Innovative Dimensions in Leadership and Motivation Formated

Innovative Dimensions in Leadership and Motivation

Author

Sohailuddin ALAVI International Training Adviser, AIBF

(International Expert in Capacity Building and Institutional Development)

March 2012

Author’s Profile

ALAVI, Sohailuddin He is a capacity building and institutional development expert. He brings learning through working internationally for more than 28 years. Through the years he has unleashed skills in document writing, proposal development, critical thinking and creativity. His career spans over 28 years of learning In his initial career he has worked in a Pakistani bank as trainer, coordinator and training manager for management development programs for almost 15 years. Later he established his own institutional management and training consultancy. As consultant he has had conducted numerous management training workshops both in Pakistan and Afghanistan. Besides, he has had worked on many institutional development projects in the corporate, development sector and the Govt. departments, as consultant. He has taught for more than ten years in the undergraduate and post graduate programs of Shaheed Zulfikar Ali Bhutto Institute of Science and Technology, Faculty of Management Sciences and Karachi University Business School, Pakistan. He has written extensively in management, leadership, organization-behavior; business ethics, and entrepreneurial development for professional magazines, authored books and training manuals. Personal Contact Details: Email: [email protected] Public Profile: http://pk.linkedin.com/pub/alavi-sohailuddin/44/ab4/997 Cell No. 00 92 (0) 333 213 87 42 Karachi, Pakistan

http://pk.linkedin.com/pub/alavi-sohailuddin/44/ab4/997

1 Afghanistan Institute of Banking and Finance (Author Sohailuddin ALAVI) March 2012

Innovative Dimensions in Leadership and Motivation Techniques

Contents

Foreword Prelude Case in Point Section One: Theoretical Analysis and Debate

a. Introduction to Leadership

b. Leadership Theories

c. Leadership Effectiveness Analysis

d. Business Leadership Paradigm

e. Comparative Analysis of Leadership Competencies: Conventional Perspectives

f. Integrated Leadership Competencies Framework

g. Anatomy of Leadership Competencies

h. Motivation Process Revisited

i. Diagnostic Approach to Motivation

Section Two: Applied Topics

a. Corporate Performance Framework

b. Harnessing Frontiers of Executive Productivity

c. Transforming Individuals’ Performance into Group Synergy

d. Managing Change through Innovation

Section Three: Practice Activities

a. Business Leadership Analysis

b. Building Leadership Competencies

c. Clarifying Directions

d. Mapping Motivators

e. Harnessing Motivation



Foreword

In the name of ALLAH the only Gracious, Benevolent and Merciful, I begin…

May HIS blessings be upon Muhammad (SAW); all other Prophets (SAW); and HIS slaves – ameen

Alhamdolillah, once again ALLAH SWT guided me and enabled me all the way in these

writings, otherwise I was not capable of accomplishing this meritorious target that I had

set for myself in continuation of my teaching and consulting assignments at the

university and corporate, respectively.

In this booklet I have discussed Leadership and Motivation from a rather innovative

dimension based on my personal observations, understanding, analyses and view point

that I have been able to gain directly through my practical experience as consultant and

instructor. I have done this as my responsibility to the next generation, especially, and

hope that this work will be found useful in developing better understanding of

Leadership and Motivation by individuals and organizations, and would insha ALLAH also

serve as a prelude to further creation and advancement of knowledge, as no man-made

knowledge can be complete; free from error and a final wisdom. So I invite you all to

please carry forward this humble effort into the future.

I would like to dedicate this booklet to my Parents, family members, the Institute of

Banking and Finance (AIBF) and the Universities where I studied and taught.

Wishing you a happy reading…

Sohailuddin ALAVI March 2012



Prelude Leadership has since long been considered a sub-system of management that deals with people in a work place. This was perhaps because of the fact that the concept of leadership was originally brought from the field of politics. Consequently, it was defined as a variant of managing or supervising subordinates per se and it became more of a status symbol to reflect seniority of individuals along the organizational echelons. Subjectivity and personification of the leaders became the focus of attention for most of the researchers as well as organizational managers. Ironically all this led to coining of a new title for managers and supervisors but resulted in no synergy for the leaders, previously titled as managers or supervisors, remained narrowly confined to managing (controlling to be exact) of people and their actions, respectively, which although led to specific actions but the organizational impact was still missing. This was because of the fact that people and their actions were managed as an end in itself. For instance, the emerging performance culture in many organizations has only been effective in creating the façade. Real and sustainable benefits for the organization are a distant goal. Sub-prime mortgage tsunami in the US is a prominent example of such a scenario. Many similar scenarios abound globally. In the back drop of above, the need was felt to revisit leadership from a holistic perspective. This led to the initial point of departure from leaders as rather a personified concept to leadership as a process concept. Having said this, it was further established that for a leadership focus should shift from a singular people management to overall organizational management, which shall included strategic orientation; operational orientation and the people orientation. Put it differently the leadership concept considers strategic, operational and people management as means to continuously reforming organizations. Secondly, it was also established that the leadership process must replace conventional management processes at all levels, which provides basis for introducing leadership as a superior work culture, where every individual demonstrates requisite leadership competence irrespective of his or her location and status in the work organization. Thus in nutshell it advocates replacement of personified leaders with a wide spread leadership culture across the work organization. This booklet presents arguments, rationales and paradigm for the recommended revolution across the organization.



Case in Point: Innovative Dimensions in Leadership

Preamble Leadership, especially in the organizational set-up, has been focus of interest of both

academicians and practicing managers for a long time. Conventionally leadership was a

personality driven concept. Individuals were considered instrumental in bringing the

difference in the lives of other people and organizations. The emerging concept of

leadership, however, is that it is a culture of managing modern businesses be it a

commercial enterprise, public service institution or not for profit entity. Furthermore,

leadership has since long been considered a sub-system of management that deals with

people in the work place. This was perhaps because of the fact that the concept of

leadership was originally brought from the field of politics. Consequently, it was defined

as a variant of managing or supervising subordinates per se and it became more of a

status symbol to reflect position of individuals along the organizational echelons.

Subjectivity and personification of the leaders became the focus of attention for most of

the researchers as well as organizational managers. Ironically all this led to coining of a

new title for managers and supervisors as leader but resulted in no synergy in the work

place, for they remained narrowly confined

to managing (controlling to be exact) of

people and their actions, respectively,

which al-though led to specific actions but

the organizational impact was still missing.

This was be-cause of the fact that people

and their actions were managed as an end

in itself. For instance, the emerging

performance culture in many organizations

has only been effective in creating the

façade. Real and sustain-able benefits for

the organization remain distant goals. Sub-

prime mortgage tsunami in the US is a

prominent example of such a scenario.

Similarly the change initiatives in Pakistani

financial sector are no exception, as still

the service standards are far from the

expected. Likewise, the yawning non-

performing assets are clear evidence to

this fact. Many similar scenarios abound

globally.

Flip Side of Personified Leadership A good follower is eventually made the next leader, who can lead not but from a follower’s mentality…always

Hence, so many leaders end up as saviors of conventional legacies and demonstrate no creativity and improvement, for they cannot vision on their own.

Because they are mentally and sometimes otherwise handicapped and dependent on their predecessors…masters to be true.

Followers rely on personified leaders as their saviors; hence feel not responsible to conduct themselves in just manner while maximizing their individual and group pursuits but hope that their leaders will save them from the ill-effects of their wrong doings, while they continue to be undisciplined without fear… just like those who consider their righteous ancestors, living or dead, as their saviors

Either one [leader or followers] exploit the other. And sometimes both cooperate for mutual gains at the cost of organization and the society



Leadership in Perspective Personified leadership refers to dependence on a single person as the savior for all. This type of leadership can have many manifestations in the world of work in particular, and in the society in general. Most interesting one is Charismatic-leadership. These persons are considered to command strong follower-ship mainly because of their personality charisma: extra ordinary [inspirational] physical personality, humility, attire, etc. Besides, amongst other personified leaders: Extra-ordinary achievers who enjoy leadership status. Such as philanthropists, social workers, celebrities, public figures, etc. Stature based leaders also avail of the status leaders by default. Such as feudal lords and their descendents, political icons and their close aides, Owner-chairpersons and their heirs, Managers and executives at higher echelons. The stature based leaders in particular are the ones known to be born, for they need not to do much for becoming leaders. Another very significant type of personified leadership is of fabricated leaders. These are the individuals identified as potential leaders by an outsider group, which then promotes them as leaders and thereby leverages their leadership for accomplishing their specific agenda. Quite a few political leaders fall under this category. It is a common practice of established political parties around the world to continually fabricate new leaders, for this provides them perpetuity while conforming to the needs and expectations of change by the general public. Ironically, sometimes these fabricated leaders are installed by an external group as their instruments to intervene in the policies and decision making processes of another nation or organization, for gaining extra ordinarily advantage. Another conventional view of leadership is that it is an alternate to managing [manager]. Some, however, consider leading and managing as complimentary to each other. Meaning to say, all managers are essentially leaders in one way or the other, for they lead people and manage their performances. As we look at leadership in this context it includes all sorts of personified leaderships, such as; social entrepreneurs, political icons, public administrators, business executives, and teachers, etc. We find one commonality amongst all of them: They all lead people in a particular direction. This follows that leadership is about organizing, coaching, and motivating people in almost every walk of life. In nutshell, a typical personified-leader is generally single person (probably the most favored follower of his or her predecessor-leader) above the rest. It is more of a status usually associated with one’s position within the organizational echelons. Ironically, personified-leader either is a self-proclaimed status or perceived by its followers. Moreover, personified-leader has more of a people mobilization role. Theoretically, personified-leader influences followers for optimal productivity. But in most of the situations followers control the strings of the leader. Transformational leadership is rather an emerging concept. Here the leadership is referred to organizational culture. It essentially focuses on organizational transformation. It follows that leadership in the emerging context is all about synergizing work groups [people], organizations, systems and the immediate environment, etc. Put it differently, leadership is about together changing for better; implementing the change; and, acknowledging [celebrating] the accomplishments. Thus in comparison to the conventional perspectives, it is relatively more holistic in its scope and pragmatic in its



implications. It considers leadership not as a position or personality but as an organizational culture that every individual must live by within his or her permeable domains and its implications are organization wide – strategic, operational and interpersonal. Leadership Concept Revisited In this back drop, the need was felt to revisit leadership from a holistic perspective. This led to the initial point of departure from leaders as rather a personified concept to leadership as a process concept. Having said this, it was further established that for a leadership focus should shift from a singular people management to overall organizational management, which shall included strategic orientation; operational orientation and the people orientation. Put it differently the leadership concept should encompass strategic, operational and people management as means to continually reforming organizations. Secondly, it is imperative that the leadership process must replace conventional management processes at all levels, which provides basis for introducing leadership as a superior work culture, where every individual demonstrates requisite leadership orientation irrespective of his or her location and status in the work organization. Thus in nutshell it advocates replacement of personified leaders with a wide spread leadership culture across the work organization Having said so, transformational leadership is a culture per se – set of shared values, habits, and behaviors of employees across the organization. This Leadership culture helps the organizations and the people to be creative in finding innovative solutions that help reduce response time to the changing patterns of business requirements of today; and, continually improve process efficiencies and people achievements paradigmatically. Thus, we can say in the modern times “Leadership Culture” enhances the organizational ability to transform itself (and the performance of people) to newer heights. Hence it is critical for success and sustainability in the today’s fast improving world. In short, one may conclude that: The Framework Transformational-leadership-framework provides a realistic basis in the organizational setting for a systematic analysis of leadership as a process. To begin with, this framework proposes a conceptual paradigm shift from personified-leader to the leadership-culture. Hence, it envisages a much broader implication. Precisely it is about leading the organization in entirety. Teaming up and interacting with people, however, is but one dimension to it. Strategic and operating dimensions are equally significant too. Transformational-leadership promotes a culture of do-it-right. As one can observe, it acknowledges the significance of leadership competencies as the basis. But it rejects the

Leadership is no magic – it is a reality of modern management system geared to accomplishing in dynamic environments

Leadership is not mundane people management – it is about continually reforming the enterprise performance and people achievements to newer heights

Leadership is no more a status – it is a process that exists at all levels in a successful enterprise

Leadership is not a choice – it is the key to sustaining the present and securing the future

Leadership effectiveness is no more person or position dependent – it is a complex function of competencies, roles, focus and interactions across the organization



concept of personified-leader as advocated by the conventional theorists. In simple words, leadership is more of a way of working in an organization that every individual member should essentially subscribe to instead of searching for the right person who would come and lead [turn around] the organization. Universal Leadership Skills “Power-to-Lead” is the fore most skill. It has a focus on individuals’ readiness to conduct him- or herself in a leadership role and prepares the individual to face the strategic and day to day challenges with courage and hope. It has following dimensions, namely; conviction, motivation, and moral integrity. “Empowerment” is the second competence in sequence. It also has focus on the individuals’ self management ability. It has following dimensions, namely; discipline, responsibility, and emotional power. “Horizon” is the next critical leadership competence. It has a focus on the individuals’ ability to see opportunities and challenges beyond the present and beyond the obvious. In other words it is an ability to understand the relationship between discrete present and cloudy future. It considers following dimensions, namely; vision, focus, and sense of direction. ““Social” competence is no less important. It has a focus on the individuals’ ability to work and interact with other people. It has the following dimensions, namely; team-player, role-model; moderator. “Management” competence refers to an individuals’ ability to control the business activity and/or process in an efficient and effective fashion. It has following dimensions, namely; attention to details, systems thinking, and managing change. Conclusion Personified leadership analysis was limiting the horizon of leadership development in organizational setup, particularly. Primarily because personified leadership predominantly assumes that leadership is an innate characteristic [leaders are born], sometimes explicitly and sometimes implicitly, hence it cannot be developed institutionally. Furthermore, it considers the relationship between leader’s personality and performance as that of “cause and effect” and totally ignores the leadership competencies and the context [transient dynamics] in which employees operate, such as vision and focus, attitude, style and skills and knowledge; and, the process, teamwork [group work], and the permeable environment, respectively. Interestingly the transformation-leadership perspective has enabled rather pragmatic analysis of leadership scope and implications, yet the personified leadership perspectives still hold reasonable grounds when considered in conjunction with other factors as well but fail to do so as a solo factor, as was considered in the initial days. Transformational-leadership in fact does not substitute but compliments the personified leadership perspective by broadening the scope of leadership analysis. It puts leadership at the centre instead of leader [or his personality] as is the case of the former perspective. The significance of leaders’ personality, however, has shifted from physical to competency



orientation. Such as; socio-moral values, integrity & honesty, behaviors and habits, and last but not the least cognitive characteristics. It argues that organization’s and group’s effectiveness is a complex function of leadership culture and the work context. Hence, the chances of success can be positively altered through institutional interventions, such as; by modifying leadership culture through training and development programs and reshaping the organizational context. The concept is dealt with in detail in the following chapters.



Section One: Theoretical Analysis and

Debate



Introduction to Leadership

Learning Outcome: In this module readers will look at the concept of leadership both from conventional and emerging perspectives. Besides, they will also be able to take cognizance of leadership scope in the overall organizational perspective and beyond the people management role alone.

Leadership as a Concept Leadership, especially in the organizational set-up, has been focus of discussion for a long time. Conventionally leadership was a personality driven concept. Individuals were considered instrumental in bringing the difference in the lives of other people and organizations. The emerging concept of leadership, however, is that it is a culture of managing modern businesses be it a commercial enterprise, public service institution or not for profit entity. Having said so, leadership is a set of shared values, habits, and behaviors employees across the organization. Leadership culture helps the organization and the people to be creative in finding innovative solutions that help reduce response time to the changing patterns of business requirements of today; and, continually improve process efficiencies and people achievements paradigmatically. Thus, we can say in the modern times “Leadership Culture” establishes the organizational ability to transform itself (and the performance of people) to new heights. Hence it is critical for success and sustainability in the today’s fast improving world. In short, one may conclude that:

Leadership is no magic – it is a reality of modern management system geared to accomplishing in dynamic environments

Leadership is not mundane people management – it is about continually reforming the enterprise performance and people achievements to newer heights

Leadership is no more a status – it is a process that exists at all levels in a successful enterprise

Leadership is not a choice – it is the key to sustaining the present and securing the future

Leadership effectiveness is no more person or position dependent – it is a complex function of competencies, roles, focus and interactions across the organization

Leadership in Perspective In the conventional perspective, leadership has been personified, which refers to single person dependence as the savior for all. Personified leadership can have many manifestations in the world of work in particular, and in the society in general. Most interesting one is Charismatic-leadership. These persons are considered to command strong follower-ship mainly because of their personality charisma: extra ordinary [inspirational] physical personality, humility, attire, etc. Besides, amongst other personified leaders include: Extra-ordinary achievers who enjoy leadership status. Such as philanthropists, social workers, celebrities, public figures, etc. Stature based leaders also avail of the status leaders by default. Such as feudal lords and their descendents,



political icons and their close aides, Owner-chairpersons and their heirs, Managers and executives at higher echelons. The stature based leaders in particular are the ones known to be born, for they need not to do much for becoming leaders. Another very significant type of personified leadership is of fabricated leaders. These are the individuals identified as potential leaders by an outsider group, which then promotes them as leaders and thereby leverages their leadership for accomplishing their specific agenda. Quite a few political leaders fall under this category. It is a common practice of established political parties around the world to continually fabricate new leaders, for this provides them perpetuity while conforming to the needs and expectations of change by the general public. Ironically, sometimes these fabricated leaders are installed by an external group as their instruments to intervene in the policies and decision making processes of another nation or organization, for gaining extra ordinarily advantage. Another conventional view of leadership is that it is an alternate to managing [manager]. Some, however, consider leading and managing as complimentary to each other. Meaning to say, all managers are essentially leaders in one way or the other, for they lead people and manage their performances. As we look at leadership in this context it includes all sorts of personified leaderships, such as; social entrepreneurs, political icons, public administrators, business executives, and teachers, etc. We find one commonality amongst all of them: They all lead people in a particular direction. This follows that leadership is about organizing, coaching, and motivating people in almost every walk of life. Transformational leadership is the emerging concept. Here the leadership is referred to organizational culture. It essentially focuses on organizational transformation. It follows that leadership in the emerging context is all about synergizing work groups [people], organizations, systems and the immediate environment, etc. Put it differently, leadership is about changing for better together; implementing the change; and, acknowledging [celebrating] the accomplishments. Thus in comparison to the conventional perspectives, it is relatively more holistic in its scope and pragmatic in its implications. It considers leadership not as a position or personality but as an organizational culture that every individual must live by within his or her permeable domains and its implications are organization wide – strategic, operational and interpersonal. The Framework: The transformational-leadership-framework provides a realistic basis in the organizational setting for a systematic analysis of leadership. To begin with, this framework proposes a conceptual paradigm shift from personified-leader to the leadership-culture. A typical personified-leader is generally someone (one and only) above the rest. It is more of a status usually associated with one’s position within the organizational echelons. Ironically, personified-leader either is a self-proclaimed status or perceived by its followers. Moreover, personified-leader has more of a people mobilization role. In extreme situations, the personified-leader influences followers for optimal productivity. While in average situation, personified-leader demonstrates equal concern for the well being of followers too.



Contrary to the above, transformational-leadership envisages a much broader implication. Precisely it is about leading the organization in entirety. Teaming up and interacting with people, however, is but one dimension to it. Strategic and operating dimensions are equally significant too. Transformational-leadership promotes a culture of do-it-right. As one can observe, it acknowledges the significance of leadership competencies as the basis. But it rejects the concept of personified-leader as advocated by the conventional theorists. In simple words, leadership is more of a way of working in an organization that every individual member should essentially subscribe to instead of searching for the right person who would come and lead [turn around] the organization. Conclusion The personified leadership analysis was limiting the horizon of leadership development in organizational setup, particularly. Primarily because personified leadership predominantly assumes that leadership is an innate characteristic [leaders are born] hence it cannot be developed institutionally. Furthermore, it considers the relationship between leader personality and performance as that of “cause and effect” and totally ignores the leadership competencies and the context [transient dynamics] in which employees operate, such as vision and focus, attitude, style and skills and knowledge; and, the process, teamwork [group work], and the permeable environment, respectively. Interestingly the transformation-leadership perspective has enabled rather pragmatic analysis of leadership scope and implications, yet the personified leadership perspectives still hold reasonable grounds when considered in conjunction with other factors as well but fail to do so as a solo factor, as was considered in the initial days. Transformational-leadership, for instance, does not substitute but compliments the personified leadership perspective by broadening the scope of leadership analysis. It puts leadership at the centre instead of leader [or his personality] as is the case of the former perspective. The significance of leaders’ personality, however, has shifted from physical to competency orientation. Such as; socio-moral values, integrity & honesty, behaviors and habits, and last but not the least cognitive characteristics. The transition is presented below:

Operations

Strategic

People

Organizational Leadership

Transformational Leadership Model

Personified Leadership Model

Leader

No Leader

Goal Achieved

No Goal Achieved

Leadership System: - Culture - Vision - Focus - Attitude - Style - Skills and

Knowledge

Work Context - Teams - Process - Environment

Goals



It argues that organization’s and group’s effectiveness is a complex function of leadership culture and the work context. Hence, the chances of success can be positively altered through institutional interventions, such as; by modifying leadership culture through training and development programs and reshaping the organizational context.



