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InnovationT h e M a g a z i n e f r o m C a r l Z e i s s

■ A Look at the Universe

■ Fascinated by Photography

■ Nanostructures

ISSN 1431-8040

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Innovation 16, Carl Zeiss AG, 20052

Contents

Editorial

❚ Dieter Brocksch 3

In Focus

Puzzling Astrophysical Phenomena ❚ Martin Matthias Roth 4Dark Matter in Spiral Galaxies ❚ Martin Matthias Roth 8Black Hole in the Holmberg II Galaxy ❚ Martin Matthias Roth 10Black Holes ❚ Martin Matthias Roth 12Calar Alto Observatory 13Celestial Observation 14Important Historical Developments in the Astrophysics of Potsdam 20SIR Looks for Ice and Minerals on the Moon ❚ Urs Mall, Chris Weikert 22The Sun 24Extrasolar Planet 25Sun Scout, Weatherman, Comet Hunter 26Brief History of the Reflecting Telescope 27The Route to the Stars 28Planetarium: A Roomful of Universe 32Observatory Instruments 36

Photography

Fascinated by Photography 37

From Users

Differentiation is the Magic Word 44Nanostructuring Using 3D Deposition Lithography ❚ Hans W.P. Koops 46

Anniversary

Insights into the Nano World: 40 Years of Scanning Electron Microscopy 50

Prizes and Awards

Fourth Consecutive R&D 100 Award for Carl Zeiss Microscopy 54Design Award for ZEISS Victory 32 FL 55 55Two Awards for the 1540XB CrossBeam® 55

Company News

Carl Zeiss SMT AG Acquires NaWoTec GmbH ❚ Hans W.P. Koops 56Beam Me Up 58P.A.L.M. Joins the Microscopy Group 59

Masthead 59

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Source of information

Important optical advances and inventions have alsopaved the way for further developments such as photog-raphy. Since the early days of photography, photogra-phers have used pictures to tell stories, to deliver infor-mation and to communicate with the observer. Images ofscenes in the cities on our planet offer an insight intoevents in our lives, show our organizational structuresand impart a sense of being.

Scanning electron microscopy, still a relatively newinvention, provides fascinating pictures which make itpossible to delve into the details and structures of natureand the environment. This technology makes structuresand dimensions visible that would otherwise remainhidden to the human eye.

Sophisticated optical techniques in nano-structuringhelp configure electronic circuits for cutting-edge com-munications equipment. As a result, modern communica-tions become faster and more reliable and have a widerrange of use.

Make it visible

True to the company’s motto “We make it visible,” opti-cal systems from Carl Zeiss help deliver many new andsometimes unexpected insights and perspectives. Key op-tical technologies use light to recognize new phenomenaand create new products.

Enjoy reading

December 2005

Dear Readers,

Dive into the world of pictures – pictures from space,pictures from cities and life on our planet and picturesfrom the nano world. Let us fascinate you with imagesthat deliver factual information as well as tell storiesabout the variety of life. Marcel Proust wrote that “thewriter’s work is merely a kind of optical instrument thatmakes it possible for the reader to discern what, withoutthis book, he would perhaps never have seen in himself.”

From the vastness of the universe

Pictures from space, as difficult as they are to make, giveus an idea of how immense the universe really is. Forcenturies, or rather millennia, mankind has been fasci-nated and impressed by the beauty of the cosmos. Forthousands of years, we have attempted to interpret andunderstand the inner workings of the heavens. Ourknowledge of how and why has been increasing forhundreds of years. In the beginning, man simply ob-served the light from the stars and attributed laws to it.The first optical instruments provided us with more de-tailed images of the stars and also helped us discovermoons and rings. Much of the knowledge from this timeled to a heliocentric view of the universe. Today, we leaveour planet to explore the universe, to explore our originsand to see the universe up close. Using state-of-the-artinstruments, we analyze the light from the heavens andget an idea of just how complex the universe actually is.The more of it we know, the more we are amazed athow intricate and unfathomable it is.

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Ed i tor ia l


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Astrophysics is one of the fewdisciplines of basic scientific re-search which in the foreseeablefuture can be expected to deliverresults that will lead to funda-mental alterations in our view ofthe physical world comparable toparadigm changes such as the in-troduction of quantum theory orEinstein’s general theory of rela-tivity some 100 years ago. Exoticobjects, such as neutron stars,black holes, remnants of super-novae and other gas nebulae, aswell as entire stellar systems suchas galaxies and galaxy clusters,present a unique opportunity tostudy matter under extreme tem-

resolution of the telescopes em-ployed in these applications. Di-rect imaging cameras, spectro-graphs with low, medium or highspectral resolution, polarimeters,interferometers and other focalinstruments provide us with afar-reaching view into the historyof the origin, development andstructure of physical phenomena– some of which are not yet un-derstood. Consequently, the useof state-of-the-art technology inmodern telescopes has becomean indispensable element in mod-ern astrophysical research.

Puzzling Astrophysical Phenomena

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In Focus

peratures, pressures, densities,magnetic field strengths and oth-er physical parameters that can-not be reproduced in a terrestriallaboratory. These parameters aremeasured in modern astrophysicsusing earth-based telescopes aswell as space observatorieswhich unite to cover the entireelectromagnetic spectrum fromradio waves to x-ray and gammaradiation.

Focal instruments that allowthe weak light signal gathered bythe telescope to be transformedinto a directly interpretable pa-rameter are just as important asthe light-gathering power and

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3D spectroscopy – anew measuring proce-dure in astrophysics

Since its reestablishment in 1992, theAstrophysics Institute in Potsdam(AIP) – one of the first observatoriesin Germany – has been advancingthe targeted establishment of infra-structure for the development ofmodern astronomical telescopes andfocal instruments in addition to itstraditional fields which include stellarphysics, extragalactics and cosmolo-gy. The first specific project in thisarea began in 1996 with the devel-opment of the PMAS (Potsdam Multi-Aperture Spectrophotometer), an in-novative imaging spectrograph (Fig.1). This new technique is oftenreferred to as integral field spec-troscopy or 3D spectroscopy forshort. Its measuring principle is illus-trated in Fig. 2: the real image of an object, e.g. a galaxy, generated inthe focal plane of the telescope isscanned using a lens scanner, withthe scanner's finite number of m x nlens elements transforming the im-

age into a discrete number of m x nimage elements. The light impingingon each image element is coupledfrom the focal plane by a dedicatedfiber of a light guide bundle andtransmitted to a more or less remotefiber spectrograph.

By rearranging the rectangular im-age elements into a linear fiber arrayin the entry plane of the spectro-graph it is very easily possible toadapt the geometry of the 2-dimen-sional object to the linear structure ofthe spectrograph slit. Each fiber isthus imaged individually by the spec-trograph optics in the form of a smallcircle onto the CCD detector, where-by the dispersion of the diffractiongrating pulls the fiber image apart toform a band of light when illuminat-ed with a continuum; alternatively, anumber of discrete points of lightalong this band is seen when illumi-nated with a spectrum of emissionlines (Fig. 3). This generates a familyof (m x n) spectra on the detectorwhich can be extracted, calibratedand then combined for image re-construction using suitable software

after the image has been scanned in-to the computer. The result of thistype of image reconstruction is calleda data cube – hence the term 3Dspectroscopy (Fig. 4). Depending onthe view, the data cube can be inter-preted as a stack of monochromaticimage recordings or as a bundle ofindividual spectra in a rectangulararray. This procedure has obviousadvantages: 3D spectroscopy is a fullysimultaneous measuring procedure inwhich the entire data set is recordedin a single exposure. As the light in-tensity of the majority of objects ofinterest in astrophysics is extremelyweak and requires the use of expen-sive large telescopes, this aspect is becoming increasingly important,particularly for the most interestingcurrent topics.

5Innovation 16, Carl Zeiss AG, 2005

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Fig. 1:PMAS (Potsdam Multi-Aperture Spectrophotometer)at the Cassegrain focus of the Carl Zeiss 3.5 mreflecting telescope at Calar Alto Observatory in southern Spain.

Fig. 2:Design principles of anintegral field spectrographwith lens array and fibercoupling.

Fig. 3:Part of a PMAS calibration image taken with continuous light(continuous strips) andemission line spectrum(printed points).The partial image shows two groups of 16 spectra each; the direction ofdispersion is from left to right.

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The Potsdam Multi-Aperture Spectrophotometer

The concept of the first AIP instru-mentation project kicked off an am-bitious project aimed at nothing lessthan the construction of the mostpowerful 3D spectrograph in theworld for the near UV (350 nm) tothe near IR (1000 nm). This is thespectral window in which the atmos-phere is translucent for ground-basedobservations. The project was also in-tended to develop optimal sensitivity,rendering the instrument competitivefor observation of even the weakestsources. Only high-performance op-tics were acceptable for the opticalsystem (see box for requirements).Carl Zeiss was our most importantpartner during the development ofthe optics for the PMAS fiber spec-trograph which dominate the overallbehavior of the instrument as thecentral and most important opticalcomponent. Uwe Laux from Weimar,Germany designed the optics of thefiber spectrograph (Fig. 5). The initialdesign was based on the assumptionof catalog data such as refractive

ence in the construction of apochro-matic lenses for astronomical refrac-tor objectives, as well as the know-how in the production of asphericallenses and lithographic CaF2 lenses.

Following an extensive series oftests (Fig. 6, 7), a one-of-a-kindsystem was delivered in 1999. Thedevelopment of PMAS provides acritical component with excellentperformance characteristics.

Use at Calar Alto observatory

The PMAS was used for the first timein May 2001 on the 3.5 m telescopeat the Calar Alto observatory (Fig. 8).Developed 30 years ago by Carl Zeiss,this telescope continues to embody a significant technological step. Itwas the first application of theZERODUR glass ceramics that hadbeen specially developed by Schottfor astronomy – a classic example of a successful transfer of technologyfrom basic scientific research.

The PMAS has been available toGerman and Spanish astronomerssince the fall of 2002 as a generallyaccessible user instrument based on a

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index and lens radius. Three roundsof optimization were performed overthe course of material acquisition,fabrication, and integration of thesystem. Following acquisition of theoptical glasses supplied by SCHOTT,melt refractive indices determined in-dividually for each blank were usedto perform a melt calculation. Finally,after production and testing of theindividual lenses, the actual meas-ured radii and thickness values wereused to carry out a third optimizationprocedure in which the critical systemparameters were set to optimalvalues by adapting the back focaldistances, i.e. by a process of me-chanical re-optimization.

