Input, Interaction, and Output• Input: (in language learning) language which a learner hears or receives and from

which he or she can learn.• Enhanced input: a type of spoken or written input provided to language learners in

which some target language features are made more salient, such as by increasing their frequency or in speech by using stress or intonation to highlight them.

• Comprehensible input: language which contains linguistic items that are slightly beyond the learner’s present linguistic competence.

• Modified input: discourse addressed to second language learners and young children that has been «adapted» or “simplified” to make comprehension easier, such as by using comprehension checks, clarification requests and self-repetitions.

• Intake: a term referring to that part of the language to which learners are exposed (see input) that actually “goes in” and plays a role in language learning. Some theorists believe that intake is that part of the input that has been attended to and noticed by second language learners while processing the input. It is also possible to distinguish between preliminary intake, brief notice of some feature of the input, and final intake, integration of knowledge of that item in one’s interlanguage.

Input, Interaction, and Output• What is the nature of input to a language learner.

• Can you think of the ways in which you modify your speech to those who are less proficient than you?

Input, Interaction, and

Output• What is the nature of input to a language learner?caretaker speech: also motherese, mother talk, baby talk the simple speech used by mothers, fathers, babysitters, etc., when they talk to young children who are learning to talk.Caretaker speech usually has:a shorter utterances than speech to other adultsb grammatically simple utterancesc few abstract or difficult words, with a lot of repetitiond clearer pronunciation, sometimes with exaggerated intonation patterns.Caretaker speech is easier for children to understand, and many people believe that it helps children to learn language.

INPUT, INTERACTION, AND OUTPUT

What is the nature of input to a language learner?Foreigner Talk: the type of speech often used by native speakers of a language when speaking to foreigners who are not proficient in the language. Some of the characteristics of foreigner talk are:a It is slower and louder than normal speech, often with exaggerated pronunciation.b It uses simpler vocabulary and grammar. For example, articles, function words, and inflections may be omitted, and complex verb forms are replaced by simpler ones.c Topics are sometimes repeated or moved to the front of sentences, for example: Your bag? Where you leave your bag?Native speakers often feel that this type of speech is easier for foreigners to understand.

Input, Interaction, and Output• Functions of foreigner talk:• By hearing the speech that has been simplified

in the ways described, the L2 learner will be better to understand. It is given that, without understanding the language, no learning can take place. Although understanding alone does not guarantee that learning will occur, it does set the scene for learning.

Input, Interaction, and Output

• Comprehension: Crucial to the success of any conversation is the ability to understand and to be understood. Lack of comprehension is characteristic of many conversations involving NNSs. What factors determine comprehensibility?

• The first area of concern in a discussion of comprehension is the NS’s ability to understand NNS’s pronunciation. However, this is not clearly the only factor; the NNS’s ability to use the L2 grammatically is yet another.

• Comprehension: Research shows that in interpreting NNS utterances, grammar is less important than vocabulary and pronunciation. Why should be the case?

There is a more limited number of grammatical possibilities in language than there are vocabulary items or possible pronunciations. That is, if a learner fails to mark agreement or puts items in the wrong order, there is a greater likelihood that an NS can fall back on his or her grammatical knowledge to make sense of what a learner is saying. However, if a learner uses an inappropriate or nonexistent vocabulary item, the NS may be sent down a comprehension path from which there is little possiblity to of return.

Input, Interaction, and Output

• Comprehension: The second area of concern in a discussion of comprehension is the NNS’s ability to understand. In conversation, indications of understanding are given in a number of ways. Most common are what are called backchannel cues. These are generally verbal messages such as uh huh or yeah. Or head nods can serve the same function.

Input, Interaction, and Output

• Comprehension: In particular comprehension appears to be facilitated by 3 factors.

1. Familarity with a particular NNS,2. Familiarity with nonnative speech in general, and 3. Familiarity with the discourse topic.

Input, Interaction, and Output

• Interaction• interaction hypothesis: the hypothesis that language acquisition requires or greatly benefits from interaction, communication and especially negotiation of meaning, which happens when interlocutors attempt to overcome problems in conveying their meaning, resulting in both additional input and useful feedback on the learner’s own production.

Input, Interaction, and Output

• Interaction: Think about your own learning experiences learning and L2. Have you had experiences negotiating meaning with an NS of the L2 or with more proficient NNS of the L2? How were the breakdowns in communication repaired?

INPUT, INTERACTION, AND OUTPUT Output: language produced by a language learner, either in

speech or writing. Meaningful production practice helps learners by:• Enhancing fluency by furthering development of automaticity through practice.• Noticing gaps in their own knowledge as they are forced to move from semantic to syntactic processing, which may lead learners to give more attention to relevant information• Testing hypotheses based on developing interlanguage, allowing for monitoring and revision• Talking about language, including eliciting relevant input and( collaboratively) solving problems

Input, Interaction, and Output• Feedback: Information that is provided to

learners about whether or not their production and interpretation of language is appropriate. This may be in the form of direct correction, or it may take more indirect forms.

• Types of corrective feedback: 1. Explicit correction2. Recast3. Clarification request4. Metalinguistic clues5. Elicitation6. Repetition

1. Explicit correction: Clearly indicating that the student's utterance was incorrect, the teacher provides the correct form.

• 2. Recast: in second language acquisition, a type of negative feedback in which a more competent interlocutor (parent, teacher, native-speaking interlocutor) rephrases an incorrect or incomplete learner utterance by changing one or more sentence components (e.g. subject, verb, or object) while still referring to its central meaning.

• For example when two students are comparing two pictures:

Learner 1: What are they . . . what do they do in your picture?Learner 2: What are they doing in my picture?

3. Clarification request. By using phrases like "Excuse me?" or "I don't understand," the teacher indicates that the message has not been understood or that the student's utterance contained some kind of mistake and that a repetition or a reformulation is required.

4. Metalinguistic clues: Without providing the correct form, the teacher poses questions or provides comments or information related to the formation of the student's utterance (for example, "Do we say it like that?" "That's not how you say it in French,).

5. Elicitation. The teacher directly elicits the correct form from the student by asking questions (e.g., "How do we say that in French?"), by pausing to allow the student to complete the teacher's utterance (e.g., "It's a....") or by asking students to reformulate the utterance (e.g., "Say that again."). Elicitation questions differ from questions that are defined as metalinguistic clues in that they require more than a yes/no response

6. Repetition. The teacher repeats the student's error and adjusts intonation to draw student's attention to it.