Leadership Theories

Learning Outcome: In the previous module leadership was introduced as an organizational

culture. In this module readers will review conventional and alternative leadership theories and

will understand their connection to leadership effectiveness. Later, they will find out how could

the convergence of various leadership theories could provide a holistic perspective on leadership-

competencies as an essential pre-requisite to attaining higher degree of leadership effectiveness.

Leadership Theories A theory serves to identify or predict the basis of impact of a process or action, while the theory itself is based on the impact of a process or action. Put it simply, the relationship of theory and the impact is but reciprocal.

Leadership theories are no exceptions. These theories have attempted to elaborate the very basis of leadership impact, which we shall refer to effectiveness. Some of the early theories had focused on physical qualities of to-be-leaders while others focused on their personality charisma as a lone basis of leadership-effectiveness. Then next breed of theories focused on the behavioral aspects of to-be-leaders as a parallel basis of leadership-effectiveness. This shift in thinking challenged the conventional conviction that leaders are born by articulating that leaders can be developed through education and training. Behavioral leadership theories became popular especially in the military, civil and business organizations. Successors for many years continued to propose improvements the leadership theories but within the ambiance of behavioral concept. They rather broadened the list of behaviors associated to leadership effectiveness and unraveled more complex relationship between leadership-effectiveness and the behaviors. For example, the legendary Managerial Grid and the popular Contingency theories. Value based leadership is relatively a recent stride. In essence it differentiates between effective and ineffective leadership on the basis of moral values. Accordingly, where the leadership is reinforced with high level moral values the chances of sustainable effectiveness increases and vice versa. Some popular leadership theories* are briefly explained below:

1. “Great Man” Theories: Great Man theories assume that the capacity for leadership is inherent – that great leaders are born not made. These theories often portray great leaders as celebrities, heroic, mythic. These persons usually have extra ordinary wisdom, insight or accomplishments in their lives or career, hence have higher potentials for being accepted as leaders by others and move to leadership position.

2. Trait Theories: Similar in some ways to “Great Man” theories, trait theories assume that people inherit certain qualities and traits that make them better suited to leadership. Trait theories often identify particular personality characteristics shared by leaders. But if particular traits are key features of leadership, how do we explain people who possess those qualities but are not leaders? This question is one of the difficulties in using trait theories to explain leadership.

3. Contingency Theories: Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the environment that might determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation. According to this theory, no leadership style is



best in all situations. Success depends upon a number of variables, including the leadership style, capacity of the followers, and aspects of the situation.

4. Situational Theories: Situational theories propose that leaders choose the best course of action based upon situational variable. Different styles of leadership may be more appropriate for different types of decision-making.

5. Behavioral Theories: Behavioral theories of leadership are based upon the belief that great leaders are made, not born. Rooted in behaviorism, this leadership theory focuses on the actions of leaders, not on mental qualities or internal states. According to this theory, people can learn to become leaders through teaching and observation.

6. Participative Theories: Participative leadership theories suggest that the ideal leadership style is one that takes the input of others into account. These leaders encourage participation and contributions from group members and help group members feel more relevant and committed to the decision-making process. In participative theories, however, the leader retains the right to allow the input of others.

7. Management Theories: Management theories (also known as “Transactional theories”) focus on the role of supervision, organization, and group performance. These theories base leadership on a system of reward and punishment. Managerial theories are often used in business; when employees are successful, they are rewarded; when they fail, they are reprimanded or punished.

8. Relationship Theories: Relationship theories (also known as “Transformational theories”) focus upon the connections formed between leaders and followers. These leaders motivate and inspire people by helping group members see the importance and higher good of the task. Transformational leaders are focused on the performance of group members, but also want each person to fulfill his or her potential. These leaders

often have high ethical and moral standards. 1 Source: website: psychology.about.com/od/leadership/p/leadtheories.htm. The original text is edited without changing its scope and meaning.

Almost all the theories that we have talked about have one common dilemma: it is assumed that leadership qualities of a single person or a few persons usually at the senior most level, despite the known bounded rationality, should suffice to turn around or keep the organization growing. Furthermore, the theories primarily kept their focus on managing people alone sometimes with a singular orientation and sometimes with a dual orientation. Singular orientation refers to “getting the job done” while the dual orientation also includes “people’s well being”. However, these theories completely ignored other dimensions of an organization that were also to be managed. Alternate Theory As an alternate to the cited leadership theories, leadership should be considered as an organization wide culture – shared beliefs, values, norms, and practices. Moreover, leadership scope must be broadened from people to the overall organization – strategic, operational and interpersonal. To further elaborate this concept, let us consider leadership as an alternate way of working – doing-it-right-all-the-time – that prevails across an organization. Doing so shall effectively overcome the bounded rationality of the people as individuals and the people shall develop a holistic approach towards the organization and their respective roles. In nut shell synergy-in-effect will be caused.

http://psychology.about.com/od/behavioralpsychology/f/behaviorism.htm



This alternate theory does not contradict the prior theories but in fact synergizes by considering each theory as complimentary to the other. Doing so, it leverages its predecessor theories to articulate the requisite leadership competencies in increasing leadership effectiveness. It is imperative at this point to understand that in the context of this alternate theory leadership-effectiveness is but organizational-effectiveness rather than an individual’s effectiveness. Hence, leadership competencies should be viewed from a holistic angle. Moreover, it also follows that leadership-competencies should essentially exist [developed] in every employee across the organization. Interestingly, almost all leadership theories, presented above and others, provide vital explanation of leadership competencies but from a singular angle alone and do not suffice to provide a holistic perspective as standalone theory. It is only through the convergence of various leadership theories one can develop an integrated insight into leadership competencies hence effectiveness. Different theories are integrated in an attempt to develop holistic model of leadership. See figure 2.1 Figure 2.1

Power to Lead

Conviction

Motivation

Moral integrity

Horizon Vision Focus Sense of direction

Empowerment Discipline Sense of

Responsibility Emotional control

Social

Team-player

Role-model

Moderator

Trait Theories: Personal and Behavioral Traits, including intellectual superiority

Great-man

Theories: Wisdom and

thoughtfulness

Value Based Theories: Moral maturity, values, and emotional intelligence Behavioral and Relationship Theories: Getting along with other people

Organizational Effectiveness

[Impact]

To sustain synergy through

successfully enabling change

in status quo within the

ambiance of socio-moral

responsibility

Organizational Effectiveness

[Intervening Level] Optimal resource

creation and usage

Individual performances converged into group synergy

Integrated policies, systems, and structures

Learning culture Shared directions Complementing

interactions Planning,

assessing and reinforcing organizational performance

Innovative solutions

THEORIES COMPETENCIES

Management Creativity Systems thinking Managing change

Reformist Theories:

Managing organizations



The above framework identifies five major leadership-competencies that are considered rather essential towards attaining effectiveness. As you can notice in the figure 2.1 the effectiveness is presented as two separate but inter linked perspectives, termed as effectiveness levels. The first level effectiveness is called the “Intervening Level” and the second level effectiveness is called the “Impact [output) Level”. A detailed discussion on the leadership competencies and effectiveness is presented in the subsequent modules.



Leadership Effectiveness Analysis

Learning Objectives: Thus far readers are introduced leadership as a concept from conventional and alternative perspectives, as a basis of improving leadership effectiveness. In this module the readers will look at the leadership effectiveness

dynamics and different manifestations.

What is Effectiveness? The term “Effectiveness” is driven from the word effective, which means hitting-in-the- bull’s-eye. Leadership effectiveness is therefore defined as the ability of an organization to accomplish its short term and long term targets. In the extravaganza of organizations, two rather opposite clusters of organizations prevail. Organizations that focus on short term successes alone and the organizations those consider short term performance as means to long term sustainability. The former set of organizations in fact consider short term successes as end, while the latter set of organizations aim at long term sustainability as an end. In nut shell the former set of organizations predominantly operates rather complacently hence their focus tends to be profit-centric, while the latter set of organizations manages strategically hence focus on long term sustainability. Leadership Effectiveness in Perspective In conventional perspective, leadership effectiveness is all about achieving organizational efficiency, especially through other people. Although this perspective explains leadership effectiveness rather fairly, it ignores whether the leader’s target and process of achieving it conform to socio-moral responsibility. Moreover, this perspective also leads to the understanding that effectiveness of a leader is similar to that of a manager. If this is correct then what is the difference between managers and leaders, although in reality, the former is a position and latter is a role. Therefore, it is important to revisit the concept of leadership effectiveness from a different angle: Leadership effectiveness in precise terms is an organizational system [culture] that enables change [essentially improvement] in status quo through creating empowering culture, systems, structures etc. within the ambiance of socio-moral responsibility. Having said so, it essentially presents a complex function for it invokes multiple interventions and competencies. The processes are rather abstract as contrary to the singular intervention and rather discrete processes in a managerial position. This follows that it entails a combination of leadership culture supported by organizational systems, structures and processes to achieve critical leadership effectiveness. It has already been introduced in the last module that the leadership effectiveness framework has typically two levels, namely the process-level and outcome- or impact-level. Now let us explore it in detail.



Process-level Effectiveness It is a pre-emptive to organizational performance. Put it differently, it is the pre-requisite to accomplishing sharp-end organizational performance. It has following dimensions, namely:

Optimized resource creation and usage Integrated policies, systems, and structures Learning culture Shared directions Complementing interactions Synergy work groups

Harmonized performances Optimized Resource Creation and Usage – The foremost organizational characteristic is to mobilize and integrate economic and technological resources. It follows that organizations should develop a system whereby optimal blending of these resources is made possible for unleashing maximum synergy. Integrated Policies, Systems, and Structures – Organization policies, systems and structures are the pillars of productivity [performance]. All these must continually improve to cause harmonized performances and improved cross functional coordination and control hence optimized synergy across the organization. It would be much naïve to assume that redefining policies, and reforming systems and structures always means from tall to flat hierarchies; maximum decentralization of authority at the front level; etc. Change may also move in reverse direction. Learning Culture – Organizational growth depends on its ability to learn and change as efficiently as possible. Proactive organizations learn and change faster as compared to reactive organizations hence grows faster [Bryan Joiner]. Thus fostering a learning culture: values and norms that encourage learning and improvement, is critical. For instance, encouraging individuals and teams to try new methods of doing their jobs within bearable risk; acknowledging such initiatives; celebrating subsequent successes; and, last but not the least readiness to accept failures as learning experiences is an essential recipes of creating learning culture. Shared Directions – It is imperative that the whole organization [individuals and teams across the organization] must accomplish in a unified direction to achieve organizational synergy. Furthermore, it is also important that every individual and team must have clarity of the purpose, for no one can produce effectively without a rationale. In the absence of clarity of directions, individuals and team inevitably tend to fall in displacement-syndrome. Thus a shared sense of direction amongst individuals and teams must be achieved and sense of affiliation to it of every individual and team is instilled so that all are able to positively evaluate [rationalize] and align their performances in the unified direction. This unified direction can ideally be strong customer focus and organizational growth, etc. Complimenting Interactions – It is true individuals perform only when they work together. But as every individual brings in a unique personality, perception, and values eruption of biases, disagreements and conflicts, which eventually lead to discouragement [reduced



satisfaction, increased dissatisfaction or both] and lack of coordination is but inevitable unless complimented. The system must emphasize complimenting function of diversity and continually defuse biases, resolve conflicts, clarify roles, harness motivations and last but not the least, encourage cooperation not competition. Synergy Work Groups – The system must essentially foster cohesive and empowered [team] work groups where individuals begin to cooperate, support, and synergize each other’s performance thus ensuring success for everyone and ultimately for the organization. Harmonized Performances – The system should encourage and support employees perform their respective tasks or roles to optimum not that they leverage others’ performances towards their own achievements. Impact or Outcome Effectiveness Ideally speaking leadership impact or outcome that follows is best described as successfully enabling change [improvement] in organizational performance status-quo within the ambiance of socio-moral responsibility. It is noticed, however, that whenever organization initiates leadership interventions to reform the organizational performance, at the initial stage it becomes weaker [less advantageous] compared to a typically profit centric organization. Nevertheless, in the long run, it out performs its counterpart in terms of both sustainability and long term profits. Figure 3.1 portrays this relationship. The underlying assumption is that when organizations maintain status-quo in their outlook, goals, policies and system etc. performance tends to grow at a minimum rate, if at all. As and when organizations adopt profit centric strategies their performance immediately rises but for a short period followed by decline in the medium to long run. On the contrary, as organizations adopt to leadership culture that encourages strategic reforms and also conformity to the socio-moral norms, organizations are forced to continually challenge and improve upon their performances. In such a scenario growth rate tends to rise subsequent to initial dip. The simple logic is the faster learning cycle. Besides, synergies of unified performance of every one further add upon the growth rate. Most probably because leadership orientated culture warrants a lot more strategic investments in technology, human development, and quality etc., which pushes their operating leverage to a higher level relative and squeezes profit margin in the immediate scenario. For example, a local UPS manufacturer aiming to attain long term sustainability has heavily invested in state-of-the-art technology at exorbitant initial cash outlay. The

Leadership Effect

Short Term…Medium Term…Long Term Time Horizon

Org

aniz

ational Perf

orm

ance

Alpha Org

Beta Org

Profit Centric Effect

Status Quo

Figure 3.1



organization believes that this strategic investment will not only give them sustainable edge on other local manufactures but will also help them counter compete with international manufactures in the long run. Besides, as the organizations focus shifts to long term sustainability it discourages to speculate [take higher risk] for a short term advantage. For instance, Bearings Bank of England had been following rather risk avert policies in their investment/loans portfolio and were sustainable for good 400 years until there was an aggressive shift in their policies to take on higher risk for higher profits. The once sustainable bank collapsed within a span of just few years, surely for they traded long term sustainability for abnormal short term profits. Similar instances abound in our local corporate and industrial settings, for those wish to take lessons from such instances. A diagrammatic illustration follows. Conclusion: Leadership-effectiveness model as compared to profit centric strategies demonstrates a sustainable growth opportunities for the organizations in general. Moving forward, unraveling the leadership process and detailing the leadership competencies shall form the basis for building just right people-capacities and replicating the processes across the organization.



Business Leadership Paradigm

Learning Objectives: In the previous modules, we discussed the rationality of business leadership as a culture in contrast to personified leadership thinking. In this module, we shall introduce an integrated framework of business leadership. The model envisages integration of leadership, organizational reforms and the resulting impact. It also presents an argument in support of leadership-culture as an alternate to

personified-leadership.

This business leadership model aims to build an integrated and holistic perspective through connecting together the leadership environment; reforms; and, impact. Doing so, it will highlight leadership as the basis for organizational development and continuity. See figure 4.1

Figure 1.4

The framework consists upon three clusters, namely; the leadership-environment, leadership-reforms, and leadership-impact. Although leadership-environment is at the core, however, let us unravel the business leadership framework backwards. Leadership Reforms and their Impact Leadership impact is a holistic effect on the organization’s present and future performance. It essentially addresses the ongoing dilemmas of strategic realignment in the ambience of changing face of stakeholders’ expectations and concerns; operational effectiveness and efficiency while strengthening the planned strategic directions; and last but not the least, group and individuals’ performance efficacy while ensuring learning and change. Having said so, the impact is an outcome of the leadership envisaged reforms designed to synergize across the organization and within each individual department/function. Strategic Leadership – The permeable environments facing business organizations in particular continually change. Emerging opportunities prevail over conventional ones and new threats replace or add to the existing ones. All this directly or indirectly challenge

O rganizational

and/or Departmental

C ompetitiveness

and Sustainability

O rganizational

and/or Departmental

Effectiveness and

Efficiency

G roup and Individual

Performance

Effectiveness and

Efficiency

1. Strategic Re-alignment

2. C orporate G overnance

3. Business Policy and Systems

1. C ustomer Focus and

Innovations

2. Q uality and C ost Leadership

3. Resources Management

1. Teamwork [interactions]

2. O wnerships

3. Intellectual and professional

development

Strategic

O perational

Empowerment

C ompetencies

Socio-moral

Responsibility

Directions

Cu

ltu

re –

Sh

are

d B

eli

efs

, V

alu

es

,

No

rms

an

d P

rac

tic

es

Environment Reforms Impact



the organizations’ status quo vis-à-vis its competitiveness and sustainability in the external environment. Having said this, strategic leadership process should envisage to continually reforming strategic contours of the organizations such as, market competitiveness; corporate governance; and the policy environment. Operational Leadership – Organizations would not be able to march towards their strategic goals in the long run unless they are able to harness their operational synergies in the short term, in line with their strategic directions. Having said this, operational leadership process should focus on building and maintaining customer focus and fostering innovations; assuring quality and cost leadership in the industry; and, effective and efficient resources management across the organization as well as within each department. Leadership Empowerment – Organizations are “Of the people; by the people; and, for the people”. Late Agha Hasan Abidi [Allah bless him], founder Chairman and CEO [UBL and BCCI] always reiterated and I quote, “If the people grow, only then the bank will grow”, unquote. Leadership empowerment process, hence, should envisage enabling teamwork [interactions]; ownership; and, human development of every one, everywhere across the organization. Leadership Environment The front-end of the environment represents unified directions; wide-angle leadership competencies; and, cognizance of socio-moral responsibility across the organization. Driving force for front-end environment is the consciously nurtured leadership culture – shared beliefs, values, norms and practices across the organization. Unified directions – It refers to a common outlook of departments and individuals consistent with organization’s strategic directions and operational goals. Thus it provides basis for organizational discipline and standardization. Having said this it enables every department and the individual, irrespective of its individual position in the organization, to align and relate its unique functionality to the overall organization’s strategic direction and operational goals, respectively. Leadership competencies – It refers to typical leadership competencies, such as; Power to lead, Horizon, Empowerment, and Management. Already introduced in the 2nd. Module, we shall, however, revisit these competencies in detail in the subsequent modules. Socio-moral responsibility – As the title suggests, it is about performing rather responsibly. Put it simply, it is taking cognizance of and protecting the rights of all the stakeholders – society, government, customers, suppliers, employees, investors, etc. while performing either as individual or an organization as a whole. Having said this, we can look at socio-moral responsibility from two dimensions, namely; Corporate Citizenship, and Professional Citizenship. The former refers to the organization’s responsibility and the latter refers to the individuals’ responsibility vis-à-vis all other stakeholders’ rights.



Leadership Culture – The word culture refers to shared beliefs, values, norms and practices. The leadership-culture in an organization leads to developing shared leadership beliefs, values, norms and practices amongst individuals across the organization, irrespective of their designations, nature and place of work, gender, etc. Beliefs are referred to deep assumptions based on own and/or organizational experiences. These beliefs become the basis of distinguishing between good and bad, right and wrong, success and failure, etc. Thus these beliefs are instruments of intrinsic discipline. Values are affirmative reflections of beliefs. These help in defining and/or determining appropriate actions [responses] in day-to-day situations at work and life. Actions conforming to the values enhance consonance [inner satisfaction] while actions contrary to the values trigger dissonance [anxiety]. Thus these values work both as catalyst for appropriate behavior and as deterrents against possible dysfunctional behavior. Norms are widely accepted [standard] behaviors that emerge by the presence of superior values. Hence these norms provide performance benchmarks to every department and individual across the organization. Practices are the generally practiced attitude towards life, people, organization and work, etc. For instance, “challenging the status quo; creativity and innovation; learning to change; pro-activity; etc.” could be identified as important leadership practices. It is the prevalent beliefs; values and norms that cast practices. Hence for practices to be pragmatic, the culture must be positive. It is visible from the above that a typical leadership culture is inevitable if sound leadership is to be encouraged across an organization and amongst all individuals, contrary to the conventional concept of personified leadership where a single or a few, mostly position [or might] dependent, individuals are looked upon for the leadership role. Is it not too much to expect from a few persons, however, capable they may be. Still they would be individuals and would be faced with bounded rationality. In fact, synergy lies in the interaction of all as one team.