The planned use on the telescopetightened the requirements on thePMAS even further. It was essentialto maintain the specified imagestability in any geometric orientation(telescope rotation) and over an ex-tremely broad range of temperatures(--20° to +20° C). The system ulti-mately produced and completelyintegrated by Carl Zeiss consists of arefractive collimator and a refractivecamera lens. In particular, the projectbenefited from the years of experi-

Fig. 4:Schematic representation of a data cube which can be generated byrearranging the spectraextracted from the CCDimage: this results in a cube with two positionalcoordinates and onewavelength coordinate.The cube can be seen as a stack of images across thefield of view scanned in the lens array with exposureof all these images atdifferent wavelengths.

Fig. 5:Sectional view showing thePMAS spectrograph optics(bottom: overall system inthe dispersion plane definedby the collimator axis andcamera axis; top: collimatorlens in a sectional viewperpendicular to thisplane).

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contractual relationship between theMax Planck Institute of Astronomy inHeidelberg, Germany and the Astro-physics Institute in Potsdam. Afterthree years of operation, the PMAShas become the second-most re-quested focal instrument at the3.5 m telescope and proven itsreliability in more than 150 night ses-sions over the course of a total of 45 observation campaigns. The in-strument has been used to address a wide variety of scientific questions,e.g. the observation of jets in youngstars, the surroundings of hot, lumi-nous stars, galactic planetary nebu-lae, stellar populations in close-bygalaxies, kinematics of highly red-shifted galaxies, active galaxy cores,gravitational lenses and many others.

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� Nominal temperature 20 °C� Range of operating temperatures

--10 … +20 °C� Range of storage temperatures

--25 … +50 °C� Up to 95% relative humidity� Shock resistance: up to 10 g,

dynamic: up to 2 g(0.5 --100 Hz)

� Orientation: nominal operationat any orientation

� Nominal range of wavelengths:350-900 nm

� Image quality: image diametertypically 15 µ at 80% energyfocusing

� Antireflection layers: broad-bandantireflection coated 350-900nm, mean of max. 1% residualreflection

� Thermally compensatedmechanical mounts

� Joining technology: free oftension due to oil immersion

Requirements for PMAS spectrograph optics

special

Fig. 6:Collimator lens duringacceptance testing at theJena factory.

Fig. 7:Overall system during theacceptance test forverification of the positionalstability of the image atvarying orientations.

Fig. 8:Overall view of the CarlZeiss 3.5 m reflectingtelescope with the PMAS in Cassegrain focus.

Martin Matthias Roth,Astrophysics Institute Potsdamhttp://www.aip.de


One of the most interesting andburning topics in astrophysics isthe unsolved mystery of darkmatter. Observation results showthat approx. 90% of the matter inspace exists in the form of so-called dark matter. Although thismajor component of the universeis not luminous and thereforeinaccessible to direct observation,it can be inferred indirectly, e.g. by observing rotation curvesof remote galaxies. Theoreticalastrophysicists at AIP are usingstate-of-the-art supercomputersto develop numerical simulationcalculations to describe the for-mation of structures in the uni-verse in which the existence of

The presence of dark matter is feltby its gravitational effect on the dy-namic behavior of the approx. onehundred billion stars orbiting thecenter of the galaxy. Spectroscopy ofthe light of stars and the study ofthe Doppler effect can be used tomeasure the kinematics of a galaxy.However, most galaxies outside theMilky Way are so remote that thestars cannot be seen individually.They instead blur into a diffuse lumi-nous distribution of light.

Spectroscopy of large plane sources

3D spectroscopy appears to be ideallysuited for the spectroscopy of largeplane sources. It offers two signifi-cant advantages over conventionalmethods: first, several hundred spec-tra can be recorded simultaneously ina two-dimensional field of view.Thus, there is no need for time-con-suming and costly sequential scan-ning in the study of large-scale ob-jects, such as the “face-on” galaxiesto be investigated. Each image pointof the observed two-dimensionalfield of view yields its own spectrum,i.e. the light of each and every pointof the galaxy is analyzed by wave-length. In this fashion, the spectralinformation is recorded directly as afunction of its spatial distributionwhich is key to measuring dark mat-ter. Second, digital image processingmethods allow inclusion of minuteluminous sources on the edge ofgalaxies in the analysis. Previously,not even the world's largest tele-scopes equipped with the most sensi-tive instruments were capable ofsolving this observation problem. Thehigh sensitivity of the PMAS and theapplication of 3D spectroscopy prom-ised to provide a breakthrough in ob-servation technology addressing thisproblem.

Dark Matter in Spiral Galaxies

Fig. 1:PPAK fiber bundle IFU.

Fig. 2:PPAK fiber bundle with sixsmall auxiliary bundles formeasuring the brightness ofthe celestial background.

Fig. 3:View of spiral galaxyUGC463 (right) recon-structed from a PPAKrecording compared to adirect image taken with thePalomar Schmidt telescope(left). The PPAK-IFUprovides the PMAS with the largest field of view of any 3D spectrograph in the world.

dark matter provides a crucialfoundation. For observations, thePMAS team collaborates with M.Verheijen (Groningen, Nether-lands) and M. Bershady (Wiscon-sin, USA) to carry out measure-ments aimed at determining thedistribution of dark matter in and around individual galaxies.These investigations focus on thenearby so-called “face-on” spiralgalaxies whose disc structure isfully visible in a perpendicular topview. These very easy to seeobjects will be used to investigatethe exact distribution of darkmatter within the disc and outinto the halo surrounding thegalaxy.

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Innovative upgrade of PMAS

However, the field of view of theinstrument was initially optimized forthe study of small-scale phenomenaand thus was too small to detectentire galaxies in a single exposure.For this reason, the PMAS was en-hanced with a technical innovationthat enables the instrument to coverthe entire field of view required forlarge disc galaxies. Within a recordtime of only about half a year, a newintegral field unit (IFU) consisting of a new, larger glass fiber bundle andupstream lens optics was developedat AIP: PPAK (PMAS fiber PacK, Fig. 1). This unit started operation in2004. PPAK consists of 331 denselypacked optical glass fibers, each ofwhich observes one image point witha diameter of 2.7 arc seconds in thesky. Six additional glass fiber bundlesare used to measure the backgroundradiation of the night sky and 15more fibers are used for wavelengthcalibration of the scientific data. Inparticular, the microscopic arrange-ment of the 400 fibers in a minutespace, i.e. a 5 x 5mm hexagon, pre-sented a major technical challenge

to the developers at AIP (Fig. 2). Itsfield of view of 74 x 65 arc seconds –this corresponds to approx. 0.2 per-cent of the area covered by the fullmoon – makes PPAK the largest 3Dspectrograph in the world capable of scanning contiguous large-scaleobjects in the universe.

The first scientific image recordedwith the new PPAK-IFU (Fig. 3) showsthe UGC463 galaxy (right) with ex-cellent consistency to a direct imagerecording from the Palomar imageatlas (POSS) used as a reference.

Astrolabe

The astrolabe is an instrument for angle measurement in the sky.

Armillary sphere

An armillary sphere (from Latin armillaris – ring/bracelet)is an astronomical instrument used either to measurecoordinates in the sky or to represent the motion ofcelestial bodies.

Mural quadrant

A historical astronomical instrument used to determinethe heights and positions of stars. The mural quadrantconsists of a 90° arc with a divided scale, a readingdevice, a sight and a plumb bob. The star to be deter-mined is sighted, and the position of the plumb bobsuspended from the 90° arc indicates the height angle.

Jacob’s staff

Jacob's staff (Latin: baculus jacob), or cross staff, is anearly astronomical instrument used to measure angles. It was mainly used in nautical travel and is considered to be the functional predecessor of the sextant.

Clepsydra (water clock)

For thousands of years, clepsydras were used as timemeasuring apparatuses which, unlike sundials, wereindependent of the time of day and weather conditions.

Sundial

As astronomical instruments, sundials use the sun’sposition in the sky to approximately indicate the time of day.

Ring sundial

A portable sundial with an accuracy of five minutes.

Instruments for astronomical observation and calculations

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Black Hole in the Holmberg II GalaxyGalaxies are clusters of stellar sys-tems outside the Milky Way thatoccur in two main forms. Ellipticgalaxies have a homogeneous,triaxial structure and a uniformstellar population. Spiral galaxieshave a spiral structure and differ-ential rotation, the spiral armsbeing the centers of star forma-tion. Our closest neighbor, theAndromeda Nebula (M 31, NGC

224), is a spiral galaxy of type Sbin the Andromeda constellation.Galaxies are separated from eachother by immense, largely emptyspace. At a rough estimate, morethan 50 billion galaxies can theo-retically be observed from theearth using state-of-the-art tech-nology. It is estimated that anaverage galaxy consists of some100 billion stars.

Fig. 1 (large figure):The Holmberg II dwarfgalaxy (Palomar image)

Fig. 2:Positional charts of the x-ray recordings ofHo II-X1 as an overlay overan image of the visualspectral range (false-colorimage). The high excitationnebula surrounding theblack hole proven to existby PMAS is indicated by a black circle.

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The brightest object in the class ofultra-luminous x-ray sources (ULX) inthe local group, i.e. the cluster ofgalaxies closest to the Milky Way, issituated in the Holmberg II dwarfgalaxy approx. 10 million light-yearsaway (Fig. 1). In addition to investiga-tions in the x-ray range, the searchfor emissions in the visual range ofthe spectrum is of key interest. It is hoped that spectral analysis of this radiation may allow scientists tomake a conclusion regarding thenature of accretion and the mass ofthe object.

During the PMAS Science Verifica-tion Run at the Calar Alto 3.5 m tele-scope, Ho II-X1 was observed whichindeed demonstrated the extremelyfaint signature of a high-excitationgas nebula at the site of the x-raysource (Fig. 2). Earlier observationswith an elongated slit spectrographhad been unsuccessful as the uncer-tain positional information from thex-ray data made a “coincidental” hitin directing the telescope very unlike-ly. The 8x8 arc second field of view of the PMAS made it possible todirect the telescope without havingto make presumptions regarding thesuspected coordinates so that the

high excitation helium II emission lineat 486.6 nm, as an indicator, ap-peared just on the edge of the fieldof view. The analysis of the dimen-sions of the object and its kinematicproperties together with the x-rayobservation data indeed showed that Ho II-X1 is highly likely to be an intermediate-size black hole. Theresults obtained by the internationalresearch group of Lehmann (MaxPlanck Institute of ExtraterrestrialPhysics, Garching, Germany) and thePMAS team (AIP) were published asthe cover story in the March 2005issue of the renowned technicaljournal, Astronomy & Astrophysics.

