defined by learners”

“Start the learners with tasks they know how to perform and gradually add task difficulty until they are unable to perform alone”

“What novice learners lack most is experiences. … [Demo’s] can scaffold (or supplant) memory by giving representations of experience that learners have not had”

“Modelling provides learners with examples of desired performance. … worked examples”


Carroll Minimalism

Principles• Learner starts at once on meaningful tasks

• Minimize reading by allowing learners to fill in gaps

• Include error recognition and discovery

• Each activity self-contained, independent of sequence Basis

• Carroll’s research at IBM observing users of word-processors, databases and programmers

• Systems approach emphasised structured sequence and total practice, but neglected motivating real tasks.


Carroll’s iterative design

• Designers don’t work in a structured hierarchy

• They mix bottom-up and top-down development

• They even allow their design goals to change !

Design 1

Trial 1

Design 2

Design 3

Trial 2Trial 3

Product

Gradual convergence to product


Developed Minimalism

More Observations …• Desire for ‘real’ activity and not time ‘just

learning’

• Causes people to jump around programmed learning

• People want to make their own understandings

• New minimalism - better supported self-initiated sense-making


Linear assumes humans are predictable. Not true since : all learners are different, may have different ways of learning, environment (context) is important and unknown, people don’t think logically.

Problems with Classical IDT

Rational Systematic

Creative

Promotes initiative, diversity, flexibility

Standardized

Customized

Linear

IterativeCause and Effect Learner is closed Knowledge objectMind not predictable Mind elusive No causality Open system


New ID -1- New Sciences

Jonassen suggests using Hermeneutics, Fuzzy Logic, Chaos Theory

• Hermeneutics - learner must be able to create own meanings. Also must be aware of their own biases.

• Fuzzy logic - reality is rarely cut and dry, but often comes in various shades of colour which are not exclusive.

• Chaos theory - no cause and effect, more drill does not imply better performance. Also sensitivity to initial state.


-2- The Information Age

Reigeluth Shift into the Information Age

• Instruction needs to be customized rather than standardized

• Instruction is learner centered, teacher is facilitator

• Based on authentic tasks., contemporary not contrived

• Instructional Design should occur on the fly as the student uses the materials!

• Elaboration Theory (ET). There is always an organizing concept which spawns sub-concepts, and which is taught first. Each sub-concept may in turn become an organizing concept.


ET and Hypermedia

Hoffman makes the link between Elaboration Theory and Hypermedia.

Elaboration Theory or Interactive

Media ?

The web-like linking of ideas well known in hypermedia described the functioning of human cognition better than a linear process.

Important, interesting and

provocative idea


Summary

1. Instruction is progressive but not strict-sequential

2. Instruction paths fork, cross over and loop back

3. The model of IDT reflects current technology !

Contemporary Instructional Design

• Merrill 5-star

• Carroll Minimalist

• Gardner Multiple Intelligence

• Constructive Learning

• New Sciences

• Information Age

Instructional Design

Documents

Transcript of Instructional Design