Comparative Analysis of Leadership Competencies:

Conventional Perspectives

Learning Outcome: In the previous modules the focus has been on Leadership from the macro perspective. Now in this and the following modules, focus shall be on Leadership from the micro perspective. To be exact, the focus shall now move onto

leadership competencies and process.

Reading through the previous modules you should have gained holistic view of the Organizational-Leadership concept as an alternate to personified leaders. I am quite sure that by now you are ready to look into the competencies and processes that help organizational-leadership succeed on grounds. So let us commence our journey of discovering the leadership competency dynamics by looking at the basics first.

Competency – It is the affective manifestations of traits and skills [ability to decide and/or act]. In other words it is the visible behavior [action or decision] in a given situation. Traits and skills are the foundation for developing an effective competence inventory.

Traits – These are the built-in personality characteristics that help individuals conduct themselves in a specific manner, which could be productive or counterproductive without regard to the righteousness of its subject matter. The traits also help individuals in learning specific skills.

Question arises whether these traits are innate or developed through a learning process. Conventionally, the answer is yes. Traits by default are innately built-in in every individual’s personality, however, different from individual to individual. Empirical findings, on the contrary, suggest that the traits are developed in response to the given environment of an individual. The learning of traits commences right from the child- hood. Though, immediate work environment comes into play much later as individuals are exposed to work life, yet its impact on already established traits profile is equally significant. Although there are little chances of developing traits afresh, however, experiences in the work life can reinforce and/or modify the traits to a great extent within a given environment. Hence, significance of environments, which we all pass through our child-hood to adult-hood and especially in the work life, is of critical importance in developing and harnessing leadership traits.

Skills – These are the functional abilities one possesses. Leadership skills are therefore functional abilities with which an individual or individuals effectively perform their leadership roles. Unlike leadership traits, there seems to be a consensus that skills are generally learnt through training and interactions. Hence, leadership skills are also developed through learning rather than being innate. Skills can be both cognitive and emotional (psychological], and physical [behavioral] abilities. Identification of essential leadership traits and skills is definitely a subjective process. But in this dilemma of subjective knowledge vs. no knowledge, perhaps identification of essential traits and skills, however subjective, increases the chances of developing leadership competence rather successfully.

Fortunately, much has been contributed by numerous researchers to the knowledge of leadership traits and skills. New insights are continually being developed. The integrated



leadership competencies framework, which I shall discuss in the next module, is also a revisit in this direction. Unlike presenting a different set of traits and skills, through this integrated framework I have attempted to collate rather diverse findings into one holistic model. The underlying rationale of this integration has been to compliment otherwise diverse findings and thereby develop one conclusive framework. The guiding presumption has been that each single research finding is valid but did not suffice alone in unraveling the traits and skills holistically.

Although there are numerous researchers who contributed to the knowledge base, however, I have focused on the work of Warren BENNIS1, Boyatzis1 and Dr. Adalat KHAN2 in particular. Subsequently, a comparison of theirs and others work is made. Please see the exhibit [A].

In his book, “Managing People is Like Herding Cats” Warren BENNIS discusses Ten Traits of Dynamic Leaders. He writes, “Dynamic leaders possess some distinguishing personality traits that give them the power and passion to succeed”. This best selling leadership book goes against four decades of empirical research that did not find much value in leadership trait theory.

1. Self-knowledge – Knowledge of own talents Value of foreign assignments With responsibility and accountability, you gain self-insight through some hall of mirrors, some prismatic way of seeing yourself in a variety of circumstances.

2. Open to feedback - Effective leaders develop valued and varied sources of feedback on their behavior and performance. 38 of 40 executives were still married and valued the institution of marriage and spouse as source of feedback.

3. Eager to learn and improve - Leaders are great askers and listeners. They know what they are good at doing, and they nurture and develop those skills and those talents. Extraordinarily thirsty for knowledge.

4. Curious, risk takers - Most leaders are adventurous, risk takers, curious and get involved in situations that they did not realize until later were dangerous.

5. Concentrate at work - Some are not very articulate leaders, but as you get to know them at work, display remarkable concentration and persistence.

6. Learn from adversity - great leaders have had a significant setback, crisis or failure in their lives.

7. Balance tradition and change - Value principles of tradition and stability, as well as the need for revision and change

8. Open style - Be extremely reflective and vulnerable to criticism.

9. Work well with systems - Great leaders realize they cannot handle every problem on their own. They rely on staff and systems to get things done.

10. Serve as models and mentors - Helps others to learn and learns from others. Boyatzis yet another authority, identified following nine [09] managerial competency traits (Boyatzis, 1982)



1. Efficiency Orientation - concern for task (See Theory X), high inner work standards, high achievement motivation [See McClelland] (with challenging but realistic goals and deadlines), develops action plans, determines ways to overcome obstacles, organizes work efficiently, and emphasizes performance when talking to followers.

2. Concern with Impact - Demonstrates high power need (see McClelland), and concern for power symbols (see culture), with behavior such as acting assertively (see Stogdill, 1974), attempting to influence others, seeking high status positions, and expressing concern about the reputation of the organization's products and services.

3. Proactivity - Demonstrates strong belief in self efficacy and internal locus of control (see Rotter, 1969), with behavior such as initiating action (see Oho State who call it initiating structure), do not wait for things to happen, takes steps to circumvent obstacles, seeks info from variety of sources, and accepts responsibility for success or failure.

4. Self-confidence - Demonstrates belief on their ideas and ability, takes decisive action, does not hesitate or vacillate, makes firm proposals, but has some poise, bearing, and uses gestures.

5. Oral presentation skill - Ability to use symbolic (see culture), verbal, and nonverbal behavior, and uses visual aids (overheads and Power Point) to persuade and convince.

6. Conceptualization - Ability to identify patterns in info and events (inductive reasoning), and conveys meaning with a concept, model, or theme, or uses a metaphor or analogy; able to develop creative solutions and new insights into problems.

7. Diagnostic use of Concepts - The deductive reasoning leaders, who interpret events and situations, distinguish relevant from irrelevant info, to detect deviations from their plans.

8. Use of Socialized Power - Develops networks and coalitions to gain cooperation and resolve conflicts constructively; uses role modeling to influence others.

9. Managing Group Process - Ability to manage group process, includes member identification, team spirit, symbols of group identity, emphasis on common interests, the need to collaborate, facilitate teamwork, and provide public recognition for member contributions.

Dr. Adalat KHAN in his article titled, Islamic Leadership Principles discusses following major principles or values. The Noble Quran, Hadith and Seerah of the Prophet Muhammad SAW and other Prophets, respectively, provide ultimate guidance.

1. Faith and Belief – [ALLAH Subhanaho says, Believers and disbeliever can never be alike, for the blind cannot be like the one who can see]. Faith or belief in Islam refers to opening the eyes to universal realities; to start with, accepting the existence of oneness of ALLAH Subhanaho, HIS absolute powers, followed by acceptance of one’ s own status as slave and servant of ALLAH Subhanaho. This faith on one side fosters hope and fear in one’s personality and on the other side



it concludes that our destinies are in the control of ALLAH Subhanaho and that we are only capable of [do] whatever ALLAH Subhanaho wills. In nutshell, faith and belief make us more realistic and responsible in our endeavors thus discipline our behaviors and increase our chances of doing things right always.

2. Knowledge and Wisdom – [ALLAH Subhanaho says, HE grants wisdom to whom HE wills; and he to whom wisdom is granted receives indeed a benefit overflowing; but none will grasp the Message but men and women of understanding: Noble Qumran 2:269]. Islam is more than a religion. It is more of a recommended way of conducting one’s life to unleash the potentials and succeed in just manner. To do so, ALLAH Subhanaho in HIS revelations and through HIS righteous messengers, has made it mandatory for each of us, be it a man or a women, to seek knowledge and develop wisdom. Only through our knowledge and wisdom we can conduct our lives [endeavors] more pragmatically, make informed decisions and bring about change for better.

3. Courage and Determination – [ALLAH Subhanaho says, Say ALLAH Subhanaho is my savior…HE is my LORD and SUSTAINER] Acceptance of All Mightiness of Allah Subhanaho and HIS revelations as ultimate wisdom instills hope and confidence. It is this confidence that allows us to courageously embrace challenges and be determined in our pursuits thus increasing our chances to achieve our goals, however difficult.

4. Mutual Consultation and Unity – [ALLAH Subhanaho says, Oh! Prophet PBUH discuss with your companions and then make a decision. Once you have decided, be steadfast and keep your hopes with ALLAH Subhanaho. At another place, ALLAH Subhanaho says, Oh! Muslims you are one nation] Consultation as recommended enhances one’s perspective on a particular situation thus enabling better response. Moreover, consultation also develops a shared understanding and ownership of the situation thus unifying responses across the community [organization].

5. Morality and Piety – [ALLAH Subhanaho says, Eating of others’ wealth (possessions} and killing other individuals unjustly is prohibited unto every Muslim]. It imposes a responsibility onto every single soul to protect each others’ interests or rights while pursuing his or her goals.

6. Patience and Endurance - [ALLAH Subhanaho says, By Al-‘Asr (Time). Verily, man (woman) is in loss. Except those who believe and do righteous good deeds, and recommend one another to the truth (Al-Mari and Al-Munkar), and recommend to one another patience. At another place ALLAH Subhanaho says, and indeed hereafter is better for you than the present life. Yet at another place ALLAH Subhanaho says, those who fear ALLAH and keep their hope with HIM (only)…] While facing challenges, problems are bound to impede progress unless we face them with courage and hope for better tomorrow. Patience and endurance are the two basic traits that instill courage and hope.

7. Commitment and Sacrifice – [ALLAH Subhanaho says, In war retrieve not but as a strategy for an assault. At another place ALLAH Subhanaho says, Sacrifice in the path of ALLAH (righteousness) your wealth (belongings) and your lives…] Here the first principle is to stick to the mission with perseverance in times of



ease and in difficulty. The second principle is to bear smaller losses for bigger advantages (noble achievements).

8. Lifelong Endeavor - [Prophet Muhammad PBUH said, Seek knowledge from Cradle to Grave. He also told us that, “If your tomorrow was not better than today, then you would be doomed”] Continuous improvement in oneself is a prerequisite for the [effectiveness] success, while complacent attitude on the contrary is a guarantee to fail. In other words, successful change is always inside-out approach.

9. Justice and Compassion – [ALLAH Subhanaho says, When you judge [decide] between people, do it with justice. At another place ALLAH Subhanaho says, (It is ALLAH Subhanaho’s fadal that) Prophet Muhammad PBUH (was) kind and caring with the believers. At another place ALLAH Subhanaho says, Life is for life; eye for eye; etc. But forgiving is better for you, if you understand] Practicing justice is allowing the principles to prevail over other things such as relationships, emotions, and personal interests. In other words justice is protecting every one’s legitimate rights without violating others’ rights. Doing so, equity will be established and fairness would prevail. While judging, being compassionate would further enhance the justice, for it would help understanding the context [situation] more deeply.

10. Communicating – [ALLAH Subhanaho sent down HIS messengers and revelations to guide the people on righteous path so those who may follow it would succeed] Communicating is essential for informed belief [knowledge] and righteous deeds [interaction]. Hence, communicating amongst is critical for accomplishing the mission successfully.

11. Gratitude and Prayers – [ALLAH Subhanaho says, the reciprocation of Eh’san (favor) is nothing but Eh’san] To reciprocate the infinite favors of ALLAH Subhanaho is not humanly possible but by way of unconditional submission and obedience to HIS shar’ia [guidance] and explicit acknowledgement of being slave of ALLAH [supplications in prayers]. None has the powers to make efforts or achieve anything but ALLAH Subhanaho alone. It is HE who bestows to whom HE wills the guidance and the power to make efforts and then bestows success upon him or her. Sincere acknowledgement of this fact makes us much more realistic in our pursuits and abundant [honest and sharing] in our transactions with others.

Source:

1. The work of Warren BANNIS and Boyatzis is sourced through a website. 2. Dr. Adalat Khan, Islamic Leadership Principles, Pakistan Management Review, 2nd. Quarter 2008 [The principles

are further elaborated by the author in the context of Noble Quran]



Exhibit

Comparative Review of Leadership Traits Skills

Tra

its

Researchers / Sources

Dr. Adalat Khan [Islamic Leadership Traits/ Skills]

Warren Bennis

Boyatzis, 1982

Stogdill 1948 / 1949-70

Chris Boleman

Organizat-ion Diagnosti-cs O/L

Leadersh-ip: Getting it Done

Hogan Assessm-ent Systems and Winsbor-ough

Limited

Faith and Belief

Self-knowled-ge

Concern with Impact

Requires status through active participat-ion

Surgency (flair to lead)

Amiability Personali-ty

Excitable (mood swings)

Knowled-ge and Wisdom

Open to feedback

Proactivity

Demonst-rates ability to facilitate the efforts of the group to attain its

goals

Agreeabl-eness (ability to get along well with people)

Conscient-iousness

Persuasi-ve

Skeptical (mistrust and pessimis-tic)

Courage and Determi-nation

Eager to learn and improve

Self-confiden-ce

Intelligent

Adjustm-ent (emotional stability and control)

Emotiona-lism

Persisten-ce

Cautious (risk avert)

Consulta-tion and Unity

Curious, risk takers

Oral Presenta-tion

Alert to others' needs

Conscien-tiousness (internally disciplined and response-ble)

Extrover-sion

Patience

Reserved (solo perform-ers)

Morality and Piety

Concent-rate at work

Concept-ualization

Understa-nds the task

Openness to Experien-ce (Innovat-ive and enterpri-sing)

Openness to innovation

Perceptive

Leisurely (country club, childish)

Communi-cation

Learn from adversity

Diagnostic use of computers

Initiative Domina-nce

Empathic concern

Probity

Bold (Over confident, whimsical)

Justice

and compass-ion

Balance

tradition and change

Use of socialized power

Persiste-nce in dealing with problems

High Energy

Perspecti-ve-taking

Praise giving

Mischiev-ous

(manipulative and lack integrity)



Patience and Enduran-ce

Open Style (to criticism)

Managing Group Process

Self-confident

Self Confiden-ce

Positive-affect

Positive orientati-on

Colorful (High social recognit-ion need)

Commitment and Sacrifice

Work well with systems

Efficiency Orientation

Desire to accept responsibility

Control of Destiny

Negative-affect

People based

Imaginative (intuitive)

Lifelong Endeavor

Serve as models and mentors

Desire for the position of dominan-ce and control

Stability Assertiveness

Possible

Diligent (Non delegate-ng, perfectio-nist)

Gratitude and Prayers

Adaptable to situations

Integrity Clearly Defining Tasks

Practical

Dutiful (subserv-ient to the higher authority)

Alert to social environm-ent

Intellige-nce

Individual consider-ation

Progress-ive

Ambitious and

achieve-ment oriented

Flexibility

(adaptab-ility)

Personal Dynamism

Prepared

Assertive

Sensitivity to others

Recognit-ion and concern

Power building

Coopera-tive

Trusted Example (moral credibility)

Decisive

High Expectat-ions

Dependa-

ble

Collectiv-

ism

Dominant (desire to influence others)

Work ethics

Energetic (high activity level)

Personal growth

Persistent

Self-Confident

Tolerant of stress

Willing to assume responsib-ility



Clever (intellig-ent)

Conceptually skilled

Creative

Diplomatic and tactful

Fluent in speaking

Knowledg

eable about group task

Organized (administ-rative ability)

Persuas-ive

Socially skilled



Integrated Leadership Competency Framework Learning Outcome: In the previous module Leadership competencies were discussed in retrospect. In this module, an integrated leadership competency framework will be introduced. The framework serves dual purpose – diagnosis and development of leadership competency in a typical business setting.

The Integrated Leadership Competency Framework is developed by leveraging the work of many acclaimed researchers in personified leadership, thus further complimenting upon their valuable contribution. Whether one looks at a leadership culture or the personified leader in an organization the focus is individuals or the individual, respectively. Having said this, competency-set would remain similar whether everyone across the organization practices it or only a singular person is expected to demonstrate these competencies in an organization.

The Framework This framework is based on the premise of natural integration of leadership traits, skills, competencies and process. The traits and skills form the basis of five core leadership competencies, namely; Power to lead, Empowerment, Horizon, Social, and, Management. Leadership process efficacy, as evident, is directly dependent upon the level of core competencies and indirectly on the given inventory of underlying skills and traits. See figure [6.1]

Leadership Traits and Skills – Traits are classified into two categories, namely; core, and specialized. While the core-traits represent generalized characteristics, the specialized-traits are related to specific skills-set and competencies. While traits are subtle variables, skills are the abilities that are observable and measurable. For example, morals; positive attitude; and, equity; etc are typically the Traits and judgment; tactfulness; and, articulation; etc. are typically the Skills.

Core traits include Charisma [visibility]; Wisdom; Morals; Energy; and the Perspective. These traits are considered essential for the overall development of effective leadership practices. Specialized traits encompass Hope and Fear; Perseverance; Fairness; Values; Knowledge; Impulse control; Diversity; Dreams; Insight; Equality; Empathy; Sensitivity; Intelligence; Holistic outlook; Risk taking, etc.

In addition to above specialized traits, following specialized skills are identified with reference to five leadership competencies. Namely, Positive attitude; Surgency; Judgment; Principles; Awareness; Patience; Generalist; Articulation; Know thy self and thy situation; Cooperation; Communication; Tactfulness; Decision making and problem solving; Coherence; and, Creativity; etc.

Competencies – These represent the behavioral dimension of skills and traits. Having said this, level of competencies directly depends on the given inventory of skills and traits. Hence to inculcate or improve upon a particular competency one needs to develop requisite skills and traits. First of five competencies is the “Power to Lead”. It has a focus on individuals’ readiness to conduct him- or herself in a leadership role. It considers following dimensions, namely; conviction, motivation, and moral integrity.



“Empowerment” is the second competence in sequence. It also has focus on the individuals’ self management ability. It considers following dimensions, namely; discipline, responsibility, and emotional power.

“Horizon” is the next critical leadership competence. It has a focus on the individuals’ ability to see opportunities and challenges beyond the present and beyond the obvious. In other words it is an ability to understand the relationship between discrete present and cloudy future. It considers following dimensions, namely; vision, focus, and sense of direction.

“Social” competence is no less important. It has a focus on the individuals’ ability to work and interact with other people. It has the following dimensions, namely; team-player, role-model; moderator.

“Management” competence refers to an individuals’ ability to control the business activity and/or process in an efficient and effective fashion. It has following dimensions, namely; attention to details, systems thinking, and managing change.

Process – It is referred to an established sequence of interdependent activities and decisions that are designed to improve leadership effectiveness. It consists of, Setting goals [Clarifying directions]; Understanding roles; Defining interactions; Projecting key performance areas and indicators; and, Adjusting style.

Figure 6.1 – Leadership Competencies Framework

Basis Competence

Pro

ce

ss “

GR

IP

S”:

Goals

– R

ole

s – I

nte

ract

ions

– P

erf

orm

ance

– S

tyle

Co

re

Tra

its:

Charism

a

[vis

ibili

ty]

–

Wis

dom

–

Mora

ls

–

Energ

y –

Pers

pect

ive

Traits Hope and Fear

Perseverance Fairness

Skills Positive attitude

Surgency Judgment

Power to Lead Conviction

Motivation Moral integrity

Traits

Values Knowledge Impulse control

Skills

Principles Awareness Patience

Empowerment

Discipline Responsibility Emotional power

Traits

Diversity Dreams Insight

Skills

Generalist Articulation Know thy self and

thy situation

Horizon

Vision Focus Sense of direction

Traits

Equality Empathy Sensitivity

Skills

Cooperation Communication Tactfulness

Social

Team-player Role-model Moderator

Traits Intelligence Holistic outlook Risk taking

Skills Decision making

and problem solving

Coherence Creativity

Management Attention to details Systems thinking Managing change



Limitation – It seems obviously difficult to impossible that all the competencies and corresponding skills and traits could be found in a singular person or across the organization. While this identifies a limitation of this competency model, interestingly it also nullifies the concept of personified leaders. The limitation is, however, rectified as organizations attempt to augment the leadership competencies on organizational level by teaming the individuals together with diverse leadership competencies. Doing so will create a synergistic leadership culture across the organization.

Detailed discussion on traits, skills, competencies and the process is presented in the following modules.



Anatomy of Leadership Competencies

Learning Outcome: In this module you will have a chance to understand how different leadership competencies are developed by analyzing in detail the leadership traits and skills. This understanding shall help you in unleashing your leadership potentials to the

maximum.