Fig. 3a: Top: Monochromatic im-ages at various important wave-lengths extracted from the data cubeof a PMAS recording. Bottom: Veloci-ty field (false-color chart) and widthat half intensity of the emission linesof hydrogen at 486.1 nm (H-beta)and oxygen at 500.7 nm ([O III]). Ared circle at the lower left marks thepoint at which the high excitationhelium emission line was detected.

Fig. 3b: The spectrum generatedby addition within the red circle (Fig.3a). The weak emission line indicatedby He II (singly-ionized helium) shows

that a compact, extremely hot sourceresides in this area. The same line isnot detectable in other regions.

Fig. 3c: Actual observation of agravitational lens, in which a low-luminosity galaxy in the foreground(faint red spot in the center), ratherthan a black hole, splits the light of a far-away bright quasar behind thegalaxy in the foreground into 4 com-ponents (PMAS observation). Quasarsare enormously bright, active galaxycores, in which accretion towards a super mass-rich black hole givesrise to luminosity exceeding the totalbrightness of the galaxy by far.

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Black holes were predicted asmathematical singularities by thegeneral theory of relativity fromAlbert Einstein. However, it issaid that Einstein never believedin the real existence of such ob-jects. In 1916 during World War I,the former director of the Astro-physical Observatory in Potsdam,Karl Schwarzschild, proposed asolution to Einstein’s field equa-tions for the case of a mass unit-ed in a point of no dimensions: a so-called black hole.

mass-rich black holes residing in the center of galaxies. Today, it isbelieved that basically all galaxies thesize of Milky Way harbor a black hole in their center, typically with amass of several million times that ofthe sun. ROSAT observations alsorevealed the existence of so-calledultra-luminous x-ray sources (ULX)whose x-ray luminosity is severalmillion-fold larger than the totalluminosity of the sun. These do notreside in the dynamic center ofgalaxies, but mainly in regions withongoing star formation or relativelyyoung stars. In contrast to supermass-rich black holes, which accumu-lated their immense mass by accre-tion, these structures are thought to be black holes in a medium mass range of up to approx. 100-foldthe mass of the sun. Only very fewcandidates are known at this time.

Black Holes

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Popular scientific interests and sci-ence fiction literature have broughtthe property of an event horizon tothe attention of a larger audience.Predicted by Schwarzschild, the eventhorizon is the point beyond which nomatter or radiation can escape fromthe gravitation pull of a black hole.Meanwhile, numerous astrophysicalmeasurements have more or lessproven the existence of black holes.Although this type of object cannotbe seen by definition, the effects of a black hole on its surroundings canbe used to deduce its existence, forexample from the observed orbitalmovement of stars in the immediatevicinity of this singularity.

Black holes draw attention tothemselves in a spectacular waythrough the inflow of mass (accre-tion) leading to the formation of anaccretion disc in which all matter un-stoppably spirals towards the eventhorizon and heats up to extremetemperatures in the process. The en-suing emission of energy from theplasma that has reached a tempera-ture of millions of Kelvin is particular-ly intensive in the x-ray range. Mainlyfrom observations with the ROSATspace telescope, astronomers knowthat the universe is full of super



The German-Spanish Astronomi-cal Center/Centro AstronómicoHispano-Alemán (DSAZ/CAHA) isan observatory located on the2168 m high Calar Alto mountainin the Sierra de los Filabres insouthern Spain.

The Spanish king Juan Carlos Iopened the Calar Alto observatory inSeptember 1979. Over the last 25years, the telescopes (1.23 m, 2.2 mand 3.5 m) were primarily availableto German and Spanish astronomers.Since January 1, 2005, the Calar Altoobservatory has been jointly operatedon an equal basis by the Max PlanckSociety and the Spanish Consejo Su-perior de Investigaciones Científicas(CSIC).

The PMAS (Potsdam Multi-Aper-ture Spectrophotometer) of the Pots-dam Astrophysics Institute is installedon the 3.5 m telescope.


Fig. 1:Dome where the 3.5 m telescope is housed.

Fig. 2:3.5 m telescope.

Calar Alto Observatory

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is evident from the names theygave the constellations of thenorthern hemisphere and ourgalaxy, the Milky Way. Many ofthese are derived from Greekmythology or history. Early on,the stars served as importantlandmarks for nautical travel andthe division of the year by meansof calendars. The exact point intime at which the history ofastronomy truly began cannot bedetermined conclusively as manyof the ancient documents wereirretrievably lost when the libraryof Alexandria was destroyed nu-merous times.

Celestial Observation

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From the beginning of time, hu-man beings have been fascinatedby the heavens. It began with thefirst visual observations of thenight sky and the description ofthe path of the sun and starsacross the sky. Systematic obser-vations of the sky began in thethird millenium B.C. Thus, astron-omy is the oldest of the sciences.Many astronomical observationswere a result of astrological inter-ests. Virtually all cultures regardthe sky and its phenomena assigns of a higher power or god-like force. That the thinkers of theancient world saw astronomy andastrology as one and the same

Anaximander (approx. 611-546 B. C.)

The first person to propose a cosmogonybased purely on physics:a history of origins founded entirely onobservation and rational thinking.He was also the first to see the cosmos as a systematically structured whole.Anaximander designed the first map ofthe earth and is said to have constructedthe first celestial globe.

Famous astr o

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The steady improvements of observa-tion devices allowed astronomers togain more and more insights. Thediscoverers continuously expandedtheir knowledge in areas such as theplanets of our solar system, remotegalaxies, other celestial bodies, thephysical laws governing the universe,the development of stars and of theentire universe. The telescope wasinvented some 400 years ago. GalileoGalilei, among others, used it for astronomical observations. Majorstrides in astronomical research weremade during the 19th century byintegrating photography and spec-troscopy. Manned and unmannedspace missions provided new meansof observation and research begin-ning at the middle of the 20th centu-ry. To date, a broad range of physicalmeasuring technologies is used toobserve all forms of electromagneticor particle radiation originating inspace: astrophysics provides thephysical foundations for researchingthe celestial phenomena.

Prehistoric observations

Prehistoric astronomical observationswere conducted as early as theBronze Age, at least in the form ofsimple celestial observations. The discof Nebra is evidence of early astrono-my. Megalithic structures of theBronze Age such as Stonehengewhich consists of several concentriccircles of rocks also demonstrate ear-ly efforts to observe the stars. Theoldest evidence in Stonehenge datesback to the year 3100 B.C. Since therocks are aligned according to thepositions of solstice and equinox,Stonehenge is often thought to be a prehistoric observatory.

The earliest astronomical observa-tions are documented in writings andartifacts from the cultures of theMiddle and Far East. Recordings ofsolar eclipses from the third millen-nium B.C. have been found in Chinaand reports from Indian and Baby-lonian societies date back just as far.

Babylonian sources describe lunarand solar eclipses. Similarly, theMayan cultures in Mesoamerica ap-pear to have engaged in regularcelestial observations in the fourthmillennium B.C: the interpretation ofan old Mayan manuscript – the so-called Dresden Codex – points to theobservation of a total lunar eclipse onFebruary 15, 3379 B.C.

Regular movements of the starswere already recorded by the Egyp-tians. Their view of their environment– the river Nile, the cycle of life andrebirth, the air and the water – aswell as their world view, was basedon their belief in the gods. Therecords of astronomical and geo-graphical natural phenomena, suchas the recurring flooding of the Nile,were used early in Egyptian history to develop an annual calendar.

Various images in Egyptian burialplaces indicate that the ancientEgyptians were aware of the exist-ence of five planets in our solarsystem.


Aristarchus of Samos (approx. 310-230 B. C.)

One of the first proponents of the helio-centric model of the solar system.His studies of the interaction between thesun and earth built on Epicure’s andDemocrit’s views of the world's infinity.Having reached the conclusion that theearth revolves around the sun, he brokewith the notion that the earth is at thecenter of the universe. His ideas were taken up again centuries later.

Ptolemy, Greek: Klaudios Ptolemaios,Latin: Claudius Ptolemaeus (87-150 B. C.)

Assumed to have lived and worked inAlexandria. He wrote the MathematikeSyntaxis and later the Megiste Syntaxis,a treatise on mathematics and astronomy.Today, it is known as Almagest and consid-ered to be the definitive work on astronmyin the Middle Ages. In addition to a starcatalog, it contained the geocentriccosmology proposed by Hipparchus ofNicea, also termed the Ptolemaic system.

r onomersAbu ar-Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmadal-Biruni (973-1048)

Produced the first terrestrial globe.He also translated a large number ofArabic and Greek texts, including Euclid’s Elements, into Sanskrit. In 1023he calculated the earth’s radius to be6339.6 km using a measuring method he invented (the actual radius at theequator is 6378.1 km).



The geocentric view of the world during ancient times

Much of the astronomical knowledgein ancient times was obtained byGreek scholars. As early as the 6th

century B.C., the Pythagoreansthought the earth to be a sphere.Aside from the great philosophers,such as Socrates, Aristotle or Plato,many lesser known figures, such asAristarchus of Samos and Eratos-thenes, were interested in the courseand structure of the stars. The long-held geocentric view of the world hasbeen dated back to the ideas of theGreek mathematician, geographer,and astronomer, Klaudios Ptolemaios

who built on the earlier work ofHipparchus of Nicaea (196-125 B.C.).He viewed the earth as the center ofthe universe around which circle sev-en stars – Mercury, Venus, Mars,Jupiter, and Saturn as well as the sunand moon. The number and positionof all other stars in the sky were fixedleading to the term of “fixed star”.

Toward a heliocentric view

Evidence and ideas of a heliocentricuniverse were picked up by as-tronomers very early but they failedfor many centuries to prevail againstthe geocentric view of the world thatwas consistent with Aristotelian phi-

losophy. These views were mainlysupported by philosophical-religiousprinciples, such as the uniqueness ofthe earth and human beings as thecenter of the universe perceived bySocrates, Plato and Aristotle.

Arabian scholars worked out as-tronomic equations between the 8th

and 13th century. Peurbach (1423-1461) and his scribe, Johannes Mülleror, as he was also called, Regio-montanus (1436-1476), made moreobservations of the planets andimproved the system of Ptolemy. Fol-lowing in the footsteps of otherscholars, Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543) attempted to remedy theshortcomings of the ptolemaic viewof the world. He considered the earthto be one of the planets and placedthe sun in the center of his system in which the planets orbit the sun.The discovery of a “new”, brightly-shining star (supernova) in the con-stellation of Cassiopeia shook theworld in 1572 as it provided the first proof against the immutability of the fixed stars in the geocentricview of the world. Based on his ob-servations, Danish astronomer TychoBrahe (1546-1601) attempted to

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Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543)

His discoveries laid the foundations for a new, post-medieval view of the world.His theories of the planets orbiting thesun make him one of the greatest Euro-pean astronomers. His De RevolutionibusOrbium Coelestium (On the Revolutionsof the Heavenly Spheres) printed inNuremberg in 1543 is a milestone inastronomy.

Muhammad Ibn Jabir Ibn Sinan AbuAbdallah al Batani, Latinzed Albategniusor Albatanius (approx. 850-929)

Considered to be one of the leadingastronomers of the Arab world.His astronomical tables were printed in Nuremberg in 1537 under the title “De Scientia Stellarum”. He calculated the duration of the solar year as being 365 days, 5 hours, 46 minutes and 24 seconds and investigated the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit.

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

In 1604, he observed a nova in the constel-lation of Sagittarius. In 1609, Galileodemonstrated to Venetian representativesof the church the telescope he constructedbased on an instrument invented by the Dutchman Lippershey. Due to his considerations concerning contradictionsbetween the bible and Copernicus’teachings, he was summoned to appear for the first time before the Holy Office,the highest inquisition authority in 1616.

Famous astronomers



reconcile the geo- and heliocentricviews. His pupil and assistant,Johannes Kepler, completed Brahe’swork following his death. Kepler’sorbital mechanics, which has theplanets move on elliptical orbitsaround the sun, continues to be validto this day. Dominican friar GiordanoBruno (1548-1600) explained thecosmos to be infinite and the sun tobe its center: he even claimed thatthere is an infinite number of worlds,each with its own sun. Galileo Galileibuilt a copy of the telescope ofLippershey and was probably the firstto use it for celestial observations. He discovered mountains on themoon, the four moons of Jupiter,sunspots (at the same time as oth-ers), the rings of Saturn and thechange in the phases of Venus.Galileo was a fervent proponent ofCopernican teachings which earnedhim a summons to the court of in-quisition in 1616 and a warning not to spread the “false” teachingsof Copernicus. Ultimately, he wasforced to renounce the Copernicanviews in 1633.

The Egyptian calendar was probably invented in the29th century B.C.: it consists of three annual seasonsof four 30-day months. Adding five epagomenal days representing the birth-days of the gods, Osiris, Horus, Seth, Isis and Neph-thys, the Egyptian calendar had a total of 365 days.

The earliest astronomical image of the northern andsouthern hemisphere in the grave of Senen-mut.The southern hemisphere – top – shows a list of thedecans (stars) including the constellations of thesouthern sky, Orion and Sothis (Sopdet). Moreover,the planets Jupiter, Saturn, Mercury, and Venus areshown, some of them as gods crossing the sky in row boats.

The northern hemisphere – bottom – shows constella-tions of the northern sky including the Great Bear(Ursa major) in the middle. The remaining constellations have not been identi-fied. To the right and left, there are 8 and 4 circles,respectively, below which a number of gods carryingsun discs strides towards the middle of the picture. The inscriptions on the circles correspond to theoriginal monthly festivities in the lunar calendar, the inscriptions of the gods denote the original daysof the lunar calendar.

Egyptian calendar

specialJohannes Kepler (1571-1630)

Natural philosopher, mathematician,astronomer, astrologist and optician.He discovered the laws of planetary motion– Kepler’s Laws. In mathematics, theapproximate calculation of numericalintegrals was named after him (Kepler’sFassregel). With his Dioptrice published in 1611, Kepler laid the foundations for optics as a science.



More recent historyof astronomy

In 1661, Scottish mathematicianJames Gregory (1638-1675) devel-oped the reflector telescope whichbears his name. In 1671, GiovanniDomenico Cassini (1625-1712) usedmeasurements on a pendulum to de-termine the compression of theearth. Using an air telescope with alength of 11-14 meters, he discov-ered four moons around Saturn andthe gap in the rings of Saturn namedafter him. The famous observatory inGreenwich, England, was founded in 1675. Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695) built an air telescope with afocal length of 3.3 meters and used it to discover the true shape ofSaturn and its rings in 1684. He alsodiscovered Saturn’s moon, Titan. SirIsaac Newton’s (1643-1727) maintreatise “Philosophiae naturalis prin-cipia mathematica”, which includedthe law of gravity, was published in1687. With the support of electressSophie Charlotte, Gottfried WilhelmLeibniz (1646-1716) founded theobservatory in Berlin in 1700. Ap-proximately half a century later,William Herschel (1738-1822) builtthe largest telescopes of his time and became known mainly for dis-covering Uranus in 1781. He was oneof the first astronomers to attempt toelucidate the structure of Milky Way.Karl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855)published his classical method for

calculating the orbits of planets in his treatise “Theoria motus corporumcoelestium” in 1809. The first photo-graphic images of stars were made in 1857. Maximilian Franz JosephCornelius Wolf (1863-1932), an as-tronomer from Heidelberg, Germanytook the first photographic images ofthe sky for celestial charts. In 1890,US physicist Albert Abraham Michel-son (1852-1931) used an interferom-eter on Mount Wilson to measurethe distances between very closelyspaced double stars and the diame-ters of bright stars. In 1903, CarlPulfrich (1858-1927) of Carl Zeiss inJena, Germany, invented the stereo-scopy-based stereocomparator orblink comparator that allowed him todiscern moving stars in photographicimages of the sky. US astronomer Ed-win Hubble (1889-1953) determinedthe distance between two nearbyspiral nebulae in 1923. His insightscontributed to the notion that spiralnebulae are independent stellar sys-tems. The spatial distribution of othergalaxies and the detectable red shiftin their spectra were the basis ofHubble’s most well-known contribu-tion to astronomy: he discovered thatthe universe is expanding.

Since 1990, the space telescopebearing his name has recorded thefinest details of the planets andstellar systems without interferenceby the earth’s atmosphere.


Entering the world of astronomy

Binoculars such as the Victory 32 T*FL and Victory 42 T* FL, as well as spotting scopes such as the Diascope 65 T* FL and Diascope 85T* FL, are ideal for uncomplicatedviewing of the night sky and bringviewers a good deal closer to theheavens. Compared to a telescope,binoculars and spotting scopes aremore versatile: they can be used toeasily observe objects in the bush orthe heavens and can accompanytheir owners on vacation withouttaking up a lot of space. A suitablestand is recommended for comfort-able, vibration-free viewing of thenight sky at high magnification.

In addition to optics, a good starmap is required to see heavenly ob-jects – after all, you have to knowexactly where to look.

Sun, moon and stars

Larger sunspots and groups of sun-spots can also be seen if the rightprecautions are taken. Never lookdirectly at the sun with binoculars ora spotting scope. This can result inserious, permanent damage to theeye – including blindness! Protectiveequipment such as a solar filter or foilmust be placed in front of the lens toview the sun directly. The solar pro-jection method is always preferableto direct viewing.

The largest craters on the mooncan be seen. Secondary moonlight –sunlight reflected from the earth thatbrightens the dark side of the moon– is particularly easy to see shortlybefore or after a new moon when itappears as a thin sickle in the sky.

High-power binoculars are suffi-cient to view Venus and all its phases.Jupiter’s four largest moons can alsobe seen.


AstrologyAstrology (Greek, – knowledge of the stars) must not be confused with astronomy. In the geocentric view of astrology, a systematicanthropological-mythological interpretation of theposition of certain celestial bodies is made: theelements of the horoscope, for example, relate to the position and point in time on earth.

AstronomyAstronomy (Greek, – the regularity of the stars, from , ástro – star and , nómos– the law) is the science of measuring the motions of celestial bodies. Aside from the planets and fixed stars, these includethe sun, star clusters, galaxies, galaxy clusters,interstellar matter and radiation in outer space.

Geocentric (Ptolemaic) view of the worldThe long-held geocentric view of the world iscommonly attributed to Greek mathematician, geographer, and astronomer Klaudios Ptolemaios(87-150 A.D.) who built on the earlier work ofHipparchus (196-125 B.C.). It saw the earth as thecenter of the universe surrounded by seven stars –Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn as well as the sun and the moon. The position of all other stars in the sky was fixed leading to the term of “fixed star”.

Heliocentric view of the worldThe heliocentric view of the world (Greek, helios: the sun; kentron: center) is the notion that the earth,like the other planets, moves about the sun. Helio-centric views of the world existed no later than in the4th century B.C.: Aristotle wrote in De Caelo (book 2,chapter 13): “In the center, they – the Pythagoreans –say there is fire and the earth is one of the starscreating night and day by circular motions around the center.” In 1842, the American pioneer of astrophotography,John William Draper (1811-1882), was the first totake a photographic image (daguerreotype) of thesolar spectrum.

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www.zeiss.de



The period 1911-1913 saw construc-tion of the observatory in Babelsberg,the Berlin Observatory later movingto this. The Babelsberg Great Refrac-tor was completed in 1915. Con-struction of the Einstein Tower on theTelegrafenberg was undertaken be-tween 1921 and 1924. In 1947 theAstrophysical Observatorium of Pots-dam and the Babelsberg Observatorycame under the auspices of theGerman Academy of Sciences.

1969 marked the foundation ofthe Central Institute for Astrophysics.In 1992 the Astrophysical Institute ofPotsdam (AIP) was re-established as afoundation under private law andmember of the Leibniz Community.

The first Michelson experiment inPotsdam began in 1881. Eugen Gold-stein discovered canal rays in 1886.Karl Friedrich Küstner demonstratedthe polar motion of the Earth in1888. In the same year, Hermann CarlVogel made the first photographic ra-dial velocity measurement. JohannesWilsing and Julius Scheiner com-menced experiments for demonstrat-ing the radio radiance of the sun

Important Historical Develop m

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The introduction of the so-called“Improved Calendar” in the Protes-tant states of Germany around 1700marked the beginning of the historyof astrophysics in Potsdam. In May1700 the edict was granted for acalendar patent concerning theplanned Berlin observatory. In thesame month, Gottfried Kirch was ap-pointed director of the observatory.Two months later, the BrandenburgSociety was founded by the ElectorFriedrich III on the proposal ofGottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, this laterbecoming the Prussian Academy ofSciences. The first observatory build-ing was erected in 1711. In the years 1832 until 1835, the new Berlin Observatory was built by KarlFriedrich Schinkel. 1874 witnessedthe foundation of the Institute of As-tronomical Calculation (Astronomis-che Recheninstitut) and the Astro-physical Observatorium of Potsdam.

From 1876 until 1879 the mainbuilding of the Astrophysical Obser-vatorium was built on the PotsdamTelegrafenberg. The Great Refractorof Potsdam was completed in 1899.