We know that Leadership is a composite competence, for it should essentially take a holistic approach in reforming organizations and successfully unleashing their unlimited potentials and opportunities. The competencies are already identified as diversely as was possible with my bounded knowledge. However, let’s not consider them exhaustive and conclusive by any means, but perhaps as a starting point to move forward. In this module I shall explain how these leadership competencies could be developed among individuals across the organization.

Let us start by revisiting the leadership competencies in the first place. In total five competencies are identified, namely; Power to lead, Empowerment, Horizon, Social, and Management. All these competencies were briefly explained in the previous module. In this module each competency and its respective skills and traits that underlie, will be discussed in rather detailed manner so to allow the readers to understand their bases.

1. Power to Lead – It makes the performance meaningful, consistent, and just. It is a competence that refers to effective demonstration of motivation, conviction and moral integrity in whatever and wherever an employee performs. As visible, it is related more to the self-behavior instead of interpersonal-behavior. This competence can be developed [acquired] through developing a set of specific skills and traits. Such as, positive attitude, surgency, and judgment; and, hope with fear, perseverance, and fairness, respectively.

Positive Attitude makes individuals think right and do right. In other words, positive attitude help individuals in embracing and approaching situations, people, opportunities, and challenges rather realistically hence constructively. Surgency as a skill refers to individuals’ ability to keep their motivation alive and harnessed, at all times especially in difficult situations. Thus it is a source of continued energy. Judgment as a skill provides basis for fairness and rationality, which enhances level of integrity in individuals’ performance. Hope with fear, perseverance and fairness are considered major contributing traits towards the development of positive attitude, surgency and judgment.

Hope with Fear together help develop positive attitude. Hope refers to all time positive thinking about the future. In one way, losing of hope is denying of Al Mighty Allah’s true characteristic of Savior. On the other side of it, losing hope lowers energy, enthusiasm, and commitment etc, which in fact are pre-requisite to take on opportunities and face challenges. For instance, it is widely quoted that once Bata Shoe Company sent two of its sales persons to a potential market where there was no culture of wearing shoes (or slippers) by any one. One sale person came back in high energy: Let’s go there ASAP, we have lots and lots of customers there but there are no shoes (slippers) available to them. The other sales person came back with a negative notion: No opportunity to have an outlet there, we can’t sell shoes, for no one wears them. Hope made the difference. Person with positive hope responded positively while the person with no hope responded



negatively to an obvious opportunity. Hope as an independent variable does not really work. Fear or to be precise “Positive Fear” prevents persons with high hope from becoming complacent. Positive fear help persons always keep improving and working harder to achieve their targets, for it is the positive fear that compels people to embrace their achievements with a pinch of salt – I could have done it even better if I had worked harder. Yet another perspective of positive fear is that it leads to contentment which in turn energizes further efforts. Perseverance: ALLAH Al Mighty says, Oh! Prophet (PBUH) when you are making a decision consult with your colleagues and when you have made a decision trust in ALLAH Al Mighty and be steadfast on you decision. Examples abound, which support the functionality of perseverance in maintaining commitment and enthusiasm in pursuits, however, difficult they may be. For instance, it is said that the founder of Kentucky Fried Chicken took his recipe to as many as 600 prospective sponsors. However, every one declined until the last one accepted to sponsor. Had he foregone his decision at any point prior to meeting the 600th prospective sponsor, ALLAH Al Mighty would not have blessed him such a marvelous success. Fairness is a personality disposition that enables us all to make decisions and act in just and equitable manner. ALLAH Al Mighty says, “O’ Muslims when you decide among people, do it with justice”. In short it refers to maintaining equity in sharing resources and responsibilities.

2. Empowerment – It works as a value-based self control of individuals’ performance, hence eliminates the need for third person’s intervention giving freedom and ownership of the performance to the individuals themselves. In precise terms, it refers to individuals’ maturity on the job to the extent that they are individually able to make decisions and execute tasks hence manage their performances on their own but in a unified direction. Having said this, empowerment as a skill helps individuals perform rather independently yet synergistically. Empowerment can be developed [acquired] through developing a set of specific skills and traits. Such as, principles, awareness, and patience; and, values, knowledge and impulse control, respectively.

Principles are opposite of egocentric and whimsical thinking. Put it simply, principles are the foundation of rational behavior. Thus it allows individuals to direct their performance on their own within the ambiance of organizational productivity. Thus the role of principles in empowering individual individuals is critical. Awareness is equally imperative in empowering of individuals. It is more of a cognitive alertness of individuals’ immediate environment, present and the emerging, whereby the individual individuals are able to make informed decisions and actions. Lastly, patience is an emotional control skill that helps maintain consistency of behaviors and/or deter hasty decisions or actions, which usually arise out of impulsive stimuli.

Values are deep assumptions about right and wrong, good and bad, success and failure, etc. As the values become conviction, these are automatically converted into strong principles. Eventually principles begin to control behaviors [decisions and actions]. As we know that values have multiple dimensions such as moral values, social values, economic values, etc. Therefore, it is likely that separate set of principles would emerge such as set of moral principles, social principles, and economic principles, etc. Resultantly, sometimes individuals would face a conflict amongst the given set of principles, which could be highly dysfunctional. It is therefore imperative that the different set of principles should be integrated in such a way that each compliments the other dimension. For instance, economic principles must serve as basis for improving overall social, moral,



and economic standard and vice versa. Knowledge is power, for it alone makes us more principle centered; more aware; and more patient. The secret of unleashing the power of knowledge is its unconditional acceptance and application. Therefore, Prophet Muhammad PBUH rightly advised to seek knowledge from cradle to the grave. Surely, it is our impulse that causes selectivity and distortion in the process of seeking knowledge. Impulse control is an ability to overcome selectivity and distortion. Selectivity makes us select only the knowledge that conforms to our existing perspective and to ignore the rest, no matter how important it may be. Distortion then comes into play by interpreting contents of the selected information in conformity of our existing perspective. Put it differently, selectivity and distortion make us manipulate the knowledge in a manner that is most advantageous to our goal orientated positions and interests.

3. Horizon – Literal meaning of the term “horizon” is perspective. Here the term horizon refers to a visionary perspective with a strong focus on present and a sense of direction that gives meaning to the vision and focus. Thus it provides a compass to distinguish between productive and unproductive performance based on the “end in mind”. Horizon can be developed [acquired] through a set of specific skills and traits. Such as, being generalist, learning to articulate, and knowing oneself and his or her environment; and, valuing diversity, dreaming, and insightfulness, respectively.

Generalist is being able to do a variety of tasks or having a variety of experience. Such a skill enables the individuals develop a holistic perspective and increases their chances to understand the probable implications of evolving changes in the future. Articulate is a next of kin to generalist. It means ability to precisely express rather abstract and blurred future thus instilling meaning in it. This skill builds upon the generalist ability to foresee the future and to prepare for the opportunities and challenges in a more discrete manner. Knowing oneself and environment is to have complete knowledge of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. It has a pivotal role in making informed decisions both in the futuristic and present perspectives.

Diversity as a value is neither right nor wrong. But people who value diversity positively have higher chances to visualize or make sense of rather complex existing and emerging scenarios because of their diverse experience they bring with. It helps them in having a futuristic vision while at the same time maintaining focus on their present, both in harmony to each other. Dreaming is yet another significant trait. It is through dreaming one connects present with the future and articulates a fantastic vision. Insightfulness is help to focus beyond the obvious, to make sense out of absurd concept, and to clearly see opportunities in the jungle of challenges. In short, together these traits help build a meaningful horizon.

4. Social – As the name suggests, this competence relates to interpersonal transactions. ALLAH Al-Mighty creates in the manner HE wills. Sometimes HIS order suffices such as in case of miracles. But in our situation, HE has delegated the power of creation [Qudrat] not to individual but in the interaction of individual factors, which includes people and other resources. Here I would like to quote Late Walt Disney. He once said, “People thought that I had made wonderful creations in the world of entertainment. They were wrong. Instead when people of diverse competence, each master of his or her field, and myself interacted with each other we together created what the world considers as wonders”. It suggests that while interacting together each person brought in a diverse input [value] in accordance with his or her unique competence. This quote truly conforms to the natural principle of performance of ALLAH Al Mighty. Thus social



competence is nothing less or more than getting along with others in a manner that synergizes each others’ performance. The critical dimensions to this competence are team-player, role-model, and moderator. Having said this, the skills and traits that are considered critical pre-requisites are cooperation, communication, and tactfulness; and equality, empathy, and sensitivity; respectively.

Cooperation it is critical a social attitude that allows individuals to accomplish their performance targets by enabling others accomplish theirs. Put it simply, individuals cooperate not compete to accomplish their individual performance targets. For instance, managers [not leaders] accomplish more when they define their performance not to sell more but to enable their sales personnel sell more. Reciprocally, sales personnel help managers [not leaders] achieve overall sales performance. So they both cooperate, for without it none would be able to achieve their performance targets. Communication is another important social skill. Through communication only individuals can coordinate and interact to perform synergistically. Thus communicating successfully is imperative for the group performance. Last but not the least is the tactfulness. In interacting with individuals who have emotions and unique perspectives, emotional conflicts and disagreements are routine matters. If these situations are handled tactfully then mush would stand resolved in routine, as soon as it arises. However, if not then these routine problems would become big time performance impediments. Tactfulness in essence refers to a judicious approach entailing higher sensitivity to the inner feelings of all in dealing with these highly sensitive issues, for no stereo-type solution would fit alike in all situations.

Equality amongst individuals’ status as a mindset is fundamental to cooperation, communication and tactfulness. On the contrary, status incongruence [inequality] jeopardizes interactions by diverting the focus of individuals from their respective roles to their respective statuses. Similarly, interdependencies are converted into independencies. Consequently, competition takes over cooperation; information monopoly replaces communication; and, authority prevails over tactfulness. Empathy is a pre-requisite of successfully communicating, especially when emotions are involved. Empathizing enables unraveling and focusing on the subtle issues in interpersonal transactions, whether communicating to coordinate, giving feedback, or resolving an emotional distress. Sensitivity is an ability to solicit others support by demonstrating compassion and concern for them. It helps to build rapport and trust amongst individuals. Thus besides its significance in soliciting routine cooperation and communicating, it has a great advantage in tactfully gaining agreements and resolving conflicts. In short, these combined skills and traits strengthen individuals’ potentials of as team player, role model and moderator.

5. Management – The term management is broadly defined as a process of planning, organizing, coordinating and controlling. In TQM system it is defined as a process of Planning, Doing, Checking and Acting [correcting] PDCA. Both definitions consider management as a process. However, the PDCA process seems more functional because its scope also includes the execution activities, while the former definition excludes the execution activities from the ambiance of management process. Because of the superior functionality of TQM definition, I will explain the anatomy of management competence in the TQM perspective. Management competence typically has two dimensions, namely; efficiency and effectiveness. Let us say, efficiency envisages managing results [profits] in short term perspective hence emphasis on attention to details. Effectiveness on the contrary aims to managing results [profits] in medium to long term perspective hence



entails system thinking, innovation and change to continually maintain a good fit between the organizational strengths and external opportunities, while eliminating the internal weaknesses to the possible extent and minimizing the dysfunctional effects of external challenges [threats]. Critical dimensions to this competence are attention to details, systems thinking, and change management. Having said this, the skills and traits that are considered instrumental in this regard are decision making & problem solving, coherence, and creativity; and intelligence, holistic outlook, and risk taking [entrepreneurship]; respectively

Decision making & problem solving is a key to managing activities, overcoming variations, controlling distortions and making adjustments. It is this skill that help individuals especially to accomplish their short term performance targets and also to secure their long term performances. Coherence refers to individuals’ ability of correlating diverse segments of activities to develop systems thinking. It allows them to understand and predict probable repercussions on various segments as a consequence of disruption or deliberate change occurring in a segmental activity. Creativity is the most desired skill for management competence. Creativity as its name suggests, entails challenging the status quo and innovating concepts, processes or output. Doing so, improvement in efficiency and effectiveness is earned. Creativity is, however, always risky for it might hit in the bull’s eye or fire backwards.

Intelligence is defined as cognitive and emotional traits that help understand, solve and construct simple to complex concepts and to empathize underlying feelings.

Holistic outlook refers to a diverse perspective. For instance, always looking at a problem from multiple angles. It allows unraveling the probable implications thus thinking of more sustainable solutions of problems. Risk taking is an attitude that proactively encourages trying new ideas, unknown processes, and idealistic goals. It also instills perseverance and patience to bear with the teething problems and failures until success is earned.

Alhamdolillah, the leadership competencies and their underlying skills and traits are elaborated above to a reasonable extent. At this point, it is interesting to take notice of certain traits that are not discussed above but are fundamental to the development of entire leadership competencies. Thus let us refer to them as the Core-traits. These traits are considered essential for the overall development of effective leadership practices. These consist of Charisma [visibility]; Wisdom; Morals; Energy; and the Perspective.

Charisma in general terms refer to one’s personality disposition or facade. However, here we shall define charisma as a professional image. In other words it is the soft dimension of a professional. The image in turn becomes the basis of professional visibility and reputation to which the personality facade is but one variable. Otherwise the professional image is more of a reflection of an individual’s professional abilities and achievements. Often question arises of the significance of image in the business world. The answer is simple. It is the basis of power to get recognition; power to be listened; power to make the difference; etc. Here power does not mean exercising authority or prevailing upon others but a basis of positioning oneself as a bench-mark, mentor, role model etc. For instance, a legend by professional achievements who may or may not be the Leader per se.

Wisdom is equally critical trait, for without it no individuals would be able to deliver a meaningful performance. Wisdom refers to the ability to understand and judge with



reasonable degree of objectivity and fairness, respectively. It is this objectivity and fairness that enables individuals to maintain focus; rationality, and equity in their routine transactions and decisions, alike. At the same time to be visionary, innovative, and tactful in dealing with rather obscure opportunities and challenges.

Morality can be defined as being responsible to one’s own and others’ rights. Putting it differently, being moral is to conduct oneself in a manner that is just for oneself and also for others or at least do not violate others’ rights. Thus a moral conduct envisages a win-win relationship with all the stakeholders at all times, which in turn synergizes individuals’ performance and organizational continuity.

Energy has two dimensions, namely; psychological and physiological. The psychological energy is manifested in the form of enthusiasm, courage, perseverance, consistency, motivation, positive attitude and last but not the least ability to work in reasonably higher stress scenarios. Physiological energy is reflected in continuous hard work, and ability to take on increasingly greater responsibilities, etc. All this increases individuals psychological and physiological capabilities to take on greater challenges in career and life too.

Perspective is the basis of what position [point of view] one takes in embracing opportunities, facing challenges or dealing with routine situations or people. For instance, whether a person considers coming to work as an opportunity to do something worthy or as mundane duty only? Obviously, person with the former perspective is likely to bring forth continuous improvement in his performance, while with the latter perspective he or she would only be able to perform to the minimum to maintain the status quo, if at all.

In conclusion, we can say that it is these core traits that provide basis for developing secondary traits and skills necessary to master different leadership competencies and the process. Thus inculcating and/or reinforcing these traits are imperative at the onset of every individual’s career, for without it further development would not be possible in a meaningful manner.



Motivation Process Revisited

Learning Outcome: In this module you will have a chance to understand different bases of motivation. This understanding shall help you in identifying what motivates different individuals and how best can their motivation be harnessed to the advantage of

the organization.

Overview We know that behaviors at work can be spontaneous or instrumental. Spontaneous behaviors are habitual in nature, which are developed over many years. Habits (habitual behaviors) are rather independent of our cognition and environment. For instance, being polite; being ignorant; etc. On the other side, instrumental behaviors are responsive to the cognitive and/or environmental cues. While changing habits is rather a complex and abstract process, instrumental behaviors are relatively practical and easy to mend. In the following lines, we shall try to develop even better understanding of the dynamics and processes of instrumental behaviors. Motivation is the basis of instrumental behaviors. We know that the relationship between motivation and behavior is a cause-effect-relationship between need, behavior and satisfaction [see figure 0.1] – Unsatisfied needs cause anxiety, which in turn make the individual make efforts to fulfill his or her needs. Connecting motivation with work behaviors entails two dimensional interventions, namely; creating awareness of motivation [unsatisfied needs] at individual level – referred to as the motivation content enrichment, and forging positive relationship between individual’s motivation and work behaviors – referred to as the motivating process. While mostly individuals are motivated all the time to achieve one need (goal) or another, however, each individual has a unique perspective that makes his or her motivation or response to reinforcements different from the others even in similar situations. Therefore we say that the relationship between motivation and performance in a typical work setting is complex and abstract. Put it simply, individuals are motivated for rewards [satisfaction of needs] but by and large they fail to get adequate urge to perform on their jobs. Hence locus of motivation related challenges is connecting the individual’s motivation with his or her work behavior. To further build our understanding of motivation let us refer to a few pertinent quotes [Ayats] of the Noble Quran, which are appended: Impact of Motivation In essence, motivation can be productive and counterproductive as well. Two variables are critical in this regard – focus and control. If the focus is on accomplishing from a long term and holistic perspective the impact of motivation on performance would then be much productive [beneficial], but if it is on achieving short term advantages only it is much likely that long term and holistic goals are sacrificed. For example, impulsively

Need(s) leads to Anxiety leads to Efforts lead to Fulfillment of need



changing careers and quickly switching jobs might get extra money advantage in the short term but diminishes the chances of sustained career development in the long run. Control refers to one’s ability to demonstrate restraint [self discipline] in harnessing motivation. In other words, it is about gaining control over impulse and instinct. In the absence of control, motivation would over power one’s rationality. For instance, fighting with lives and money to establish [Allah’s] law and order in the nation [world] is much rational. However, as one let go the control of his or her motivation, subsequently fighting becomes nothing but a source of prevailing over others or a gratification – a win-lose game.



Case in Point – World Trade Agreements [WTO] were aimed at enhancing human development across the world via promoting free [rather equitable] trade opportunities to every nation. However, soon the entrepreneurs moved away their focus from their responsibility of enhancing human development to their right to access global business opportunities for profit maximization alone, which is actually causing deterioration in global human development. Such a shift in focus can be attributed to excessive [selfish] motivation for profit while disregarding responsibility to the society. This is a fit case of

lesser control over impulse and instinct.

Thus we have basis to say that focus and control are fundamental in harnessing motivation within the bounds of rationality [just]. Motivation should thus conform to 4R criteria: Rationality that results from result orientation; responsibility centeredness and realistic attitude. Motivation to Performance Relationship between motivation and performance is described as a multiple-stage process. Each stage represents a state-of-motivation. First stage of motivation is referred to as the state of “Cognizance”. This stage is achieved when an individual recognizes or becomes aware of his or her motivation at the conscious level. This is followed by state of “Readiness”. Here an individual feels inclined [encouraged], feels confident and deems fit to respond to the motivation. Later on, comes the “Responsiveness” stage. Here the motivation becomes affective, as the individual prepares to respond by identifying appropriate actions. At the final stage referred to as “Action”, the affective motivation is translated into [leads to] behavior. Moral as a Basis of Motivation In traditional perspective of course needs alone are considered instrumental to motivation. Hence one could conclude that motivation is needs-based always. However from another perspective, many other variables besides needs spur our motivation, such as attitude [seeing work as a responsibility]; fear; impulse; and fun (gratification); etc. Primarily development of these variables and which would dominate largely depends upon individuals’ respective conscience. Conscience also known as morality, provides basis for ones understanding of right and wrong and plays critical role in causing behavioral response to any particular situation. This concept is well endorsed by the findings of a researcher Lawrence Kohlberg1 who successfully identified several stages of moral development, which much systematically unravels the relationship between stages of moral development and presence or dominance of an individual variable

Cognizance

Readiness

Responsiveness

Action

Realistic

Attitude

Results Orientatio

n

Responsibility

Centered

Rational

Orientation



Level One: Pre-conventional

Level Two: Conventional

Level Three: Post Conventional

Stage 1: Concern for physical consequences to self, especially to avoid potential punitive consequences [Fear]

Stage 2: Concern for satisfaction

of personal needs.

Stage 3: Concern for others approval of one’s behavior.

Stage 4: Concern for conforming to legal boundaries / standards

Stage 5: Concern for preventing (not violating) others rights and social contract (obligation), for conducting one self in a morally correct manner.

Stage 6: Concern for confirming to the ethical principles such as justice; fairness; and equal human rights etc.

Broad Manifestations of Motivation Rights Centered – is the first level motivation. People at this level tend to focus on their rights viz. organization, spouse, family, friends, colleagues, seniors, juniors, society, etc. Persons at this level tend to excel in competing with each other with a view to maximize their personal gains. Putting it differently, they operate with a “Win-Lose” or “Competitive” mind-set. Responsibility Centered – is the second level motivation. People at this level tend to focus on their responsibilities viz. organization, spouse, family, friends, colleagues, seniors, juniors, society, etc. Persons at this level tend to excel in cooperating with each other with a view to enable each other succeed. Putting it differently, they operate with a “Win – Win” mind-set. Service Centered is the third level motivation. People at this level have selfless urge to help others succeed – like a parent nurturing the child out of sheer feeling of love and affection. No personal reward is anticipated. Persons at this level tend to go an extra mile in doing favors or in extending a helping hand to others. Putting it differently, they operate with “Service” mind-set. Generalized Motivators Need / desire centered motivation – It is the most widely accepted type of

motivation. It suggests that individuals act [behave] in response to and in anticipation of satisfying their personal needs / desires. For instance, individuals aware of their needs / desires are likely to act in the direction that assures them satisfaction of their needs / desires notwithstanding the fact whether they follow the right way or wrong way. The limitation of need based motivation is that once the need is satisfied or future satisfaction is guaranteed unconditionally, such as mandatory annual salary raise etc., it ceases to induce work behaviors / performance. Major contributions into the dynamics of need based motivation are Maslow’s hierarchy of needs; Herzberg’s two factor theory; Vroom’s expectancy theory; Goal path theory; etc. The theories are clustered into two main streams, namely; content theories and process theories. Content theories focus on what motivates while the process theories deal with the secret of how motivation induces behavior. A detailed account of these theories is presented in the next module.

Value centered motivation – Individuals behave in response to their unique values. People with value based motivation are likely to act as a result of being



cognizant of their responsibilities. For instance, value such as, “professionals should always act justly” is likely to result in a disciplined [unbiased] behaviors.

Fear centered motivation – Fear can be defined as potential threat of loss [punitive outcome] as a consequence of misbehavior or indiscipline. Besides, fear is also a feeling of not being sure of if everything is done perfectly yet being positive [hopeful] of success on one extreme and losing all hopes to get success on the other extreme. Undoubtedly fear as a potential threat has significant effect in restraining or deterring individuals from acting in a dysfunctional [destructive, illegal, aggressive, immoral, etc] manner. However it does not encourage positive behaviors. For instance, late payment surcharges levied in utility bills compel people to pay their on the due date but do not encourage to pay any earlier. On the contrary, early payment discounts are likely to encourage payment of bills at the earliest. Likewise, fear as uncertainty in conjunction with hopefulness prevents complacency and becomes instrumental in motivating for continuous improvements. However, fear as uncertainty coupled with hopelessness is a destructive feeling and could lead to withdrawal from the situation.

Impulse centered motivation – More like a child, at times we all are set to do things [set targets] but don’t know if it is important or not in making us successful. We reason it out [rationalize] as because everyone else is doing it [moving with the crowd] or find some even more creative reasoning. For example, college students hook-up to smoking either because of friendship with smokers or sometimes to present them more like a matured adult – a cigarette company even used to sell its cigarettes by persuading its potential customers that they should come for the style and they will stay for the taste.

Fun centered motivation – Excitement in doing anything and immediate pleasure of winning are a few bases of fun centered motivation. In absolute terms both excitement and pleasure of winning are effective encouragements and reinforcements. However, ironically these variables in isolation make the person blind folded. S/he then becomes vulnerable to anything and everything without reasoning, whatsoever. Subsequently, it is much likely to go astray of one’s realistic purpose [goal] in life. For instance, an entrepreneur spends more time and resources on harboring creative ideas but failing to convert them into innovative business solutions. At the end of the day it would lead him or her to nowhere or even business closure. Fun centered motivation has a serious limitation in terms of its limited influence period. Put it simply, doing certain actions may cause extreme gratification at the onset, however, with repeated similar behavior the level of gratification tends to diminish from extreme through routine to boredom.



Diagnostic Approach to Motivation

Learning Outcome: In this module you will have a chance to understand different motivation types their general characteristics and strategies to dealing with each of them. This understanding shall help you in managing employee motivation at the work

place.

“There should be people who invite [encourage] others towards good deeds and deter [discourage] them from bad deeds” The Noble Quran. Motivating fellow employees (subordinates per se) is quite a challenging yet key function of a manager (supervisor). Prior to embarking on challenges, let us define motivating and how it is different from welfare. Motivating is a conscious process, which is essentially envisages improved employee performance; satisfaction and contentment. Put it simply, the focus of motivating employees is to influence their behaviors and performance while satisfying their values, needs and expectations. The concept of welfare is contrary to motivating in the sense that it envisages a management’s responsibility to afford a comfortable living to all employees across the board. However, the facilities so provided are not connected to employee behavior or performance. It would be right to say that welfare is a rights-based approach while motivating is inducing satisfaction and contentment for improved employee productivity. Reinforcements refer to the manager’s actions that are aimed at utilizing employee’s motivation towards higher on- the-job productivity. Typical reinforcements are task-centric and employee-centric. Task-centric reinforcements are designed to induce task related behaviors, however, ignore the need for employees’ satisfaction and/or contentment. Hence, these reinforcements fail to induce employees to perform beyond the minimum level. For instance, supervision and coaching, clearly defined performance targets, and effective deterrence may enable employees to perform but at the minimum level. Similarly, employee-centric reinforcements are designed to satisfy employees’ motivations, however, ignore the need for employees’ productivity. Consequently, employees’ tend to slide in a state of complacency and eventually withdraw. Their productivity hence falls even below the minimum level. For instance, absolute job guarantee; time based career growth and salary increments; excessive emphasis on relationships, etc. make employees think for their benefits only, sometimes as their innate rights. However, their sense of responsibility towards the organization is grossly undermined. Considering the above scenarios, the significance of integrating the two reinforcement orientations – employee-centric and task-centric – is imperative for

[Low

] E

mplo

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Pro

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ivity [

Hig

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Figure 9.1

[Low] Motivation Reinforcements [High]

Integrated

Reinforcement

s

Task Centric Reinforcement

s

Employee Centric Reinforcements



achieving sustained employee productivity. See figure 9.1. Furthermore, as a general rule motivation reinforcements should essentially influence employee behavior and performance in a holistic perspective – encourage right behaviors and discourage wrong [dysfunctional] behaviors. Put it differently, rewards are recommended for encouraging and reinforcing constructive behaviors, while deterrence is considered necessary to prevent and make correction of dysfunctional behaviors. For instance, appropriate rewards such as competitive salaries; equal opportunities; equitable career growth; opportunity for achievements; respect and self esteem; etc are essential for improved performance, while fear of real reprimand; fear of losing job or reputation; etc. are a few examples of deterrence that prevent and bring timely correction in dysfunctional behaviors. Together, the enabling and deterring reinforcements provide a sustainable performance growth path. See figure 9.2 Challenges: Contemporary managers (supervisors) are faced with a host of problematic issues relating to motivating employees or to sustain their motivation. Some major challenges are cited below:

- Forging effective and sustainable linkage between employee motivation and work behavior: Putting it simply, in the modern days while employees are much aware of their rights, concerns and needs they fail to show responsibility towards doing their jobs diligently. Subsequently, they assert for their rights, concerns and needs but do not reciprocate by performing on their jobs in the befitting manner.

- Organizations’ general inclination towards stereo-type motivating tactics is in fact

causing more damage than benefit to the organizations. Putting it simply, organizations by competing to pay more by their competitors and sometimes merely succumbing to the bargaining skills of the employees are promoting “Money- monsters”. These money-monsters consider organizations paying higher salaries as their bargaining power and then begin to capitalize upon their assumed bargaining power through hopping from one organization to another sometimes for only a meager raise. Thus their average time spent in any organization is reduced below the minimum before they could commence to deliver value.

- In present competitive environment when everyone is encouraged by the culture

to ask for more, keeping employees content and satisfied is rather becoming a moving challenge if not impossible.

[Min] Productive Behaviors [Max]

[Max]

D

ysf

unct

ional Behavio

rs

[

Min

]

Figure 9.2

Performance Growth

Deterring Reinforcements effect

Enabling Reinforcements Effect



- Whether it is pyramid design of organizations, faster obsolescence of knowledge

and skills, process reengineering, lack of equal training and development opportunities. trends in lateral inductions downsizing the inevitable impact is despondency in a large number of employees who apparently fail to break the glass ceiling or can see any opportunities to rise in their career in future.

- Some jobs and work environments are excessively stressful and shallow, which

inhabit employees’ satisfaction and contentment to a great extent hence motivation. In these circumstances, extrinsic rewards are no better than the “hygiene-factors” as described by Hertzberg in his two factor motivation theory. Thus while employees stay on the job but do not get the feeling of accomplishment. This in the short run encourages moon-lightening or hopping for a more exciting or challenging job while in the long run distorts the meaning of accomplishment – authority, more salary, higher social status, and more benefits all replace the innate urge to innovate, improve and perform at par excellence.

The Diagnostic Framework: We know that every individual brings a unique perspective to work, which means diverse employee preferences and orientations. In this scenario, stereo-type simplistic cause-effect reinforcement strategies do not only fail to induce employee productivity but may also cast dysfunctional impact on employees’ perspective. It is therefore imperative to customize motivating strategies for different individuals based on their unique motivational orientation. However, it does not seem so practical to evolve customized strategies for each individual separately. Hence, the manager is in a dilemma: Whether to choose from stereo-type or customized motivating alternates. Although the solution does not seem simple, however, one can try finding a compromise. Motivational orientation is considered a function of satisfaction or dissatisfaction and contentment or discontentment. Hence four quadrants emerge, each representing a specific orientation – Hyper motivated; Motivated; Fence sitter; and, Despondent. See figure 9.3 1. Hyper Motivated: Generally this orientation is a combined effect of sustained dissatisfaction and high contentment. These individuals seem to have unlimited needs and concerns, which keep them dissatisfied despite their continued achievements. However, each achievement has high perceived value in relation to a specific need or concern. Hence contentment is increased with every additional achievement, which encourages further efforts. Consequently, the individuals get onto impulsive chasing syndrome [ICS], which ignites hyper motivation – anxiety per-se.



Figure 9.3*

The dividing lines across the quadrants are dotted to reflect permeating possibilities between two quadrants. This point was identified by Mr. Zohaib Sufyan, a course participant.

Sadly their motivation is predominantly needs and fun focused, while other aspects i.e. fear and responsibility dimensions are either totally missing or minimal. It is so because these individuals are usually driven by their instincts rather than cognition [See Quranic verse 28:50]. Hence they become quite vulnerable to exploitation; compromise on their moral and social obligations; and, could even commit frauds. Moreover, a transient failure or even a slight hindrance or delay in their achievements could turn them off sometimes even permanently. These individuals are usually career starters. However, this state could last longer in the careers of some individuals. 2. Motivated: This orientation arises out of satisfaction combined with contentment, which in turn is the result of balanced motivational outlook. In other words, these individuals have an integrated view of their needs, responsibility, fear and fun. Here satisfaction comes from their integrated outlook, which allows them to make cognitive choices of what is necessary to accomplish and what is not, similarly what is achievable and what is not. Hence they are able to make happy compromises in settling down for the optimal rather than maximum accomplishments. As they also cherish each achievement, their contentment remains high encouraging them to make consistent efforts into the future. These individuals are usually in the middle through senior stages of their careers. However, it would not be surprising to find these individuals as career starters but sparingly.

Satisfied

Dissatisfied

Discontented Contented

Motivated

Hyper

Motivated Despondent

Fence

Sitter



3. Fence Sitter: This group of individuals seems to have no urgency for fulfilling their needs, nor they have any sort of fear. Moreover, they are introvert or dependent by nature hence recognize no responsibility towards the society and other people, even for their family. Gratification [fun] comes to them through their habit of day dreaming and staying in the comfort zone. They draw their satisfaction from the achievements that come by, which make them even more complacent. However, they undermine value of their achievements either in the context of their ideals or what others might have accomplished [competitive mindset], which causes discontentment in them. This peculiar situation encourages them to stay on the fence usually – complacent work attitude. However, as they experience a fresh dose of external reinforcements they move a bit but are likely to go back to their comfort zone when the force is diminished. These individuals are usually at the tail-end of their careers. However, it would not be surprising to find these individuals as career starters but sparingly. 4. Despondent: Ironically this category of individuals develops strong despondency as a result of not been able to satisfy their major needs and expectations at the end of the day or in the future, as the case may be. Consequently, they tend to develop negative attitude towards their responsibilities and fear, while gratification [fun] is effectively compensated by self-pity. In nut shell their anger is manifested in despondent or sometimes rebellious attitude towards work and people. In the Noble Quran, Allah Al Mighty informs about the despondent as follow, “Oh. you who have lost hope that Allah Al Mighty Shall not help you, should tie a rope from the sky and kill yourself then see if your anger is reduced…” They are amongst those left behind employees who do not rise in their careers for one reason or the other. However, they may be masters of their respective trade and are knowledgeable assets to the organization they belong. These persons hardly have any achievements throughout their careers or at least in the recent past to celebrate – feel satisfied and contented. Hence they can’t see light at the end of the tunnel, which encourages them to withdraw from the work situation. Their withdrawal could take many manifestations, such as; virtual hibernation on the job, moon lightening, and ultimately physical withdrawal. In some situations, their burnt out feelings could also manifest into dysfunctional behavior on the job, such as; absenteeism, reduced productivity, less attention to details, indiscipline, etc. These individuals are usually at the tail end of their careers. However, they often resonate their burnt out feelings and its associated behaviors amongst other colleagues too. Thus they pose potential risk of converting others. Challenge Ahead of Managers (Supervisors) A simple motivating strategy could be to bank on hyper motivated and motivated employees; minimize dependence on fence sitters, and get rid of the despondent employees. This strategy is apparently justified and easy to implement. But by looking into the pros and cons, one can see that this strategy could yield more disadvantages than advantages.



By contrast a strategy leading to corrections and conversions would be far superior and sustainable [seen figure 9.4]. The envisaged impact of the strategy would be expansion of employee population in [Quadrant 2] by reducing their population in other quadrants through transition, of course. It is possible to expand quadrant-2 to the optimum, however, it is not realistic to eliminate other quadrants in totality but to contain these within the manageable limits. As a generic rule, presence of despondent type ironically represents seasoned and skilled employees who have burnt out either as a result of natural career decline process or continued organizational reforms. Whatever is the case the dilemma is that they have turned into non perform-ing liabilities (NPLs). Keeping in view their job know-how most of them merit revitalization, save few with a dysfunctional work attitude. Presence of despondent type in an organization is contagious too, hence it warrants minimizing the risk to the least. Hyper motivated and fence sitting types should also be reduced to a large extent. The underlying rationale for this is that new comers will continue to pour in and directly add to hyper motivated quadrant until their transition to motivated quadrant is affected. Secondly, the fence-sitters will continue to pop up as a result of continuing organizational reforms and natural career decline process. They also pose great opportunities for their revitalization. In nutshell, it is advantageous for the manager / supervisor (management per se] to keep chunk of their employees in quadrant 2 [motivated type]; contain quadrants 1 and 3 [hyper motivated and fence sitter types, respectively] to a large extent; and, minimize quadrant 4 [despondent type] to the extreme possibilities. This scenario can either be pursued with a simple strategy of focusing on quadrant 2 type employees and eliminating others. But an inclusive reformist strategy [IRS] might earn more advantages for the company, in the long run especially.

Some suggestive motivating strategies specific to each quadrant type are presented below:

Type Motivating Strategy

Motivated To sustain the motivation by effective reinforcements.

Hyper Motivate To harness the hyper motivation by encouraging realistic outlook, development of morals and values, role modeling. In short by helping them develop intergraded motivational outlook.

Fence Sitter To unleash the potential motivation by improving contentment through adding challenging tasks, effective feedback, and improved reinforcement equity.

Despondent To revitalize hibernated motivation by loud acknowledgements increased involvement, supportive work environment, etc.

1 4

2 3

Hyper Motivated

Motivated

Fen

ce S

itte

r

Despondent



Controlling Vs. Harnessing Motivation Everyone is motivated! We know that every individual engages in activities that increase his or her chances to achieve more, especially when it comes to getting the right education; seeking a better occupation; and last but not the least, bettering living standard and commanding higher social status. It is lack of our understanding that disguises our perceptions and we end up assuming that lack-of-motivation is pivotal to almost every human performance problem. Ironically, resolving this paradox is not simple. It entails revisiting our understanding of the motivation as a holistic concept. The real challenge is about enabling individuals pursue their motivations with a responsibility to themselves and others. Putting it simply, motivation is never right or wrong, but it is the corporate culture or the society at large that approves or disapproves of it. It either defines it as most noble such as urgency to rise in one’s career in many cases, or as harsh as a sin such as motivation to change the way work is done especially in the administrative work cultures. While a positive cultural signal is likely to reinforce motivations, which are usually productive, sometimes such reinforcements turn out counter-productive too, such as succumbing to employees’ increasing salary demands thus fueling price war in the labor market. On the contrary, likely consequence of negative cultural [social] signals is generally a conflict between what is legitimate as per culture and what individuals’ motivations are, which encourages rebellious behaviors. Obviously individuals defend their motivations as positions by denying the legitimacy of the cultural [social] signal sometimes on political and sometimes on other grounds. In this peculiar scenario the only viable way to maintain work behaviors within a defined boundary is through resorting to “control mechanism” per se. Yet individuals are smart enough to always circumvent. Alternatively, accepting the individuals’ motivation on as-is-basis would allow better opportunities of maintaining their work behaviors within a defined boundary without “control mechanism”. Instead, individuals’ motivation should be harnessed through empowering [enlightening and enabling] them to pursue their motivations with a responsibility to themselves and others. In short, instead of depriving them of their motivations for the benefit of organizations or the society at large, they should be educated to be able to protect theirs and others rights while pursuing their motivations. Followings are some recommended Do’s and Don’ts of harnessing motivation for higher degree of performance and achievement:

Do’s Don’ts

Allah Al Mighty says; “Whether you counsel them or not, they will not understand for they are driven by their lust. In fact they are worse than animals… Those who follow their lust are the friends of Satan…”

Always have a rationale view of your aims. Have control over your aims (goals).

Never follow your impulse. Never let your aims (goals) control you.

Allah Al Mighty says: “Surely your life hereafter is better [worth more] than this life…’

Always aim for the future (long term) Never compromise future gain for an immediate satisfaction.

Allah Al Mighty says, “In restrain is the respite and surely in restrain is the respite…”

Always strive harder today for a better tomorrow

Never prefer immediate ease (comfort) at the cost of losing your advantage



tomorrow.

Allah Al Mighty says; “Who has achieved contentment on what Allah has bestowed to him (her), shall abode in the heavens (insha Allah)…”

Always cherish [be contended with] your achievements, however, small they may be. It will instill greater energy in you.

Never let your lust [greed] for more shadow your contentment.

Allah Al Mighty says; “Every soul is responsible to seek education… When you are done with your Jumma prayers, go forth (to the world of work) and seek Allah’s fadal... Your parents, family, relatives and the destitute have right on you (in your wealth)…’

Always pursue your goals with a responsibility

Never aim your goals as rights, for rights are what others have on you

Allah Al Mighty says; “Allah gives what HE wills to those who desire this life (materialistic gains) but they will not have any share in the heavens. And Allah gives what HE wills in this life and in the heavens to those who ask HIS blessings in this life and life hereafter and HIS shelter from hell fire”

Always aim on real (sustainable) achievements

Never let your impulsive goals disguise your aims

Allah Al Mighty says; “Oh Muhammad (Muslims) do not feel envy of those to whom Allah has given abundance of wealth and children…”

Always count your (blessings) advantages

Never compare with what others have been given (achieved)

Allah Al Mighty say; “Oh. Muhammad PBUH (believers) neither Allah is angry with you nor HE has left you (forgotten) and your life hereafter will be much more worthy than this life…”

Always be consistent in your efforts, hoping for the best

Never get discouraged when results don’t come fast

Allah Al Mighty says; “Pray to Allah with fear and hope…”

Always aim for the better than the last time

Never let your achievements make you complacent

Allah Al Mighty says, “When you say your Jumma prayers go forth and seek Allah’s fadal [fazal] and remember your Lord… After all WE give livelihood to you [everyone]…”

Always aim to do right things the right way

Never assess your achievements in money terms

Prophet Muhammad PBUH said, “Doomed are the those who’s tomorrow does not get better than today…”

Always (continually) strive for better Never let your past achievements let you complacent.