Fig. 1:Dome of the GreatRefractor.

Fig. 2:Great Refractor.

Fig 3:Former main building ofthe Potsdam AstrophysicalObservatorium on theTelegrafenberg mountain.

Fig. 4:Einstein Tower.

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in 1896. In 1913 Paul Guthnick dis-covered photoelectric photometry inBabelsberg.

The Tower Telescopeof the EinsteinFoundation

The Einstein Tower on the Telegrafen-berg is one of the most popular at-tractions in the Sanssouci Park for vis-itors to Potsdam. The famous con-struction of Erich Mendelsohn is re-garded as one of the most significantarchitectural achievements of Ger-man Expressionism. The Einstein Tow-er houses what was then a uniqueresearch facility for solar physics: Ein-stein’s member of staff, Erwin Finlay-Freundlich, had designed the instru-ment and hence created the firsttower telescope in Europe with oneof the largest spectrographs of itsage. In the 1920s, the Einstein Towerrepresented the first ever tower tele-scope in Europe. The telescope andspectrograph were the largest suchinstruments in the world for a longtime. The Tower Telescope consists of

a dome of 4.2 meters inner diameterin a timber construction on the towerand serves to protect the 850 mmcoelostat with secondary mirrors. Thecoelostat comprises two plane mir-rors of 850 millimeters in diameter,an hour drive with electric motor andelectric regulator.

The Great Refractorof Babelsberg

The Potsdam Great Refractor whichofficially opened in 1899 representsthe fourth largest lens telescope inthe world, bearing important witnessto the precision-mechanical optics ofproduction and early astrophysical re-search at the turn of the nineteenthand twentieth centuries. Carl ZeissJena restored and modernized the in-strument in 1953. The promotionalassociation founded in 1997 pursuesthe objective of reviving the telescopeclosed down for over three decadesand now classified as a historicalmonument, and making it accessibleto a broad spectrum of the public.


ments in the Astrophysics of Potsdam

Karl Friedrich Schinkel was aPrussian architect and painter,who played a leading role inshaping Classicism in Prussia. His most famous buildings canbe found in and around Berlin:the Playhouse on the Gendar-menmarkt and the Old Museumon the Museum Island.

Karl Friedrich Schinkel, 1781-1841

Erich Mendelsohn was one of the most significant archi-tects of the 20th century. Mendelsohn's most impor-tant legacy comprises hisExpressionist works from the 1920s.

Erich Mendelsohn, 1887-1953

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In September 2003 the probeSMART-1 of the European SpaceAgency ESA was launched to-wards the moon. The space probehas meanwhile achieved its objec-tive with the aid of a new iondrive powered by solar energyand has been orbiting the Earth’ssatellite for several months. Lo-cated onboard is the SIR spec-trometer of the Max Planck Insti-tute for Solar System Research inKatlenburg-Lindau. SIR is basedon an MMS NIR spectrometer ofCarl Zeiss, which was modified inorder to make it suitable for therequirements of space during itsmission to the moon. SIR is intend-ed to fulfill two principal tasks..

The SIR spectrometer weighingjust 2.1 kg is therefore the first NIRspectrometer to measure the lightfrom the sun reflected on individualminerals of the moon’s surface. Thisalso continuously occurs at a wave-length of 0.9 to 2.4 µm on the sideof the moon facing away from theearth and free of all interference.This, combined with the good spec-tral resolution of 18 nm, also enablesSIR to demonstrate whether themuch-discussed ice on the moonactually exists or not.

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Fig. 1:The probe SMART-1 (Small Missions forAdvanced Research inTechnology) orbits themoon. The solar-electricdrive mechanism does not require hydrogen.

Fig. 2:Two spectrometers operateonboard SMART-1:the CIXS X-ray spectro-meter and the SIR infraredspectrometer .

Fig. 3:The SIR spectrometeronboard the SMART-1space probe will chart themoon’s surface in theinfrared spectral range.

Mapping in nearinfrared light

Determination of the chemical com-position of the moon’s surface stillremains one of the most importanttasks in lunar research. As on theEarth, it is also possible to estimatethe proportion of silica on the surfaceof the moon using spectrometers anddraw conclusions on the inner com-position of the celestial body fromthis. Infrared observations of themoon from the Earth are not exactlynew and have two drawbacks. Firstly,these measurements are restricted tothe side of the moon facing the earthand, secondly, the measurements aredistorted by the Earth’s atmosphere.

SIR looks for ice and minerals on the moon

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Exciting search for water-ice

It is universally accepted that water isan indispensable requirement for theorigin of life as we know it. If there isactually water on the moon, it wouldhave to be present in the form of iceowing to the extremely low tempera-tures. Scientists assume that it mightexist in the polar regions or thosesuch regions where direct sunlightnever penetrates. Temperatures ofaround –200 degrees Celsius pre-dominate there. The water wouldnevertheless not originate from themoon itself, but rather from cometswhich struck the moon a long timeago. Ice is especially easy to identifyon account of its highly pronouncedabsorption spectra in infrared. Suc-cessful SMART-1 observations wouldtherefore directly prove, without anyfurther assumptions, that the areasflown over by the probe are really

covered with ice. However, a vastamount of data, which SIR is current-ly recording and transmitting back toearth, must be evaluated before adefinite statement can be made con-cerning this. The measuring period often minutes a day originally envis-aged could be extended to between7 and 8 hours. If all goes to plan, theprobe will be in service until August2006.

The initiative of NASA to establisha permanent base on the moon,gives the search for water a wholenew dimension.


Bildquellenhinweis.One voter impeacheseight audits. Margaret Thatchercontradicts one very ivy-league audit, so overtlyslippery ayatollahs partlyuncoery ivy-league audit,so overtly slippery® ayatollahs partly uncomfortablyrestructures three kin.

An NIR spectrometer module from the Carl Zeiss spec-trometer family was modified jointly with the MaxPlanck Institute for Solar System Research in Katlen-burg-Lindau. This serial MMS NIR is also used for qualitycontrol in the food and pharmaceutical industriesamongst others. Many materials had to be exchangedfor space-compatible ones. This affected the spec-trometer body, for example, for which special fusedquartz insensitive to cosmic radiation was used. It also involved finding space-compatible adhesives and utilizing all opportunities for weight reduction. SIR functions on 256 different infrared wave lengths. It is so powerful that even significantly smaller objectsthan previously can be examined on the surface of the moon. The SIR module – Smart-1 Near InfraredSpectrometer – is the sole German contribution to thefirst moon mission of the European Space Agency(ESA).

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Urs Mall, Max Planck Institute for SolarSystem Research, Katlenburg-Lindau,[email protected], http://sci.esa.int/smart-1

Chris Weikert, Carl Zeiss, Spectral Sensors,[email protected], http://zeiss.de/spektral

1 2 3

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As the central star in our sky, thesun is vital to life on earth. Thevalue of the sun has always beenknown to mankind, and manycultures worshipped it as God.The regular return of the sunoften invoked fear, and was thefocal point of cult and magic ritu-als. Solar eclipses caused greatfear. As it was in the ancientworld, the sun has now also be-come the symbol of vitality inastrology.

The sun is mankind’s natural clock,and keeping track of the seasons anddetermining celestial points (springand autumnal equinoxes, summerand winter solstices) led to the de-velopment of calendars by differentcultures independently of each other.This made it possible to forecast ma-jor seasonal events, e.g. flooding ofthe Nile, and thus determine the besttime to plant crops. Pre-Christianplaces of worship such as Stone-henge were obviously built for suchobservation purposes.

Easy and safe solar observation

Eyepiece projection is a safe methodof solar observation using a telescopeor binoculars. The image of the sun isprojected onto a screen positionedbehind the telescope, eliminating thedanger of looking directly at the sun.This method, already known toGalileo, is not only absolutely safe,but also permits easy drawing of theimage of the sun and simultaneousobservation by several people. How-ever, it is important not to use anycemented eyepieces. Reflecting tele-scopes are ill-suited for eyepiece pro-jection.

The Sun

About the sun

Remaining duration of hydrogenfusion in the core:approx. 4.5 – 5 billion years

Average diameter:1,392,500 km

Mass:1,9884·1030 kg

Temperature (center):14,8 ·106 °C

Temperature (photosphere): approx. 6,100 °C

Temperature (corona): approx. 1– 2 million K

Rotation period at equator: 25 days, 9 hours, 7 minutes

Distance to the center of the galaxy:approx. 210,000,000 light years

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Over the past ten years, astro-nomers around the world havediscovered about 150 planetsaround other stars. Most searchprograms for planets outside ourown solar system focus on starssimilar to our own sun. The Taut-enburg Observatory in Germany,however, is looking for planetsaround classes of stars not cov-ered by other search programs,for example very young and ac-tive stars, brown dwarfs or giantstars with a larger mass than oursun.

ets, it is a giant gaseous planet, notcomparable to our earth. The dis-covery has been confirmed by obser-vations at the McDonald Observatoryin Texas.

The Tautenburg Observatory usesa ZEISS 2-m telescope, known as theAlfred Jensch telescope, which canbe used in three different optical con-figurations: Schmidt telescope, QuasiCassegrain telescope and Coudé tele-scope. The primary mirror of the tele-scope has a focal length of 4 m. Allmirrors are made of SITALL, a zero-expansion glass ceramic material.

Extrasolar Planet

Photo:Thuringian State Observatory in Tautenburg:2 m telescope at night.

The first extrasolar planet discoveredwith a telescope stationed in Ger-many accompanies the “HD 13189”star. Using the 2-meter telescope atthe Thuringian State Observatory inTautenburg, Artie Hatzes, one of thepioneers in the search for planets,was able to prove that a planetcircles HD 13189. The mass of HD13189 is about 2 to 7 times the massof our sun. HD 13189 is about 6000light years away from earth. It mightbe the biggest star known to have a planet. HD 13189’s planetary com-panion completes its orbit within 472days. Similar to most extrasolar plan-

Alfred Jensch, head designerin the astrology departmentat Carl Zeiss in Jena for manyyears and creator of the 2-muniversal telescope.

Alfred Jensch, 1912-2001

Exoplanet/Extrasolar planetPlanet outside our solar system.

PlanetA planet (from the Greek wordplánetes = wanderer, vagrant) isa non-luminous celestial bodythat revolves around a staraccording to Kepler's law. Mostplanets in the solar system areorbited by moons.

StarA star is a self-luminous celestialbody consisting of plasma, theenergy of which is created bynuclear fusion in its interior. The star nearest to us is the sunat the center of our solar system.Life on earth is not possiblewithout the heat and energyemitted by the sun. Astronomersin the Middle Ages did not know that the sun is a star.