Section Two: Applied Topics



Corporate Performance Framework

The term “Corporate Performance” relates to the overall efficacy (effectiveness and efficiency) of a business firm in particular and any other firm in general. It needs to be looked upon and analyzed from the external and internal perspectives. Refer to the diagram: External Perspective Conventionally profit (earning per share) was the only measure of corporate performance. However, in the modern times corporate entities are expected to demonstrate rather holistic performance, which includes regulatory compliance; ethical compliance; social compliance; etc. in addition to their profit targets. In short, contemporary corporate must act responsibly towards attaining its commercial objectives by adhering to social, regulatory, and ethical norms of the land. Hence, corporate performance which was hitherto driven by profits alone now encompasses a complex system leading to multiple and sometimes conflicting corporate goals. For instance, a successful modern corporate aims to accomplish in the following directions:

Profit growth Total regulatory compliance Ethical business conduct Environmental safety (external and internal) Win-win transactions (relationship) with the permeable society

Obviously seeking profit as a reward for investing money, human capital, and time is a legitimate goal for any commercial or other firm. Furthermore, profits in the long term also provide basis for the sustainability. However, the debate is now focused on making just profits rather than maximum or minimum profit. Just profit is defined as one that is made in a responsible manner – without violating own or anyone else’s rights be it customers, employees, owners, society, etc. Regulatory compliance generally aims to protect the rights of the stakeholders in particular and society in general. It defines boundaries, norms, and the work environment that is beneficial for all. Besides, it gives legal share to the government in the profits of an entity in consideration of the services it provides.

Corporate Performance Framework

EXTERNAL PERSPECTIVE:

Responsible business conduct

From profit alone to multiple goals: Commercial, ethical, regulatory, social,

and environmental.

INTERNAL PERSPECTIVE:

Synergistic performance

From short term profit centric to long term competitive advantage orientation

Diversity; Roles; Precession; Faster

learning and change



Ethical business conduct refers to voluntary adherence to one’s own and others’ rights, manifested in the business processes, product quality, and transactions. Besides, protecting and maintaining safe and healthy psychological and physical environment is yet another major aspect of corporate performance. It demands conducting business in a manner that does not destroy the physical or psychological environment. Such as, destruction and pollution of physical environment; harassment and violation of psychological environment; etc. Proactively fostering mutually complimenting relationship with the permeable society is but another important dimension of modern corporate performance. It demands from the corporate to respect the social norms and values; protect native culture; and last but not the least, not just to ensure equal rights and opportunity to all without bias but to go a mile extra in improving upon the social standards and quality of life of the permeable society at large. Internal Perspective Firms’ corporate performance from the internal perspective can be analyzed on a performance continuum. The performance along the continuum will be from salvaging (aggregate) through mundane (average) to synergistic (constantly improving). See diagram below. Salvaged performance portrays scenario of below average overall efficacy and sometimes even continued losses. These firms generally lack holistic approach – function from the conventional perspective. Moreover, these firms fail to manage their process efficiencies and service/product quality, which hampers their long term profits. Public sector firms are a good example of such salvaged performance. Furthermore, these firms quite often have had invested in directions that neither were nor are feasible from any angle. Such as, big successful companies when diversify their businesses they usually overlook the fact whether they have the core competencies to operate in the new markets. Or they simply make decisions on increased projected revenues while keeping their eyes closed on the corresponding projected increase in cost. Consequently, while the revenues multiply but the cost hikes by a greater percentage pushing the profits even below current levels1. As they usually say, “Companies grow to doom”. The recent consumer financing tragedy of Pakistani commercial banks is a good example in this regard. Mundane performance refers to the scenario where a firm typically attains low average performance with minimal growth rate on the long term horizon. This is because the firm may attain higher performance in a particular year but fail to sustain it on a long term horizon for one reason or the other. At many instances much of these firms’ performance depends upon their external situation. For instance, performance of investment portfolio of an individual largely depends upon the equity market sentiments. Another example is sugar producers and retailers who are currently booking humongous

Synergistic

Salvaged

Mundane

Corporate Performance Continuum



profits. Ironically this growth in their profits is purely a result of the particular market situation rather than their affirmative strategies and interventions to improve upon their productivity, hence the growth can never be sustained. Synergistic performance refers to a sustainable advantage that comes from constant change and improvement in the processes and products of the firm, which help maintains the firm’s growth rate above others. Japanese Kaizen environ-ment, Total Quality Management system, and the Emergent Leadership practices are good examples of synergistic performance culture. The basis of this is surely internal to the firm’s management process. Synergistic firms distinguish themselves on the following dimensions, namely; profit vs. sustainability, status vs. roles, authority vs. empowerment, horizontal vs. unidirectional diversity, and last but not the least status quo vs. constant improvement. Business Process and Corporate Performance It is important to analyze the business processes that are instrumental in attaining a particular level of corporate performance – salvaged; mundane; and, synergistic. For the sake of analysis and comparison these business processes can be identified as Control; Manage; and, Lead. To begin with, let us establish the relationship between level of corporate performance and type of business processes. Control orientation in business processes by and large cause the corporate performance to remain at salvage level, while managing oriented business processes improve performance to the next level i.e. mundane. To improve corporate performance to synergistic level the business process orientation must change to lead type. Control orientation is typically a short sighted mindset that instills reactive practices such as quality control instead of quality assurance. In a typical control oriented firm administrative discipline prevails over the rationality of behaviors; legacies are blindly looked upon positively; follower-ship dominates across the firm; decision making and execution remain detached from each other; functional subjectivity prevails over holistic reasoning; etc. All this cumulatively inhabit learning, innovation and change hence fail to prevent performance lapses but to salvage it only. In brief, firms operating from control orientation remain focused on fire fighting to salvage short term performance hence lose sight of long term opportunities – as in the UK they say, “Penny wise pound foolish”, and as in the Noble Quran ALLAH Al Mighty describes those people who desire (follow their lust in this) world and they will have no reward in the hereafter [ALLAH Al Mighty knows better].

Comparison of Core Dimensions Conventional Firm Synergistic Firm

Short term profit centric Long term sustainability

Status driven positions Roles driven positions

Delegated authority Empowerment

Horizontal diversity of

skills

Vertical and horizontal

diversity of skills

Status quo Constant improvement

Con

trol

Man

age

L

ead

Salvaged Mundane Synergistic

Performance

Growth Index



Mundane orientation is a step forward. It fosters preventive practices per se. In here, quality assurance supplements quality control, thus allowing the firm to attain quality performance within bearable limits. Put it differently, by quality assurance process the firm ensures strict adherence to given performance parameters that in effect prevent the performance lapses to a greater extent. Quality control remains in force to check quality lapses, however, reduced these may become. Doing so performance is enhanced to a higher level but not beyond the given parameters – par excellence. This is because long term advantages remain secondary to the short term profits. Subsequently, out-of -box thinking would still not be there to move out of the short term perspective hence the need for learning, innovation and change would also remain confined to meetings and seminars, if at all. Typical firms that consider ISO quality system [certification] as an end in itself are good representatives of mundane performance. As they say, “like father like son”. Bryan Joiner in his book “The Fourth Generation Management, contemplated that firms, which learn and change faster are bound to supersede others who do not change or do so at a nominal rate”. Synergistic or par-excellence performance is defined as one that constantly raise firm’s performance level. There is this saying of the last prophet Muhammad SAAW in this context, “The one whose today is not better than yesterday and tomorrow is not better than today is doomed”. The Lackson Group, a Pakistani conglomerate, affirmatively inculcates this culture; they say, “We raise our bars every day”. Walt Disney said, “People think I had made wonders, they were wrong. When I got together with other people of diverse skills, each better than the other [better than myself] in his or her respective field we together created wonders”. This follows that synergy essentially entails diversity, interaction and interdependence. To attain synergistic performance culture the firm essentially needs to switch to long term perspective; empower by inculcating leadership-mindset2 across the people without regard to their status and location; instill unidirectional diversify of skill set at all levels; focus on unique value that each individual should contribute based on his or her role function; integrate departmental performances along shared corporate directions; and last but not the least, transform hierarchies into work groups. Conclusion In the contemporary fast changing extravaganza of global businesses it is extremely important and urgent for a firm to envisage beyond profit and to encompass ethical, regulatory, and social dimensions as integral constituents of external corporate performance. Likewise, attaining synergy in the internal corporate performance is equally critical to remain eligible and sustain competitive position in the global economic village. Any compromise on the external or internal performance fronts will render the firm in-competitive and virtually defunct.



Exemplified Corporate Performance Plan

Of a Business School Key Result Areas [KRAs indicate the critical performance dimensions] 1. Research and development 2. Professional training and development 3. Learning based accreditation Key Performance Indicators [KPAs indicate the measurable standards for each key result area, such as people satisfaction, processes efficiency, products demand, customers loyalty and market size] 1.1 Number of research projects initiated / concluded in a particular period 1.2 Validity and reliability of research output 1.3 Practical usage of the research output 2.1 Improvement of job related skills in response to work place demand 2.2 Improvement of overall career prospects 2.3 Improvement of work and social behaviors 3.1 Overall motivation to learn 3.2 Recognition in the world of work 3.3 Validity and reliability of accreditation as a basis of one’s performance potential Strategic Goal [Goals are the ends and should be consistent to the vision and values] 1. To develop a competitive brand of the university, which customers can associate with

quality education and higher career-prospects; 2. To make learning a rewarding and convenient for all; 3. To create equal opportunity for learning and development. Strategic Objectives [Objectives are the actions that are needed to accomplish the goals] 1.1 To promote the university image in the corporate especially and amongst the

community in general 1.2 To attract teaching resource persons from good corporate entities 1.3 To develop graduates’ corporate finesse comparable to the contemporary corporate

culture. 2.1 To transform teaching culture into a learning culture through interactive discussions,

real life case analyses, interactions with the corporate executives, etc. 2.2 To make students evaluations based on learning and ability to apply in the real world 2.3 To create strong linkage between knowledge taught at the university and knowledge

applied in the world of work; 3.1 To encourage and enable individuals from diverse back grounds to join in based on

their demonstrated potentials to learn and serve. 3.2 To improve the validity and reliability of the admission tests with the require

performance in the class room



Action Plan [Action plan indicates actions to be taken to implement the corporate plan. Actions are generally in the following areas, namely; organization policies, system and structure, individual and group behavior, internal work environment and culture, etc.] 1. Review academic policy and curricula to better reflect work place needs and

expectations 2. Encourage faculty interaction with corporate managers and train them on

experiential techniques 3. Develop experiential learning instruments, such as local case studies and critical

incidents 4. Develop learning environment and culture 5. Improve internal coordination and cooptation between various stakeholders – faculty,

students, administrators and others



Harnessing the Frontiers of Executive Productivity

Case in point: Subsequent to death of our beloved prophet Muhammad PBUH, ALLAH’S message

is continuing to spread (Masha’Allah). The main enabling force behind this success storey is the

fact that our beloved prophet PBUH honestly duplicated the message to the disciples (believers)

to the extent that each of them understood its rationale and the unparallel implication on the lives

of men and women of all times to come and taught them the art of communicating the message

in an honest and candid manner so as to make it clear and laud for those who decide to come to

the path of ALLAH i.e. the path of success. Interestingly, these disciples went to distant places

and continued spreading the message of ALLAH rather independently of each other. The only

thing that kept them connected to each other was the essence of message – everyone was living

and spreading nothing but Islam as just code of life. In short our beloved prophet truly

empowered his disciples by rightly building their competence and giving them autonomy to make

contextual interpretation of the Islamic principles and develop comprehensive Islamic

jurisprudence and to make spot decisions (Ijtehaad) to deal with rather ambiguous situations

within the ambiance of Islamic principles thus providing appropriate solutions to the emerging

opportunities and problems to the mankind.

The contemporary world of work characterizes newer opportunities; ambiguous situations; and,

unending challenges at every corner. Instilling synergy in the corporate performance demands

responding to the emerging opportunities, challenges, and situations innovatively yet from a

unified orientation. Centralized decision making and control could be a solution but not practical

in modern day complex and dispersed organizations. Firstly, narrower specialization has made it

difficult to impossible for one person to be master of all. Secondly, dispersed scenario makes the

persons at the core less sensitive of the situation prevailing at the sharp end. Thirdly, speed of

response is critical while centralized decision making is bound to be less efficient. Finally, it fails to

infuse ownership and commitment of all the stakeholders. As an alternate, empowering every one

would allow each employee to own and execute his or her unique task innovatively yet from a

unified orientation as each of them would have shared sense of organizational directions; clarity

of their respective roles (value they should create) in a task and the responsibility vis-à-vis

others; have the requisite skills and adequate autonomy.

Surprisingly yet often brilliant executives fail to do simple tasks well. Even more surprisingly, at times mediocre executives give breakthrough performances. You must have noticed the phenomena at your work with so many executives. If not, then probably you are ignorant of the people around you. Administrators and supervisors keep asking; why so? Most commonly, they explain the problem either as inadequate motivation or lack of professional commitment. If they only take a broader view of it, they would surely be able to unravel the real problem. This article presents a broader analysis of the phenomena with a view to aid both the executives and their administrators harness executive performance frontiers to newer heights. To begin with, let us explore the significance of executives’ productive and unproductive performances in the real world of work. The most common justification of executive compensation is that their performance is catalyst for making others’ performance



productive. This follows that the detrimental effect of one single wrong decision of an executive is always geometric, for it deters otherwise productive performance of so many other employees and cumulatively it deters organizational productivity by a much greater proportion and vice versa.

The adjacent grid analyzes basis of executive involvement. The underlying assumption here is, higher the involvement higher will be the productivity and vice versa. Theoretically, executive involvement is clustered into four categories on the basis of empowerment and concern for performance. Quadrant [1] represents low empowerment and low concern. The result-ing executive involvement is considered to remain cursory. Quadrant [2] represents high empowerment and low concern. It generally restricts executive involvement to the ceremonial level only. Quadrant [3] represents high empowerment and high concern. Obviously, here executive involvement is predicted at its maximum. Quadrant [4] represents low empowerment and low concern, which leads to despaired executive involvement.

Unraveling the Concern for Performance Concern for performance is much related to executive’s perspective on the ownership and responsibility of a task. Whether the executive has right work attitude and motivation is the most critical question, which can provide answer to a particular executive stance on ownership and responsibility in a situation. Attitude can be described on a continuum. At one extreme it is introvert while on the other extreme it is extrovert. Here the term introvert refers to an attitude that restricts executive’s ownership and responsibility only to the extent it benefits his or her own interests. Such as secure status quo and/or improve upon his or her organizational position, relationships and image. Any responsibility beyond this point is not his or her responsibility. The term extrovert refers to the opposite attitude. Here the executive values efficacy, attention to details, and fulfillment of purpose as real accomplishments rather than only personal gratification. It goes without saying that the former attitude inhabits involvement while the latter induces need for higher involvement. Motivation is second but not secondary variable that affects executive involvement. A superficial motivation that primarily controls instrumental behaviors hardly induces executive’s involvement beyond personal gains or gratifications. On the contrary, harnessed motivation instills rationality in executive’s perspective leading to higher degree of ownership and responsibility thus higher involvement. The concept of motivation is also discussed under empowerment as it is seen as an overarching phenomenon. Understanding Empowerment Empowered individual have higher chances to make just and rational decisions and right actions. Empowering people at the work place is not synonymous to synergy but surely

Low

Em

pow

erm

en

t H

igh

Em

pow

erm

en

t

Low Concern High Concern for Performance for Performance

Despaired

Executive Involvement

Cursory Executive

Involvement

Maximized Executive

Involvement

Ceremonial Executive Involvement



an essential prerequisite to instilling synergy in the work place. Let us start by exploring the truth of empowering people. Ironically misnomers and partial understanding of the term abound: Many a times it is considered as giving authority to make decisions; sometimes empowering is even considered as independence at the individual level. If we analyze the first assumption we find that it can actually make the individual’s performance chaotic and dysfunctional. How? The explanation is simple. You give a child authority to drive car: Though the child would have legitimate access to the car and might also know to drive but because he or she is still a child you can’t expect safe driving. Same is true when organizations in a sincere attempt to empower their employees delegate authority to them to make decisions but they are not matured to do it. Empowering in letter and spirit is state of employee performance when he or she fully understands the demands and repercussions of the task; possess the requisite skills to do it; and has optimal control on the process. Understanding of the context and the skills to do the task is Job-competence. Control on the process is Job-autonomy. At this point we may generalize that empowerment is a relative concept: One’s demonstrated empowerment in one situation does suggest that the person is empowered for all other situations and/or tasks.

To unravel the impact of empowering on inidividuals’ performance let us revisit the empowerment grid. It has four quadrants, each representing different performance scenarios. Quadrant-1 represents no-competence and no-autonomy scenario resulting in nonperformance. Quadrant-2 represents competence but no autonomy scenario resulting in minimal performance. Quadrant-3 represents no competence but autonomy scenario resulting in dysfunctional performance. Quadrant-4 represents competence and autonomy scenario resulting in synergistic performance. On the basis of above analysis, we can say that individuals’ performance is likely to be at its best for the fact that quadrant-4 represents absolute empowerment scenario. While individuals’ performance in other quadrants is compromised, dysfunctional and nonexistent for the fact that empowerment scenario is unbalanced in case of quadrant 2 and 3 and nonexistent in case of quadrant 1.

Barriers to Empowering People 1. Hierarchical Culture – All tasks are done by the boss. Every other person has no

job but to assist the boss in doing his or her job.

Minimal

performance

Synergistic

performance

Non performance

Dysfunctional performance

No C

om

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nce C

om

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1 3

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om

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igh

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1:1

5:5

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Par Excellence



2. Lack of shared organizational directions 3. Unclear roles and responsibilities 4. Tightly controlled job design 5. Personification 6. Self interest

Foundations of Empowerment

Task Competence (MASK) Task Autonomy

- Harnessed Motivation - Realistic Attitude - Relevant Skills - Knowledge (Rationality)

- Input control - Throughput control - Output control

Task Competence Analysis Competence per se is the ability to execute a particular task in particular situation. Thus the concept of competence is relative: an individual may have the competence to perform a task but may not have the competence to perform other tasks. For instance and contrary to the general misnomer, an individual may have good competence to perform as sales person but if asked to manage a group of sales persons he or she is likely to fail unless has administrative competence as well. Similarly an individual’s competence to perform a task can change depending upon the context. Simply put, an individual who can execute a task in normal work conditions may not do so if the conditions change. For instance, a bank teller may be able to do his or her job quite diligently throughout the month but fails to perform when the counter is full of customers during the first week. MASK describes the contours of a task competence. Motivation as a term is much loosely used to refer to as a generalized basis of performance or performance deficiency. However, let us define it in a narrower perspective: motivation is a manifestation of individual’s set of motives that shape his or her behavior in a particular situation. The motives can be needs (and desires), values, fear, fun or even following the trend. Urge to fulfill needs (and desires) is generally considered single most common source of motivation. Going beyond the visible, we see that at many instances, people demonstrate motivation because it is their value to respond in a particular way or they simply enjoy doing it. Furthermore, people also demonstrate motivation when they decide to follow the crowd or fear of being left behind if they do not behave in a particular manner. Unlike general misunderstanding that some are motivated and some are not, whether motivation is harnessed or not has stronger correlation with empowerment. Let us describe harnessed motivation. The motivation grid portrays four motivation types, namely; harnessed, hyper, fence sitter, and despondent. Harnessed motivation is a state of contentment and satisfaction. Here the individual’s motivations are fairly rationalized and in

Contended Discontented

Sa

tisfi

ed

Dis

sa

tisfi

ed

Harnessed

Hyper Despondent

Fence Sitter



control thus the satisfaction level remains high. Besides the individual is also able to cherish his or her past achievements that instills confidence. The relationship between harnessed motivation and empowerment is positive, for it allows individuals to make decisions rationally and act rightly. On the contrary hyper-motivation encourages self-centric and impulsive behaviors; fence-sitter and despondent generally remain hibernated leading to nonperformance. Attitude is the spontaneous response to a situation. Put it simply it is what we do and how we do it rather instinctively. A lot of attitude depends on the perception. As a general rule, it is argued that if one maintains positive perception his or her attitude will remain positive and vice versa. The argument is valid prima-fascia, however, at times it leads to wishful thinking in reality. The Gurus of positive attitude even go the extent that positive attitude can turn impossible into possible. Whether with positive attitude one can do the impossible or not, this sort of thinking is nothing but a departure from reality. Alternatively, we can describe positive attitude as an ability to take on opportunities and challenges realistically. In other words, positive attitude should empower individuals to take on opportunities and face challenges in an informed manner by acknowledging their responsibility for actions; separating the possible from impossible; keeping hope for better; and, last but not the least is to accept and analyze the fate (outcome) realistically. In precise terms, realistic attitude is at the core of empowerment. Skills refer to the theoretical know how and hands on practice of performing a task. A child may feel confident to ride a bicycle by watching his elder brother riding it. Can he do it? The answer is not until he practices to do so. This follows that perhaps by observing other person one can develop know how but to perform one must also gain hands on practice. In a class room training environment, what trainees can acquire the most is know how unless they are given the opportunity to do hands on practice. Therefore it is important that skills training sessions must focus on building the process know how and practicing to perform. Knowledge refers to knowing the context in which task is to be performed. There was this incident in a factory: (Quote) The production was much time bound, which many a times forces the factory administration to schedule extra shifts and overtime. However, every time extra shift or over time was planned and the employees’ duties were scheduled accordingly they resented by absconding from work. Initially the administration considered this behavior more of a disciplinary problem later, however, they invited a psychologist from outside to probe into this. The findings were amazingly different. According to the psychologist employees’ abscond from work during planned extra shifts and overtime because they are not given the underlying reasons and were left to assume the same on their own. Consequently, they began to consider extra shifts and overtime nothing but a whimsical practice that is meant to make workers’ life difficult. As the administration started to reason with the workers every time they had to plan an extra shift or overtime their involvement and commitment improved dramatically (Unquote). This follows that skills training does suffice alone. Individuals must be given full back ground of the task. Such as, how this task is connected to the over business goals of the organization; what is the significance of doing this task efficiently and effectively with reference to overall productivity of the department and of the organization as a whole; what are the costs and risks involved if the task is not done



properly; etc. In short, developing a strategic perspective of each individual employee is critical for his or her empowerment. Task Autonomy Analysis Autonomy refers to the extent of control an individual has on the task execution process. As a general rule, greater the control greater will be the empowerment. Job design is pivotal in affecting the control. Control in a job can be increased by integrating the tasks forward, backward and upwards. The former is technically refers to job or task enrichment while the latter refers to job or task enlargement. Backward enrichment involves merging the input processes while forward enrichment refers to merging the next processes into the given job, thus expanding the scope and contents of the job horizontally. A good example of backward job enrichment is to add on product designing task with the existing product development task. Forward job enrichment is to add on product testing task with the existing product development task. Allowing the person executing the job to also make decisions is an example of job enlargement. Furthermore, bigger tasks (projects) need to be split into identifiable smaller tasks (deliverables) and assigned to different individuals, allowing them to own and have reasonable control over their respective deliverables. In an effort to instill autonomy, two considerations are important while enlarging and enriching the job. Firstly coordination and secondly control of the overall departmental or organizational processes. Conclusion Empowering people is critical for attaining synergy across the department and organization. However, simply increasing the autonomy of the job alone will only create chaos. Likewise, developing the competence without giving autonomy at work creates nothing but frustration and withdrawal. A balanced approach to empowering is recommended whereby an individual’s job competence and job autonomy are increased proportionately and gradually as the employee moves along the learning curve*.