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Fig. 1:LASCO 2 Coronograph photo of 1998 solar eruption(detail).

Fig. 2:Kudo-Fujikawa comet(arrow).

Fig. 3:ESA engineers with an Atlas Centaur AC-21 in theassembly hall of the MatraMarconi company prior tolaunch from the KennedySpace Center

The Solar and Heliospheric Observa-tory (SOHO) – a joint project of theEuropean Space Agency (ESA) andNASA – was launched in December1995. It is stationed 1.5 million kilo-meters away from Earth at the so-called L1 Lagrange point.

From there, SOHO observes thesun in different spectral areas using12 special instruments. These obser-vations help scientists understandthe structure of the sun’s core, themechanisms of corona formation,and the origin and acceleration ofsolar wind. The equipment on boardincludes the LASCO and CDS ex-amination instruments. Data on theintensity of the solar wind is alsoused to forecast the weather inspace, e. g. solar storms. Practicallyas a side effect, almost 500 un-known comets have been discoveredso far.

Sun Scout, Weatherman, Comet Hunter

The Kudo-Fujikawa comet discoveredin December 2002 orbits the sun.SOHO is pursuing the comet withthe cameras of its LASCO wide-anglecoronograph. A small cover disk inthe cameras creates an artificialeclipse, allowing observation of thecorona, which is otherwise blanket-ed by the sun itself. The trail of theKudo-Fujikawa comet orbiting ourcentral star as a white spot can onlybe seen through the use of such an artificial solar eclipse.

LASCO

Large Angle Spectrometric Coronograph: similar to a solar eclipse, LASCO observes the outersolar atmosphere from near the solar limb to adistance of 21 million kilometers. This allows visualiza-tion of the contents of the sun’s corona.

CDS

The Coronal Diagnostic Spectrometer (CDS) recordsthe emission lines of ions and atoms of the corona.The results provide information about the sun plasmaat a temperature range between 10,000 to more than 1,000,000°C.

Lagrange point L1

Point where the gravities of the Earth, the Sun and the Moon neutralize each other.

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Jesuit Priest Nicolaus Zucchiusintroduced the first reflectingtelescope as far back as 1616. It consisted of a concave mirrorand a diverging lens. In the years that followed, Cesare Caravaggi,mathematician Bonaventura Cav-alieri, Marin Mersenne and JamesGregory designed various typesof reflecting telescopes, of whichonly the Gregory telescopegained any importance.

Brief History of the Reflecting Telescope

James Gregory finished his telescopein 1663. A short time later in 1668,Isaac Newton and Frenchman Guil-laume Cassegrain presented theirtelescopes to the public. Scientists all over Europe then discussed thebenefits and drawbacks of thesesystems.

Construction of Gregory tele-scopes continued until the first halfof the 19th century. To this very day,amateur astronomers still build theirown telescopes based on the Newtonsystem because of its simple design.Regarding large telescopes, variantsand further developments of theCassegrain telescope have now be-come commonplace.

Newton telescope

Cassegrain telescope

Gregory telescope

Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope

Maksutov telescope

Ritchey-Chrétien-Cassegrain telescope

Schwarzschild telescope

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The Route to the Stars

Fig. 1:In the early 1930s, using a trailer attached to his Ford Model A,Dr. Robert H. Goddardtransported his rocket tothe launch pad 15 milesnorth-west of Roswell,New Mexico.

Fig. 2:Ariane 5

Fig. 3:Konstantin EduardowitschTsiolkovsky

Fig. 4:Robert Hutchings Goddard

Strictly speaking, space travel is adevelopment of the modern age,but there were reports fromByzantium of the first rockets asearly as 7 AD. Around 1200 ADrockets were already being usedby the military. The first reliablereports originate from China in1232. It has been proved thatrockets were used for the firsttime in Europe in 1241, at theBattle of Liegnitz. And the multi-talented Leonardo da Vinci drewa design for a rocket. The signalrocket was invented around 1819.

Space exploration really took offat the start of the 20th century.Today, a handful of men are re-nowned as space pioneers. Theyare discoverers and enthusiasts aswell as inventors. And they de-vote their whole lives to theirideas. The Russian Konstantin E.Tsiolkovsky, the American RobertH. Goddard and the TransylvanianGerman Hermann Oberth tookthe first steps on the long routeto the universe. Eugen Sängerand Wernher von Braun realizedmany of the ideas postulated.


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3

4

Konstantin Eduardo-vich Tsiolkovsky

(1857-1935) Rendered virtually deafby illness, Tsiolkovsky was forced toleave school at the age of ten. Never-theless, he continued to teach him-self and went on to study physics, as-tronomy, mechanics and geometry.He started out by teaching mathe-matics and physics in his hometown.

The tales of Jules Verne promptedTsiolkovsky to write his own storiesabout inter-planetary travel, and hedeveloped into a writer of theoreticaldiscourses. And from about 1885 on-wards he began work on his reflec-tions and observations concerningthe realization of space flight. In1886, Tsiolkovsky published the pa-per “Theoria Aerostatika”, followedin 1892 by the theory of a fully-metalairship (Aerostat Metallitscheski).

By 1935 he had published a totalof 35 books, articles and papers onthe subject of aeronautics. The peakof his work came in 1903 with therocket equation, published in 1903 ina specialist Russian paper under thetitle “Investigations into outer spaceusing chemical reactors”.

Robert HutchingsGoddard

(1882-1945) was an early thinkerabout space flights to the moon andMars, but was for a long time regard-ed as a fantasist. He enjoyed consid-erably greater success in the field ofrocket development. As early as 1918he developed military solid rockets.From 1920 onwards he was engagedin the development of liquid-propel-lant rockets. For the purposes of flightstabilization Goddard designed a con-trol jet deflector which was steeredwith the aid of a gyroscope. In 1935he launched a rocket that was thefirst to fly at supersonic speed.


The ESA (European Space Agency) is the spaceorganization of the Europeans. Founded in 1975 toimprove coordination of European space operations, it has its headquarters in Paris. The ESA is financedfrom the budgets of member states.

www.esa.int


Fig. 5:Hermann Oberth

Fig. 6:Picture montage of theplanets in our solar system:Mercury, Venus, Earth with moon, Mars, Jupiter,Saturn, Uranus andNeptune (top to bottom);Jet Propulsion Laboratoryin Pasadena.

Fig. 7:Eugen Sänger

Fig. 8:Wernher von Braun

Rocket equation:v (t) rocket speed at time t;v (g) exhaust speed of thethrust (typical: 4.5 km/s for chemical rockets;m (0) initial mass of rocket;m (t) mass of rocket at time t (i.e. initial mass less fuel burn).

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Hermann Oberth

(1894-1989) Like Tsiolkovsky, Oberthwas inspired by the works of JulesVerne, and started to work on hisfirst rocket plans as a high schoolstudent. In 1917 he designed a rock-et powered by ethanol and oxygen.Six years later he described essentialelements for the construction oflarge-scale rockets which are drivenby liquid fuel. In his works “The rock-et to the planetary system” (1923)and “The route to space travel”(1929) he created the scientific basesof the technology enabling flight to the stars, and in them he describednearly every design for space travelthat has been realized since. Togetherwith Rudolf Nebel, he was scientificadviser for Fritz Lang’s visionary film“The Woman on the Moon”.



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m(0)v (t) = v(g) .ln ( )m(t)

Rocket equation

The rocket equation describes the basic laws andprinciples of a rocket.

Eugen Sänger

(1905-1964) At the age of 13Sänger’s enthusiasm for the then stillutopian idea of space travel was in-spired by Kurd Lasswitz’ novel “OnTwo Planets”. In the 1920s Sängerstudied civil engineering. His first draftthesis entitled rocket technology wasrejected by the Vienna University ofTechnology. Part of this work was lat-er published as a book. He doggedlypursued his research goal of develop-ing a space shuttle which he called“Raumboot”, to transport people andcargo between Earth and orbit orspace stations. From 1961 until 1964he designed the two-stage spacetransporter known as RT-8 of whichthe first stage was driven by a spacejet. Parts of this work were to befound in the Space Shuttle more thanten years later. It was Sänger’s dreamto develop the photon drive for inter-planetary and interstellar space flight.

Wernher von Braun

(1912-1977) experimented with rock-ets as a boy, and drafted a paper onspace flight at an early age. From1929 onwards he worked withHermann Oberth, by whose book“The rocket to the planetary system”he was heavily influenced. The A4rocket developed and tested byWernher von Braun during the Sec-ond World War – more commonlyknown as the V2 – and its technolo-gy ranked among the most importantspoils of the war for the Allies. VonBraun’s goals were, however, gearedmore towards space travel. After theSecond World War he became atechnical adviser to the US Americanrocket program. He played a majorrole in the Mercury, Gemini andApollo projects. He was involved inthe development of the Saturn Vlauncher/space booster and is there-fore regarded as the spiritual fatherof the lunar rocket.

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NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)was established in 1958 and is the civil Federal authorityfor aviation and space travel in the USA. It consists of a number of different facilities, forexample, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), which isinvolved in the areas of space probes and the deepspace network. NASA also owns the Kennedy SpaceCenter in Florida, the Goddard Space Flight Center in Maryland, the Johnson Space Center in Texas and the Marshall Space Flight Center in Alabama. Many research institutes – including NASA Institute forAdvanced Concepts (NIAC) focusing on nanotechnologyand space elevation – are firmly entrenched in NASA.

www.nasa.gov


Fig. 1:The planetarium in Jena ca. 1927.

Fig. 2:Mechanical model of the solar system byGlikerson and Co.,Tower Hill, London (ca. 1810).

Fig. 3:Planetarium projectorSKYMASTER ZKP 3/B.


The notion of plotting the skyand all its phenomena arose at a very early date. Only its imple-mentation posed a problem. In a design similar to early smallglobes, a lead sphere with adiameter of seven to ten meterswas conceived, inside which thestars would be represented bylamps, or made to shine by lightfrom outside, admitted by smallholes. Sunrises and sunsets werealso to be displayed. Initial de-signs for the realization of thisproject required the use of a ballbearing with a diameter of fivemeters.

The Planetarium: a Roomful of Universe

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Giovanni Domenico Cassini (1625-1712)

was appointed a member of the Paris“Academie des Sciences” (founded in1667) by the Sun King Louis XIV. At endof 1669 Cassini became director of theParis Observatory, still under constructionat the time. There he discovered Saturn’smoons Japetus and Rhea in 1671 and1672, the gap in Saturn’s rings (now calledthe Cassini Division after him) in 1675,and two other satellites of the ringedplanet – Thetys and Dione – in 1684.