*The author has had experienced this approach while being mentored in his early career stage by his immediate senior Mr. Abdul Ghafoor, Head of Training, United Bank Limited. In acknowledgement of gratitude for the mentor the author is pleased to dedicate this article to Mr. Abdul Ghafoor (May ALLAH grant blessings upon him).



Transforming Individuals’ Performance into

Group Synergy

Undoubtedly, we have high competency individuals everywhere. Yet synergy hence productivity remains much unleashed in most of the situations. Besides other factors, the problem lies in the fact that teams abound in every sphere of professional arena, but fail to function like a team. Put it differently, high competency individuals are there but the underlying process of teamwork is not there. A personified culture where individualism is emphasized at the cost of process dominates in most of the situations, be it a political institution, public administration, business organization or even sports.

Through this paper, I envisage to discuss concept of synergy; teamwork dynamics; and, unravel the core issues that underlie the synergy dilemma thus prompting professionals and academicians to revisit the processes and overcome the dilemma together for unleashing synergy hence productivity potentials in our work settings to the optimum.

1. Performance Vs. Synergy Performance generally refers to routinely repetitive behaviors that are ironically taken as achievements in themselves. For instance, a college lecturer repetitively teaches old theoretical concepts without validation and improvement to every new class of students, year after year. In his or her mind, perhaps s/he is achieving a lot by doing so. However, in fact neither new knowledge nor cognitive abilities of the students are developed in this scenario. Likewise, numerous examples in the organizational context exist. Such as, employees repeating routine tasks rather ritually, year after year, with no improvement either in the organizational output or in their personal abilities and believe that they are achieving a lot. Yet another example is employees progressing upwards on the hierarchy without change or improvement in their output. Meaning while they become senior and expensive, they continue to do what they had been doing in the past. The consequence is definitely alarmingly significant – obsolescence of organizations’ and people output, as we can clearly witness this phenomenon in our organizations that are though profitable but are not able to deliver higher value and sustain competition over time.

Synergy, however defined, is somehow taken as magical in its manifestation. Wrong! Synergy is a real process that leads to faster change and improvement in productivity (Figure 1). In other words, synergy refers to the creation of a new thing, which could be an innovative idea; clearer conceptual understanding; improved product or service value; last but not the least, stronger and sustained organizational growth and competitiveness that stimulates rapid growth. It is interesting to understand that synergy is essentially an output of interaction between diverse resources and not the resources themselves. For example

Rate of

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Rate of

Change

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Productivity Line

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Productivity Line

Time Horizon

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Performance vs. Synergy



instance, fertile seed is not able to grow a plant on its own and so are other resources such as soil, air and water. However, when these resources are combined and interact a new plant is born. Likewise, skilled and resourceful people do not create value as long as they are separated from each other. They need to interact with each other to create value. Thus we generalize that interaction is the critical factor in causing synergy. In modern days, it is even more significant for organizations and its people to achieve synergy not just performance. In this article, I have attempted to highlight some ideas on transforming performance into synergy thus contribute for the advancement of our understanding as to how can we develop even more synergistic organizations and people. 2. Understanding Interactions Understanding interactions is critical in fostering synergy. Precisely, interactions refer to a process whereby every one behaves interdependently or responds to each other’s actions and together create a bigger output. Concept of internal customer-supplier relationships is a good practical example of synergy. Interestingly, sometimes individuals maintain focus on their (personal goals) as the primary purpose of working together; sometimes as secondary to the common organizational goal; and, finally they completely succumb to organizational goals at the cost of their personal goals. Thus we can visualize many variants of working together alongside the two extremes i.e. Teams and Hierarchy and a typical hybrid of the two i.e. Workgroups. However, not each is designed to suit the organizational setup and yields optimal synergy. Although sometimes rightly, teams and workgroups are used interchangeably but here we are referring to these titles as rather different for the purpose of explaining the underlying interactions and synergy potentials of the two variants. .

Teams Workgroups Hierarchy

At this stage we can clearly see that synergy is essentially the reward for interactions. To aid the interactions following conditions are considered essential, namely; diluting of the authority at individual level, fostering specialization and professional orientation, improving focus, developing clarity of roles and their interdependencies, and defusing of position based status across the board. Some likely benefits of the above are presented below:

Diluted Authority – In a group work generally authority is narrowed at the individuals’ level and the group becomes empowered. Lowered risk of authority abuse, reduced bias, greater transparency. Specialization – Individuals’ tend to develop greater control on their respective areas of work. Improved Focus – Helps in developing more objective approach and achieve speed and quality of work

Low High Synergy

Synergy Optimized Synergy



Clarity of Roles – Every individual can clearly see what he or she is expected to do in a group. Accountability, ownership, work discipline and reduced potential conflicts are likely. Diffused Status – Status-incongruence is minimized through lesser emphasis on varying status of individuals. Better and cooperative (congenial) work environment is likely to emerge.

High Synergy Teams Together every one accomplishes more! According to Social Action Theorists, “Organizations are group of individuals, each cooperating with the other for their self-gratification (needs). The potentials for self-gratification determine whether individuals will stay together or not”. The binding force of a team, as one can see, is mutually advantageous interdependence of individuals. The common goals would, however, be to stay together for continued self-gratification. Still the focus on personal goals remains of primary significance, while common goal is also indirectly a personal goal.

Case in Point: In Malaysia there were a few poor Dairy Farmers, each had a daily capacity of about 15 to 20 Kg. of Milk. These farmers used to earn their lively hoods only by supplying their available milk door to door at a nominal margin. One day they realized that if they could collate their individual productions, they would have adequate capacity to operate a medium sized milk-processing plant without depending on outside suppliers. They went to the Government of Malaysia and sought loan for setting up the milk processing plant, and were able to convince the officials. The next challenge they had was how to pay to the laborers who would work on the plant. Therefore, they together decided to work themselves. Doing so, they were able to save their expenses. At the end of the day sale-proceeds were shared amongst themselves, partly towards the cost of their inputs (milk and labor) and partly as their share of profit. Subsequently, every one’s earnings multiplied many times.

The synergistic effect in the Case is primarily because of increased price of the milk, which became possible only because of combining their resources and cooperating. Today many mergers of businesses are based on this premise. Likewise, many partnerships too are built and flourish on the same rationale. The critical factor, however, in this is equitable sharing of the benefits. Meaning that no one should leverage others for out of proportion benefit, as ironically we see this happening in quite a few instances day in day out. For example, industries especially in the third world are competitive because of the fact that they are free to exploit workers by extracting maximum output without paying them fair wages; save on costs by not treating their waste that eventually disturb the ecological environment and cause health hazards expto the community at large. We can cite another example of exploitive culture, where most of the input comes from the front, however, ironically the benefits are shared in reverse proportion – workers create value their managers reap the rewards in paradoxically unjust proportion. Although this loitation is much aptly rationalized [justified], it is these reasons that we fail to gain synergy. Put it differently, though we seem inclined to establish team culture we fail to do so in the letter and spirit.



Work-groups Work-groups are typical clusters of individuals of diverse backgrounds and unique competencies created for accomplishing specific organization tasks. Unlike teams where individuals seek to satisfy their personal goals interdependently, in a work group individuals work together for accomplishing organizational as their primary goal in consideration of rather agreed compensation and/or rewards. Work groups are generally formed to develop a new product or service, innovate a new process, make a business decision with consensus or solve a problem, etc. Work-groups are better suited to work organizations situation in optimizing the synergy at work. Walt Disney in his own writings says, “People think I have made wonders. They are wrong. What I did was that I got together with people of diverse intelligence, capability and capacity, better then myself and each other in their respective fields of specialization. As the group started to interact with each other in a given setup, wonders became reality” – synergy truly optimized.. Figure 3 presents a visual position of work groups vs. team and hierarchical settings. Administrative Hierarchies Typical administrative hierarchies when compared to Work-groups are similar in some ways and different in some other ways. Both hierarchies and work groups focus on common goals (organizational interest), operate in a supervised environment (manager-subordinate relationship), and expect rewards in return of their performance (inputs). Hierarchies, however, are differentiated from work groups in many ways. Firstly, the latter essentially envisages diversified work force while the former emphasizes on concentration of single competence – specialization per se. For instance, a business college will have faculty of diverse specializations while an accounting department usually consists of accountants only. Secondly, in a work group while individuals focus on their unique roles of rather equal significance and maintain reciprocal interdependence on each other for the accomplishment of common goals. In a hierarchy individuals have superior / subordinate relationship and their performance [input] is somewhat similar in nature but different in significance depending on their respective position in the hierarchy. Thirdly, in a work-group overall accomplishments largely depend upon the role clarity; interactions; and, coordination while in the hierarchy overall accomplishments largely depend on clear authority lines and discipline. 3. The Process I assume that the underlying process in a team as well as group work setting remains the same. Therefore there is no need to discuss the team and work group processes separately. The process refers to evolutionary stages through which a team or work group moves in the due course of time and begins to synergize [deliver]. The stages are usually identified as Forming; Storming; Norming; and, Performing (See figure 4).

Team Hierarchy

Work

Group



The process looks much simpler. But it is not so. To master the process one needs to understand the barriers that can make the process extremely vulnerable. The barriers can be identified as Personality Barriers amongst team members that keep them from becoming truly team players hence impede teamwork. Then there are Systemic Barriers, in the immediate work environment, which too adversely affect teamwork.

Typical Synergy Process

Personality barriers are manifested in many colors. For understanding let us consider the followings. Ego syndrome, seniority or superiority syndrome, competition syndrome, specialist or comfort syndrome, lone-worker syndrome, and dysfunctional-leadership syndrome, etc. Systemic barriers include factors, such as; centralized authority and/or decision-making, individualized reinforcement plan, induced status incongruence manifested in authoritative boss/subordinate relationship and top down only communication, status quo culture, emphasis on individuals’ tasks rather than interdependent roles, etc.

Why Teams Fail? Competition Scarce mentality* and hyper-motivation usually leads to storming

amongst team mates, which in turn fosters competing behaviors. Uneven team mates’ competency further reinforces storming in a team.

Ego Syndrome As we all become senior in our careers, we shy out working in a

group, like a group – we try to stay above the rest to reconfirm that we are senior

Expert Syndrome By mastering a specific process or a position, we start associating

our success potentials with that process or position only. Any movement away is defended with full force

Lone-person Syndrome Though we work with people, but we fail to work together Competition Syndrome As we work together we fail to work, because we try harder not to

do better but better than the other

Forming Storming Norming Performi

ng - Moral - Motivation - Attitude - Diversity

- Positions - Interests - Conflicts

- Shared vision and values

- Clarity of roles and

responsibilities - Realization of

interdependence

- Discipline - Cooperation - Involvement - Participation



Legacy Syndrome If we had succeeded in the past by performing in a certain way,

then why should we change today?

Way Forward Modifying the dysfunctional habits and inculcating functional habits are critical in overcoming the personality barriers at individual level thus increasing their state of readiness to work as team players. Furthermore, systematic barriers also need to be overcome by altering the immediate work environment. For instance, one needs to; diffuse position based status and emphasize on interdependent roles across the board, innovate group based yet equitable reinforcement plan to induce cooperation and not competition internally, etc.



Managing Change through Learning and Innovating at Work

Organizations that learn and innovate faster can change faster. Modern times are typically characterized by free market; easy access; breakthrough technologies; unprecedented buyers’ power; expanding markets [globalization]; etc. This follows that organizations must respond to the modern-day hyper-dynamic environment with speed. Figure 1.1 provides a comparison of Alpha and Beta organizations. While both are growing, the rate of change of Alpha is much higher compared to Beta. Consequently, Alpha turns out to be more competitive in the long run (Bryan Joiner, 4th Generation Management). As a good example, Private enterprises that are generally more responsive to their environment as compared to their counterparts in the public sector are likely to outperform in the long run. Thus, we may generalize that it is the rate-of-change [improving faster] than seniority of an enterprise that determines its competitiveness. Exceptions, however, are always there. Ideally, the organizational response should be in perfect harmony with its environment. Ironically, however, internal obsolescence and changes in the external environment continually cause imperfect organizational responses, which must be corrected rather continually to maintain perfect response relationship. Figure 2.1 exemplifies a typical intervention model to overcome imperfect organizational responses. The model is self explanatory and need no elaboration: Changing for Better Changing for better necessitates learning and innovation at two levels, namely; organizational and people or individual. Both are interdependent on each other for creating a positive organizational change. We shall look into the dynamics of learning

Rate of Change

Alpha

Beta

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Perfect Organization Response to the Environment

Intervening Innovations

Leadership and Culture

Organization System and Design

Business Processes

People-resources

Marketing Strategies and Tactics

Corporate Relations

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All One Team Total Quality Environment

Empowered Employees

Responsive, Flexible, and Efficient Organization

Superior Products and Services

Competitive Image

Elements of Change

InterveningInnovations

Leadership and Culture

Organization Systemand Design

Business Processes

People-resources

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and Tactics

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and EfficientOrganization

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Elements of Innovation and Change

Imperfect Organizational Response to Environment



and innovation for change at organizational and people level separately to aid the readers understanding. Organizational learning and innovation is a holistic and systematic approach towards institutionalizing improvements. This precisely refers to affecting change at every level of an organizational process. To elaborate this concept, let us say change must affect organizational strategic and operational performance. Improving the products and services would be the front-end basis for the former. To bring improvement in the products and services, changes must be incorporated at the systems, business process and competence levels. Business goals, rationales and policies also need to be revisited to improve the systems, innovations need to be instilled in the technology to improve business processes, and last but not the least retooling of skills, knowledge and attitudes of the people will be critical to continually upgrade organizational competence. Interestingly this type of change is proportionately correlated with learning and innovation. Thus, learning and innovation are the two fundamental constituents in a successful change intervention, while speed being the most critical success element.

Learning and Innovation Learning is a pre-requisite for innovation and change [improvement], while speed of learning determines the speed of innovation and change. A typical learning, innovation and change process is presented in figure 3.2. The continuous line indicates forward linkage between learning, innovation and change. Dotted line indicates the reverse relationship of learning to innovation and change. Thus one can say that the three variables are interdependent or in a loop relationship – learning follows innovation and change, and change follows new learning.

Learn Innovate Change

Audit R & D Plan

Analyze Experiment Inaugurate

Select Empower Reinforce

Organizational Products and

Services

Organizational

Culture, Systems,

Processes and Structure

Oganizational Philosophy

Creativity (Innovation) Interventions

Sustained Organizational Continuity in the Changing Business Environment

Day One Day Two Day Three

Learning [Feedback] Mechanism



Learning consists of three tiers, namely; audit, analysis and selection. All is done in both short run and long perspectives. Audit refers to comparing the actual with targeted results. In other words it is about determining the actual or potential impact of external and internal changes on various dimensions of an organization. For instance, profitability; productivity; customer and employee satisfaction; market competitiveness; strategic advantages (or disadvantages) etc. Analysis is the second stage of learning. It focuses on identifying root-causes of the problem or potential problem. Selecting is the final stage of learning. It involves building focus on the impending issues and setting priorities. Shorter the learning cycle, higher is the rate change. For instance, in a typical enterprise scenario financial statements provide handy information to learn. If these statements were prepared on monthly basis this would mean 12 learning cycles in a year. On the contrary, if financial statements were only prepared on yearly or half yearly basis the opportunities to learn in a year would remain much restricted, less reliable and distorted. Innovation is at the intervening level. It essentially follows learning if change is for the better and not for the heck of changing. Pragmatic findings at the learning stage become the input for innovation per se –it is said, need is the mother of all innovations. Generally it is argued that innovation [creativity] is abstract hence need no process. On the contrary innovation is a critical investment hence it is managed for optimal efficacy. The recommended process for innovating can be sequenced as the R&D or development; experimentation; and, empowerment. Development is the first tier and entails preparation of prototype solution, preferably in the controlled [laboratory] environment. It is critical that the controlled environment should be created within the real life scenario, while the term laboratory is used as a metaphor only, to maintain reliability and validity of the process. The solution is then put to testing for assessing its capability of resolving the problem. This again is done in the controlled environment. Once the solution is tested and the critical gaps are closed, it becomes ready for implementation. Implementation entails empowering the system and people in accordance with the new solution. Empowering systems is about making necessary adjustments in the policy, processes and immediate environment, while empowering people broadly refers to retooling and/or reorienting the people.

Case in Point: Subsequent to the learning that documents exchange/submission is a major factor in causing delays in international trade settlements (payments), electronic documents are considered as viable alternates to the conventional documents, for these can be exchanged/submitted instantly via world-wide-web portals. However, to implement this solution successfully and efficiently it is considered imperative that the organizations must, in the first place, amend their policy/regulations governing the paper documents to afford similar acceptance or legal status to electronic documents, too. More so, it must upgrade (automate) its processes to be able to create and transmit electronic documents successfully, and last but not the least it should make available a suitable technology and foster compatible business culture. Besides making the above changes, it is important that people are retrained, enabled and encouraged to transit

onto the new solution rather conveniently and willingly.



Change or changing is the ultimate stage of the cycle per se. It is this stage when the solution is put into action envisaging real-time redressing of the pending issues, improvement in organizational performance or both. This stage is further split into three tiers, namely; planning, inaugurating, and reinforcing. Planning refers to doing things (putting solutions into actions) on paper first. Planning primarily involves defining the Key-result-areas [KRA] and the Key-performance-indicators [KPI] along with action plan to implement the solution, and identifying the people and material resources to be required in the due course of time to successfully and efficiently implement the solution. Inaugural tier refers to the set of activities or events aimed at creating hype or to be precise positive attitude towards the change or at least reducing the existing and potential concerns to the maximum of the stakeholders. Doing so will increase the chances of successfully implementing the change and reducing potential restraints. Many a times the enthusiasm to change with which it is normally initiated fads out as the initiative progresses. As a result the chances of success also tend to go down. Therefore, it is imperative to constantly reinforce the change initiative by way of providing positive feedback and acknowledging achievements. However, it does not undermine the need for corrective feedback, which is essential to ensure that learning and innovation continues in the future. People Learning Dynamics Learning at the people level is equally significant as that of organizational level, for the continued organizational improvement. It is more than true that every individual is unique in his or her personality make-up and so in is his or her learning styles. However, the learning process remains similar for average individuals, yet the exceptions are always there. Understanding of the process that an average individual follows to learn suffices to manage learning of the individuals, particularly in an organizational setup. Learning process of individuals generally consists of following stages, namely; Selection, Experimentation [trial], Adoption, and Reinforcement [Based on the work of Prof. Udai Parek, Learning for Development] Selection refers to preliminary learning behavior of the individual whereby s/he selects specific information for learning. The individual primarily does so on the basis of information relevance to his or her area of interest or work, meaning if it has practical usage or not; expectations of someone he or she values such as supervisor or the management in a work scenario, and as a result of which s/he expects some personal advantage; and, last but not the least, that it is also convenient to learn sometimes because it is nothing but an extension of what s/he already knows [believe] thus no psychological incongruence is caused; it is challenging yet easy to learn; or. it is excitingly interesting to learn – fun. Subsequently, the individual experiments the new learning to gain confidence and ascertain its actual practical advantages. In case the outcomes conform to the expected goals then the learning gets internalized. Consequently the individual adopts the new learning and gets ready to practice it in the real life situation [do it on-the-job]. Repeated successful outcomes of applying new learning would successfully reinforce the learning into sort of established habit.



Role of the immediate supervisor and management in general is of immense value in making the learning process successful. Firstly, it is the supervisor or management who create the value for learning by identifying its significance in the context of the individual’s immediate work environment or career. Secondly, again the encouragement to experiment and the opportunity to apply new learning depends a lot onto the supervisor or management. Thirdly, ensuring that the learning environment remains conducive and friendly is expected from the supervisor or management. Finally, positive reinforcement in terms of laud acknowledgement and subsequently rewards come from the supervisors and management. Conclusion Learning for innovation and change has always been the most critical factor for organizational success both from the short term and long term perspectives. Indeed its importance has increased many a times in today’s world of work, which is typically characterized by changing global business environment; more demanding customers; tougher competition; de-regulations; and of all the things higher degree of contingencies, for this has put the business organizations in dilemma to deliver superior quality services [products] at most affordable [low] prices, all the time. The solution to this dilemma lies in the ability of organizations to learn, to change and to improve faster, all the time.



Role of Power in Organizational Development We are naturally interdependent and so are our society and work organizations. Fortunately, we are recognizing this interdependence rather advantageously. We already know that interdependence of people and organizations brings forth diversity, innovation and synergy in the society and work place. Managing interdependence successfully entails harmonization, synchronization, integration and coordination of directions and actions of all the stakeholders. For instance, in a team poised to bring success for all it is imperative to reconcile divergent goals of individuals for greater harmony; make each one sensitive of others interest and position and encourage accommodation amongst to achieve optimal synchronization; unify directions, priorities and work plans for better integration; last but not the least, coordinate decisions and actions across the board to achieve maximum synergy of inputs. More so, a successfully managed power-culture in the work organizations should bring forth discipline in practice. Here, discipline does not mean blind obedience and a set of pretentious or ritualistic behaviors. Realistically speaking, it is more of an environment, which encourages rationality in behaviors and empowerment across the board. Moreover, fostering, sustaining and balancing meaningful power across the work organization is the key to managing interdependence advantageously. Thus, we may begin analyzing power with an understanding that it is more of an instrument of encouraging discipline and making interdependence rather productive characteristic in a work place, as against generally held view of power as authority and control. In nutshell, our organizations are faced with two basic managerial challenges: Managing diversity and establishing discipline for sustained higher productivity.

Meaning of Power Power is often differently defined from the concept of control. While the focus of power and control is similar, the execution is different: To influence others’ decisions and actions in a predetermined direction, however, the former facilitates while latter asserts in doing so. In simple terms, power refers to one’s position or ability to influence or facilitate others towards a desired behavior or attainment of the target outcome. Power by all standards is a responsibility as against authority, which is generally taken as a right. Hence, it should be exercised with the same orientation. The continuum elaborates potential impact of power versus control culture on organizational performance and employees.

Power vs. Control Continuum

Extreme Power

Extreme Control

Potential Impact

Mutual Trust Win-win relationships

Realistic and Sustainable behaviors / performance Satisfaction

Potential Impact

Coercion Win-lose relationships

Ritualistic and Forced behaviors / performance Dissatisfaction



A typical power structure consists of the resource-person, the constituent(s) and the relationship between the two groups. Resource-person is the individual who enjoys power [ability to prevail and influence] over the other person(s) [constituents]. The constituents are the people who willingly accept influence [power] of the resource-person on their decisions and actions. Relationship is defined as natural or situational dependence of the constituents over the resource-person. Power base of the resource person consists of the resource person’s traits or strengths; relationship of the resource person and the constituent; perceived situation; and, the constituent’s readiness to accept influence in a particular relationship. Resource person’s traits refer to an individual’s or group’s ability to affect others chances of achievement, mostly in a positive way. For example: A lawyer with his or her knowledge of the prevailing laws and regulations could avail to legal benefits to his or her clients. Thus, a lawyer by his or her trait has power over the constituent. Relationship refers to the type of perceived dependency of the constituent[s] arising out of interaction with the resource-person. For example: The constituent’s understanding that his or her success depend a lot more on the lawyer than on himself or herself allows the lawyer to successfully exert influence on the constituent. Situation refers to a particular scenario, which offers a unique set of opportunities for the constituent to become successful. In other words, the constituent will assess the situation arising out of a particular relationship with the resource-person in terms of opportunities it might offer and the corresponding cost for him or her. Furthermore, the situation also defines boundaries of the power. Hence, we can say power will exist in a relationship only to the extent of a particular scenario and will not in other situations. For example: A lawyer will avail of power in a relationship where his constituent perceives the situation important with little or no other alternates to correct it. However, the lawyer will not avail of similar power over the constituent in other spheres of his or her life and career. Constituent’s readiness refers to the individual’s value perception of the resource-person, the relationship and the situation itself. For example: if the constituent attaches high value to the professional skills of a particular lawyer, perceives the relationship advantageous, and has a serious concern for the situation then he or she will be much willing to subordinate him- herself to the lawyer. It is clear from the above that power is an outcome of a mutual agreement and readiness of the resource-person and the constituent. Put is simply in a power relationship the constituent welcomes the resource-person to exercise power over him or her. On the contrary, control is unilateral and is often taken as a threat [compulsion] by the constituent, hence resisted to the possible extent. Although, one may conclude that the objective of both power and control is to mend others behavior towards a desired goal [state of affairs] the foundation of power is more on mutual trust between the two, while the control is erected on one’s proclaimed supremacy or right to demand obedience from the constituents. Thus, it is a unilateral phenomenon and does not necessarily require mutual trust, and often fails to be effective.

Resource

Traits Constituent

Relationship

[Perceived Dependence]

Perceived Situation

[An exclusive

scenario]

Power



Sources of Power Source refers to the resource characteristics of the resource-person, which enables him or her to gain and exercise power in a relationship. Sources can be of different origins, such as: Legitimate power; Expert power; Referent power; Spiritual power; Leveraged power; Coercive or reward power; and, Legacy Power; Etc. Let us now explore each power-source.

Legitimate Power Legitimate power represents a relationship wherein the resource-person enjoys a relatively superior position [or role] vis-à-vis the constituents and that they have accepted its legitimacy. It is interesting to note that superior position of the resource person, which the constituents do not consider legitimate, is interpreted as authority [control] rather than power. The underlying reasons of considering the position legitimate are as follows:

a) Constituents’ perceived legality of the system, laws and practices that put the resource-person in a superior position [role] and allows him or her to exercise power. For example: Boss / Subordinate relationship in a typical administrative setting.

b) Constituents’ valence for particular cultural values and norms encourage them to recognize individuals by their positions [roles] and seniority. Thereby they consider it legitimate for the senior-person [resource-person] to exercise power onto them.

c) Resource-persons charisma often associated with their personality characteristics

induces constituents’ favorable response to the exercise of power by the former. A good example is of the followership that most of the political leaders, especially in the developing countries, possess.

Expert Power Individuals who are perceived to have and/or demonstrate superior skills or knowledge tend to occupy superior position or role in a relationship and the constituents look at them for support and willfully take instructions. Thus by virtue of this, they are able to obtain willful compliance of their constituents. The relationship of a doctor and patient is a good example of expert power that doctors generally enjoy. A senior [experienced] technician also avails of similar power over his or her junior associates [interns]. Likewise, a truly well informed instructor [teacher] enjoys similar relationship with the pupils. Referent Power Referent power arises from the identification of an individual with another person. It is based on the resource of other person and an urge to be like him or her. For example, if [A] praises [B] to the extent of modeling his or her personality then [B] has referent power over [A]. Interestingly, it is possible that all is done without the knowledge of [B]. Thus, [B] can potentially influence [A] without being aware of it. Hence, it is critically important that the resource-person must remain vigilant of his or her behaviors and attitudes all the time, for others keep noticing and duplicating them automatically. Celebrities, successful CEOs / Entrepreneurs, and of all the people parents truly represent referent personalities. Charismatic instructors [teachers] also fall in this category, for a few instructors leave a lasting impression on the personality of their pupils, if not all.



Coercive or Reward Power Behaviors are generally instrumental, especially at the work place. In other words, people tend to respond to a set of preferred incentives and punishments in the world of work. Obviously so, the immediate manager can solicit his associates’ willful compliance by tactfully using his or her access to coercive or rewarding ability. Generally, it is said that not all managers possess rewarding ability, however, they can invariably cause damage to one’s career prospects. Meaning to say, they may not always be in a position to reward but are always capable of punishing their associates. This perception generally causes a fearful work environment, which could be grossly disadvantageous for the people and organizations alike. Moreover, often mis-match is done by the managers while choosing either a reward or punishment to influence the constituents, causing more damage than benefit. It is so because, while rewards are effective initiators for positive behavior, punishments successfully deter or discourage repetition of dysfunctional behaviors. However, sometimes managers apply incentives in place of punishments and vice versa. Spiritual Power Constituents generally perceive their strong emotional dependence on religious gurus, which encourages them to seek their support and take instructions. This is by no means referred to any specific religion such as The Islam, but it is true for all the religions. In the developed secular economies interpret the emotional dependence differently, however, the spirit remains intact. The Prophets [PBUT]; Pope the spiritual symbol of the Catholic Church; Dali Lama the spiritual guru of Buddhist philosophies; Etc. are a few living examples of spiritual power. Leveraged Power Often when the individuals lack resources to gain power, successfully leverage their resource deficiency through another resource-person either within the organization or from outside. Thereby he or she effectively gains the requisite power. Management negotiating an agreement with Collective Bargaining Agents is an example of gaining effective power on employees in the rank and file cadre. Likewise, managers take their bosses into confidence before making any specific use of their power onto their subordinates is yet another example. Leveraged power could also lead to dysfunctional scenario. For instance, it is possible that an associate, close to the senior manager, could leverage his or her relationship in influencing his or her immediate manager’s decisions to his or her advantage. Legacy Power In quite a few instances, it is true that a person proclaims power from the legacy of another person merely because of his or her special relationship or terms with that other person. The person availing of legacy is not always part of the original organization, but he or she can be an outsider to it as well. However, it is critical for the person to exercise power effectively that the constituents must recognize it as his or her inherited right. Interestingly, it is true that whenever such a situation arises there is always a chance that more than one person proclaim the power. Consequently, the organization faces destabilization and chaos, which increases the chances of splitting the organization into smaller independent organizations.



Political Power Of all the sources of power, political followership is most sought out source of power base. Here the individual (resource-person) commands superior power over his or her constituents solely on the basis of the followership. The followership is generally manifested in the perceived dependence of the constituents over the individual. The dependence could be psychological, physiological or both in nature. How it is casted is a long term complex relationship between the individual and constituents. One can primarily see explain this as process of emotional trust building, establishing credibility, and standing for the followers in times of need. Perhaps this type of power tends to over shadow other power bases, generally. Implications of Power in Organizational Setting Implications of power in organizational perspective can be grouped into two categories. Firstly, power as an instrument of organizational discipline and secondly power as a basis of political process. Power as an Instrument of Discipline It is impossible to undermine the significance of discipline in a work setting. However, discipline as a connotation can vary in different work cultures. Here the term discipline is strictly referred to by a work environment where individuals are empowered to perform on their jobs in a coordinated manner and productively. In addition, where individuals are discouraged to become dysfunctional. Exercising power (not control) by the immediate supervisors is evidently critical in establishing discipline in the immediate work environment. Absence or abuse of power by the supervisors could potentially turn the immediate work environment chaotic, which in turn would cause lower productivity and dysfunctional behaviors. Thus, it is imperative that supervisors (managers) strive to build appropriate power base to full fill their roles more efficiently and effectively. Power as a Reconciliation Process Organizations consist of smaller clusters of people. Each cluster represents a unique position and interest profile and possesses some degree of power over the other. At this point it is interesting to observe that in a real life organizational setting various power-clusters sometimes maintain rather competing positions with each other. If organizations fail to recognize the unique positions and interests of various power-clusters then they may use their relative power in competing within, which would certainly cause rivalries among the clusters at the cost of organizational goals. On the contrary, due recognition of power-clusters and allowing organizational policies and decisions more in line with their positions and interests would prove synergetic for the organizations towards accomplishing their goals. A positive effect of various power-clusters on organizational goals is of attaining equilibrium in organizational performance, which in turn increases the chances for organization’s sustainability in the long-run. This process generally referred to as political process, which is presented in the adjacent

Altered Organizational

Goals

Power Cluster

Power Cluster



diagram. As evident in the figure [a] the two power- clusters with almost equal power are exerting pressure on organizational goals thereby altering it to their advantage. The presented process is, however, deliberately simplistic. On the contrary, in the real world of business it is rather abstract. Meaning to say, different power-clusters exercise varying degree of power to influence the organizational goals. It is the most dominant power-cluster which prevails over others in getting the organizational goals [policies] altered in their advantage, refer to figure [b]. Here the organization’s role is either to ensure that interests of all power-clusters are satisfied or at least no one’s interest is violated for the benefit of others. Ideally, organizations should create a win-win situation for all power-clusters to successfully accomplish and sustain its own goals. A basic recommendation in this regard is that organizations should incorporate individual clusters’ positions and interests into their mainstream policies and decisions; and, pursue policy criteria that essentially encourage decision making that follows advantages for all or at least no disadvantage to any power-cluster. Conclusion Understanding and managing interest-clusters in an organizational setting is critical for building sustainable organizations; developing long-term relationships with various stakeholders; improving productivity and profits; last but not the least, creating enabling environment and satisfying careers for all.

Altered Organizational

Goals

Interest

Cluster

Interest

Cluster



Practice Activities



Business Leadership Analysis You are asked to do the following analysis in the back-drop of our discussion on “Business Leadership Model”. Stage I: Please evaluate three enterprise-clusters, namely; Public enterprises, Private enterprises, and Multinational enterprises with reference to their likely [known] concern for each dimension. Use this scale to rank: 01 least through 05 high…

1. Strategic Dimension(s)

Public Enterprises

Private Enterprises

Multinational Enterprises

Concern for corporate socio-moral behavior

Concern for Regulations

Concern for long term competitiveness and sustainability

Concern for systems and policies

2. Operating Dimension(s)

Public Enterprises

Private Enterprises


Concern for short- term profits

Concern for customers’ needs and expectations

Concern for creativity and innovation

Concern for Cost [efficiency]

Concern for Quality

Concern for resource Conservation

Concern for business Processes

3. Operating Dimension(s)

Public Enterprises

Private Enterprises


Concern for Achievements

Concern for work behavior and attitude

Concern for morals and integrity

Concern for learning and development



Stage II Identify the driving and restraining forces for. While doing so, please keep your focus on the internal work environment and culture of the respective enterprise-cluster.

1. Public Enterprises

Driving Forces Restraining Forces

2. Private Enterprises


3. Multinational Enterprises


Write down your conclusion – What makes each different from others:

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________



Building Leadership Competencies Introduction This introspection activity will help you identify the common challenges facing people in building upon and practicing leadership competencies. Ironically, data suggests that the most of the challenges are either are their deep rooted inhibitions or distorted perceptions about their external environment. Some common challenges facing individuals are listed below: - Vision

Lack of awareness; Inhibition to change; Comfort zone; Traditions; Frozen habits; Lack of ability to foresee and analyze (esp. abstract thinking)

- Focus Too much imaginative personality; Excessively intuitive orientation; Lack of vision; Excessive diversity and load of work; Urgency; Reward system.

- Patience Excessive motivation; Chaos in the life or immediate work environment; Lack of planning.

- Versatility Prolonged status quo (doing the same job); Organizational culture; Comfort zone; EGO; System limitations; Distorted perception (misnomers).

- Sensitivity Subjectivity; Time line; work pressure; Competitive practices

- Insight Impulsive behavior; Legacy; Emotional block; Habit; Intuitive orientation; Lack of timely, reliable and valid information, etc.

Instructions First you need to identify your specific challenges then the strategies to overcome the challenges. Doing so you will be able to make your customized development plan to strengthen your leadership potentials Use the templates to unravel your abilities (driving factors) and limitations (restraining factors) to build and practice specific leadership competency:



Challenge Analysis…

My abilities that help me practice this skill My limitations that restrict me practice this skill

Power to Lead

Empowerment

Horizon

Social

Management



Remedial Strategies…

a) I will do the followings to strengthen my abilities:

b) I will do the followings to overcome the limitations by doing following actions:



Clarifying Directions

(Lateral Thinking Activity) Activity Rationale:

Good leadership culture encourages developing shared business directions and agenda for change. This lateral thinking activity will sharpen your skills in clarifying business directions and change-agenda and how does it affect individual’s role.

Please follow the steps...

1. Form groups of three persons each 2. Imagine as if you were working together in a branch.

3. Define every one’s role in this activity on the basis of individuals unique skills set

4. Make a brief presentation of your output.

5. You have about 45 minutes to complete your working.

6. The University is committed to upgrade each faculty [department] into an

independent profit centre, catering to a growing number of students’ diversified learning needs and expectations while maintaining higher standard of education, efficiency and profitability.

7. Task at Hand:

While working in a team, you are asked to uncover the University goals in the context of above agenda, that each would understand clearly. Step One: Draw picture of a building that offers state-of-the-art living and working options Step Two: While referring to the drawing, enlist the built-in features and facilities of your imaginary building (in bullets) Step Three: Translate the features and facilities of your imaginary building into corresponding features and facilities of the University. Step Four: Identify actions (strategies) that you would need to initiate to live (ensure) the above features and facilities in your branch.

8. What competencies would you consider essential to do the above activity?



Mapping Motivators

This activity will help you map the motivators. Please follow the recommended thought process sequence

Presented below is a list of work-related motivators that are found in most organizations (work situations). You are asked to rank your motivators in order of merit. First being most urgent, tenth least urgent (no ties please).

Factor Own Ranking Ranking by a Peer

1. Recognition. __________ __________ 2. Premium Pay/Salary. __________ __________ 3. Sense of Accomplishment. __________ __________ 4. Management Relations. __________ __________ 5. Career Advancement Prospects. __________ __________ 6. Job itself. __________ __________ 7. Job Security. __________ __________ 8. Working Conditions. __________ __________ 9. Fringe Benefits. __________ __________ 10. Peer Relationship __________ __________ 11. Status (Designation) __________ __________ 12. Culture __________ __________ 13. Challenges (Targets) __________ __________ 14. _____________________ __________ __________ 15. _____________________ __________ __________ 16. _____________________ __________ __________



Harnessing Motivation

Instructions: a) Identify reinforcements [actions] you might like to initiate to deal with different

motivation-types. Use the generic strategies as your starting points. b) Identify specific reinforcements [actions] you might suggest to reinforce various

concerns/needs of an employee. c) Identify specific reinforcements to enhance productive as well as deter

dysfunctional behaviors.

Table I

Motivation Type

Recommended Motivation Strategy

Justification

Hyper Motivation

Motivated

Fence Sitter

Despondent

Table II

Needs/Concerns

Recommended Reinforcement

Justification

Use your imagination to choose most likely ones…

Table III

Target Behavior

Recommended Reinforcements

Justification

Constructive

Destructive

Innovative Dimensions in Leadership and Motivation Formated

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