Famous astro

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turned to Munich in the spring of1925, where its official openingformed part of the festivities to markthe opening of the Deutsches Muse-um on 7 May 1925.

Even while the first two Model Iinstruments were being built, plansgot under way for Model Series II.This projector already had the“dumbbell” form that was long typ-ical of planetariums and enabledsimulation of the starry sky as itappeared from any place in theworld. The first Model II type plane-tarium was installed in Wuppertal.After that, the planetarium wentfrom strength to strength in locationsall over the world.


First thoughts

It was thanks to suggestions fromOskar von Miller, founder of theDeutsches Museum in Munich, andMax Wolf, Director of the HeidelbergObservatory, that Walther Bauersfelddesigned a concept to project thestarry sky, the sun, the moon and theplanets. Bauersfeld’s team workedhard on the design and constructionof the instrument. The great momentcame in August 1923 in Jena:

The first starlight from an artificialsky shone forth. In December 1923,the Projection Planetarium Model I,not quite finished, was provisionallyinstalled in the waiting plaster domeof the Deutsches Museum. It wasthen transported back to Jena, andfollowing a completion phase was re-

Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727)

was the author of the PhilosophiaeNaturalis Principia Mathematica pub-lished on 5 July, 1687. In it he describesuniversal gravitation and the laws ofmotion: the foundation stone of classicalmechanics. This enabled him not only to describe the movements of the planetsas Johannes Kepler had done, but also to explain them for the first time.

Edmond Halley (1656-1742)

applied Newton’s law of gravitation to the calculation of the orbital paths ofcomets. He realized that the sightings in1531, 1607 and 1682 had to be of one and the same comet, and predicted itsreappearance in the year 1758.

Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695)

was the first to discover Saturn’s moonTitan in 1655, with a telescope he hadbuilt himself. With his telescope’s im-proved resolution, he discovered Saturn’srings, which Galileo had described asSaturn’s “ears”, and the rotation of Mars.He resolved the trapezium in the center of the Orion Nebula into four individualstars and described other nebula anddouble star systems.

ronomers

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Pierre-Simon (Marquis de) Laplace (1749-1827)

discussed the mechanical problems ofthe heavens in his work MécaniqueCéleste: the reason for the tides, the orbitsof the earth’s moon and of the planets.In addition, he developed a theory about the creation of the solar system (Kant-Laplace theory).

Sir Frederick William Herschel(1738-1822)

was not content with observing the moon,planets and comets. He also wanted tostudy the stars. Since the lens and mirrortelescopes in common use around 1770were not sufficiently powerful, he began to build his own mirror telescopes.Herschel rose suddenly to fame when hediscovered a new body in the solar systemin 1781: the planet Uranus.

Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855)

revolutionized the calculation of theorbits of celestial bodies using his leastsquares method, and set forth his newmathematical method in a treatise on the motion of celestial bodies in 1809.

Famous astronomers

Fig. 4:The STARMASTERplanetarium projector.

Fig. 5:The UNIVERSARIUMplanetarium projector and ZULIP laser imageprojector.

Fig. 6:The Tycho BrahePlanetarium, Copenhagen.

Fig. 7:ADLIP all-dome laser image projection.

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Modern technics

A planetarium’s instruments are usedto create an artificial night sky.

Today, fiber optic technology en-ables representations so brilliant thatthey outshine the real stars. The mostpromising advanced projection tech-nology is the development of the so-called digital planetarium: the pro-jection of full-dome video using videoprojectors. A particularly major step in this direction was taken with theZULIP (Zeiss Universal Laser ImageProjector), which allows mobility ofthe attached video projector. It oper-ates on the basis of laser light and

creates sensationally high-contrast im-ages of previously unsurpassed sharp-ness. The first ZULIP was presentedduring the IPS 2000 Conference atthe Montreal Planetarium. The furtherdevelopment of ZULIP into ADLIP (AllDome Laser Image Projector) nowenables the projection of dome-fillingvideo sequences using several perma-nently installed ZULIPs. But whether aplanetarium is small or large, visitorsare always at the heart of the action.

Angelo Secchi (1818-1878)

split the light of the stars and the sun into their components using prisms.The breakdown of the color spectra and dark absorption lines allowed thechemical composition of the solar andstellar atmosphere to be determined:four different spectral classes were created.Secchi's pioneering discoveries arethought to have prepared the way forspectral analysis.

The very first suggestion for the construction of a planetarium that would show the sky inrealistic detail came from Max Wolf (1863-1932),Director of the Heidelberg Observatory. Oskarvon Miller, who wanted to set up a heliocentricand a geocentric planetarium in the DeutschesMuseum, took Wolf’s idea to Carl Zeiss in1912/13. Walther Bauersfeld (1879-1959) de-signed the first projection planetarium. He was amember of the Carl Zeiss Board of Managementfor 50 years. He had the idea of placing themovement of the stars, the sun, the moon andthe planets within a projector that would beinstalled at the center of a spherical dome.

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Galilean telescope, the Kepler tele-scope uses a biconvex lens as theeyepiece, resulting in an inverted im-age. All current lens telescopes –from amateur instruments to profes-sional observatory equipment – arebased on the Kepler telescope princi-ple. Since this type of telescope cre-ates images by refraction, it is alsocalled a “refractor”.

The mirror telescope

A mirror telescope is a telescope inwhich the major part of the opticalsystem consists of reflecting elements– a main mirror and a secondary mir-ror. The secondary mirror deflectslight towards the eyepiece, photo-graphic plate, film or digital receiver,where it is normally passed throughcolor filters for images or spectro-graphs for spectral analysis beforeimage capture. Large mirrors catchmore light: the achievable apparentbrightness/marginal size of measura-ble celestial bodies is higher with

these mirror telescopes, and ensuresthat the observer can look evendeeper into the universe. Because ofthe diffraction of the light, a mirrortelescope’s resolution is limited. Apoint-shaped body (e.g., a star) is not projected as a point, but as anAiry disk.

To reduce aberrations, the mirrorshave to be finished with a very high degree of accuracy. They areground and polished to 1/4 –1/20 ofthe wavelength of light, i.e. with anaccuracy of 150–30 nanometers. Inaddition, these telescopes are builtwell away from any human habita-tion in dry regions and on highmountains because the image quali-ty is affected by dust, the glare fromcities (light pollution) and the con-centration of water vapor in the air.

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Actual celestial bodies are ob-served in an observatory usingtelescopes.

The telescope

The telescope (Greek tele – fern andskopein – to observe) is generallythought to have been invented byeyeglass-maker Hans Lippershey(1570-1619), who was born in Weselin Westphalia, but emigrated toHolland in his early years. However,more recent careful research indi-cates that Leonardo da Vinci was the real inventor of the telescope: hebuilt and used an optical instrumentwith a low magnification but on asimilar principle to those of Lipper-shey and Galileo.

The development of the actualastronomical telescope is attributedto German astronomer JohannesKepler (1571-1630), which is why aninstrument called the Kepler tele-scope exists to this day. Unlike the

Edwin Powell Hubble (1889-1953)

proved at the Mount Wilson Observatoryin 1923 that the Andromeda nebula M31lay far beyond our Milky Way. The spatialdistribution of other galaxies and theproven redshifts in their light wavelengthsled to Hubble’s most famous contributionto astronomy: the discovery that theuniverse was expanding. The expression of this expansion is called the HubbleConstant in his honor.

Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington (1882-1944)

was one of the first physicists to realize the importance of Einstein’s theory ofrelativity: the eclipse expedition to thevolcanic island of Principe in the Gulf ofGuinea proved on 29 May, 1919 that lightis deflected from large masses – aspostulated by the general theory ofrelativity.

Famous astronomers

Observatory instruments



The word “photography” wasused for the first time in 1839 by German astronomer JohannHeinrich Mädler (1794-1874) and,at about the same time, by British astronomer John FrederickWilliam Herschel (1792-1871).

The instrument used before the riseof photography was the “cameraobscura”, from which the term“camera” takes its name. The firstphotograph was taken in 1826 byJoseph Nicéphore Niépce. Two inven-tors enabled the decisive break-through in the first half of the 19th

century. Frenchman Louis JacquesMandé Daguerre (1787-1851) basedhis photographic technique, called

The Distagon® T* 4/40 IF CFElens is ideal for demanding architec-ture, object and industry photogra-phy as well as for cityscapes.

With its image angle of 88° acrossthe field diagonal, this is the classicwide-angle lens for medium-formatcameras. Floating elements helpedreduce the unavoidable field curva-ture in close-ups. Its remarkably goodoptical correction, especially the gooddistortion correction, makes this lensthe ideal tool for architectural, objectand industrial photography. It is alsoideal for aerial photography, as pho-tos can be taken from low altitudeswhere the adverse effects of atmos-pheric interference, e.g. haze, arereduced. NASA also is a satisfied userof more than 30 lenses.

daguerreotype, on the experienceprovided by Joseph NicéphoreNiépce. English physicist and chemistWilliam Henry Fox Talbot (1800-1877) is considered the founder ofthe negative-positive process termedTalbotype that was patented in 1841and which made photographic imag-ing reproducible almost without lim-its. The first wooden daguerrotypecameras were sold by AlphonseGiroux, a camera manufacturer inParis.

We are not only filled with enthu-siasm by the latest photos of the cos-mos, but have always been interestedin pictures of nature and art. A widespectrum of design options is avail-able to the photographer dependingon the applied technique – camera,film format and material, lens, repro-cessing.

Fascinated by Photography

Photography

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Berlin was officially mentioned for thefirst time in 1237. The Great ElectorFriedrich Wilhelm laid the foundationfor Berlin’s rise to prominence in the 17th century. His successor, ElectorFriedrich III, became Prussian KingFriedrich I in 1701 and expandedBerlin as the royal residence. Berlin,which became the capital of theGerman empire in 1871, developed –following industrialization and mech-anization – into the largest industrialcity on the European continent bythe end of the 19th century when ithad 2.7 million inhabitants. AfterWorld War I, the capital of the first

German democracy became a pulsat-ing, internationally renowned culturalmetropolis. The Cold War betweenEast and West resulted in the erec-tion of the Berlin Wall on August 13,1961, dividing the city into east andwest. The division of the city endedon November 9, 1989 with the re-moval of the wall and the subse-quent reunification of East and WestGermany. On June 20, 1991, theGerman Bundestag decided to movethe seat of Parliament and Govern-ment to Berlin, thus restoring Berlinas the capital of a united Germany.

Berlin



The city’s origins can be traced to theCeltic settlement Lutuhezi located onthe Seine island and founded by theParisii tribe in the third century BC.The Parisii burned down their islandfortress after it was conquered by the Romans in 52 BC. Rebuilt by the Romans, the city was called Lute-tia. The Merovingians put an end toRoman rule in the 5th century. UnderClovis I, Paris became the capital ofthe Merovingian kingdom in 508.The Capetians made Paris the capitalof France. Philipp II. August fortified

the city. On the order of Louis XIV,street lamps were installed, watersupply was modernized and the In-valides and Salpêtrière hospitals werebuilt. Although the King’s Residencewas moved to Versailles, Paris has re-mained the political center of France.The French Revolution resulted in the First French Republic. A new cityfortification was built in 1844 fordefense purposes on what is todaythe Boulevard Périphérique and hasbecome the world’s largest fortifica-tion system.

Paris



The Hurons, a great Indian tribe inNorth America, called the area Taran-tua. This is where they held theirmeetings. 17th century fur trappersused it for trade. The British governorJohn Graves Simcoe had the tradecenter transformed into a fortress.The settlement, then still called York, developed slowly, and was alsothe governmental seat of UpperCanada. Loyalists, i.e. North Ameri-can colonists from the British Com-monwealth, established gas andwater supply in the 18th century. Inthe 1950s, York – by now renamedToronto – was connected to the USmarkets by the railway.

Toronto



The first traces of a settlement in thisregion date back to around 4000 BC.In 980, Shanghai was mentioned as a village for the first time. In 1264, it was combined with three other vil-lages. Shanghai’s growth coincidedwith the economic upswing of theYangtze delta. At that time, the cityhad an important trade port, whichserved as the launching point for theregion's national cotton harvest onits way to Peking, the hinterland andJapan. Shanghai developed into themost important business center in

East Asia beginning in the 1840s.Due to its favorable situation close to the major trade routes of the large silk and tea-producing regions,Shanghai evolved into an importantseaport and industrial center by theyear 1900. From the end of the 19th

century until the 1920s, Shanghai be-came a genuine cosmopolitan city.Today, this dragon’s head metropolisis one of the largest and most impor-tant industrial cities in the People’sRepublic of China.

Shanghai



MoscowMoscow was mentioned for the firsttime in 1147. Nine years later, thefirst timber walls of what was to be-come the Kremlin were built underPrince Yuri Dolgoruky. Protected bythis fortress, the market town slowlydeveloped into a respectable settle-ment. In the first half of the 14th cen-tury, the city numbered around30,000 inhabitants. The two lastdecades of the 15th century markedthe beginning of the expansion ofthe Kremlin. Many craftsmen andmerchants settled in the area. Thepopulation soon grew to more than100,000, leading to the construction

of a circular wall around Moscowand a system of trenches around1600. Large-scale fires burned twothirds of Moscow’s buildings duringthe Patriotic War of 1812. The erec-tion of new buildings as well as thereconstruction of existing structuresbegan in 1813 and quickly grew be-yond the old municipal defense ring.By 1900, the city’s population hadgrown to around 1 million. On March12, 1918, Moscow was proclaimedthe country’s capital and the govern-ment moved to the Kremlin near RedSquare.



“Bengalooru” was mentioned as earlyas the 9th century in a Begur city doc-ument. Bangalore was most likelyestablished in the first half of the 16th century by Kempe Gowda I. TheSultanate of Bijapur conquered thecity and the Moguls sold it. Chikkade-varaja Wodeyar bought it for300,000 Rupees. It was also the per-sonal jagir (property) of Shahji Bhons-ley and Haider Ali at different periodsin its history. When the treaty ofSrirangapatnam was concluded, thecity was returned to Tippu Sultan.The city was invaded in 1791 by

Lord Cornwallis, the English GovernorGeneral in India. Following the FourthMysore War in 1799, Bangalore be-came part of the Mysore State underthe rule of Krishna Raja Wodeyar III.In 1831, the British regained controlof the city, and Bangalore remainedthe administrative center of Mysoreuntil 1881. In 1949, the City and thesurrounding areas comprised an areaof 26.7 square miles. In 1956, Banga-lore became the metropolis of theenlarged Mysore State. Today, Banga-lore is the capital of the KarnatakaState and India’s fourth-largest city.

Bangalore



Nowadays, eyeglass wearers nolonger base the decision to pur-chase eyewear on the price alone,but are increasingly focusing theirattention on the additional servic-es offered by eyecare profession-als. The magic word these days is “differentiation“: only eyecareprofessionals who manage to dif-ferentiate themselves from theircompetitors on the market will besufficiently attractive for theirclients. Offering more services isthe key to successful differentia-tion. The Relaxed Vision Systemoffers eyecare professionals theideal platform to achieve thisgoal. By integrating the RelaxedVision System into their consulta-tions with clients, they convey theimpression of leading edge opticaltechnology and state-of-the-artquality to their clients. The client’sdecision to purchase is consider-ably influenced by the expertiseand professionalism he or she ex-periences during the consultation.In the following interview FrankAndreas Hammer (Landau, Ger-many) describes his experiencewith the Relaxed Vision System,the concept behind it and thereactions of his clients to it.

What benefits does the RV Ter-minal offer the eyecare profes-sional?

The technology is really a godsendfor the eye care professional. It al-lows us to work with an extremelyhigh quality standard during the con-sultation. However, even the besttechnology is totally dependent onthe expertise and motivation of ourstaff. This is the basis and ultimatelythe prerequisite for the optimum in-teraction of technology and people.The Relaxed Vision System also helpsthe eyecare professional to achievesuccess, as clients can directly experi-ence the high quality, stress-freevision that the eyecare professionalcan offer them.

What support does Carl Zeiss offerfor the introduction of the RVTerminal?

The ZEISS Academy offers trainingfor staff using the Relaxed VisionCenter. My own staff found the train-ing very professional and useful in-deed. In addition, Carl Zeiss supportsthe optician with a Relaxed VisionStarter Kit. The combination of train-ing and the kit optimally supportseyecare professionals in their func-tion as Relaxed Vision Consultants.

Differentiation is the Magic Word

44

In the words of an eyecare profes-sional: what does the term Re-laxed Vision mean for you?

Relaxed Vision is the optimizedand very successful combination ofproduct quality, i.e. of the eyeglasslens itself, and the possibility of pro-ducing the optimum lens for theclient’s needs by using leading edgetechnology that has its focus firmlyon the future. Every patient’s eyes aredifferent. Ready-made eyeglasses arenot the optimum solution. Measuringand centering with the RelaxedVision system allows optimum lensfitting. Customizing eyewear to thepersonal needs of each and everywearer guarantees excellent visionand tailor-made visual comfort forthe eyeglass wearer.

How do you explain the RelaxedVision system to your clients?

The Relaxed Vision System is self-explanatory. In our business, everyclient comes into contact with thesystem, either during actual meas-urement or during the subsequentlens consultation. The Relaxed Visionsystem becomes a self-explanatoryservice during our talks with clients.

F rom Users

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What special advantages does thesystem have for the eyecare pro-fessional?

Due to the system’s measuringaccuracy, we receive top qualityproducts. We can work more effec-tively and precisely. Needless to say, it is also important to convey ourophthalmic expertise and profession-alism to our clients. The RelaxedVision System is the ideal tool toachieve this goal.

How does the eyeglass wearerbenefit from the Relaxed VisionSystem?

The benefits for eyeglass wearersare obvious. They receive eyeglassesthat have been much better fitted –and all for the same price. The glass-es adapt to the wearer, not the otherway round. The adaptation period isno longer necessary to the extentrequired in the past.

Why do you recommend cus-tomized measurement of the eyeto your clients?

We have no option. With the ex-cellent quality of today’s lenses – andwe work primarily in the premiumrange – it is an absolute must thatthe highest standards are achieved at

all stages and in all areas of theprocess – from the initial consultationto the technical possibilities available.This is precisely the reason why Idecided to equip all outlets with theRelaxed Vision System.

What promotions have you usedto attract new clients to theRelaxed Vision System?

First, Carl Zeiss offers a successfulconcept for the consultation workperformed by the eyecare profession-al. Second, the system is our guaran-tee that satisfied clients will return to our business and pass on the good message to other people. Manynew clients come to our outlets onthe recommendation of friends andrelatives.

Mr. Hammer. Thank you very muchfor talking with us today.


Relaxed Vision: Makes VisualStress a Thing of the Past

Better, more relaxed vision thanks to optimum tailoringof the eyeglass lens to the needs of the eye. The eyeand lens form an optical system. The interaction of the eye and the lens is very complex. Thanks to the in-depth knowledge gained in research, we can nowlook far beyond the technology of the lens itself: the optimized dialog between the eye and the lens,between nature and highly advanced optical systems,allows more relaxed, brilliant vision. In the past, the eye had to adjust to the lens. Today, the lens is adaptedto the special requirements of the wearer’s eyes.Even the smallest of errors can have the greatest ofconsequences: the eye and brain have to work harderto compensate for blurring. Small errors during thefitting of the lens can lead to impairments in the opticalperformance of the lens: losses in lens performance of40% and more are no rarity in traditional lens fitting.Every 1/10 of a millimeter counts.

Measuring the eye

The foundation for better vision is laid not only byexact eye measurement, but also by flawless evaluationof the measured data. On the basis of the measureddata, the lens is tailored exactly to the personal require-ments of the individual eye, much like a custom-madesuit. Measuring all important parameters of the eyewith pinpoint precision is the job of Relaxed VisionTerminal systems. With millimeter accuracy, the systemrecords the optical parameters, e.g. the distance be-tween the eyes or the position of the pupils, requiredfor optimal production of a customized lens. Theadaptation of the lenses to the special needs of everyeye starts by performing a short, stress-free measure-ment on the Relaxed Vision System. Image-assistedmeasuring techniques record the shape of the eye aswell as eye-related calibration and centration data, and the patented speckle target ensures that nofixation errors occur.

facts

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The structuring of materials downto nanometers (one millionth ofa millimeter) will be crucial to the development of technologiesin the 21st century. Ever smallerstructural sizes are required toimprove the performance of elec-tronic components. One of themajor issues in nanotechnology ismass production. Nanostructuringwith lithographic techniques isneeded to implement the fabrica-tion of large, cost-efficient nano-structures. As a result, calibrationstructures with object distancesof less than 100 nm and EBID

Nanostructuring Using 3D Deposition Lith

46

Fig. 1:MeRitTM MG electron beammask repair system.

Fig. 2:Schematic diagram ofEBID nanostructuringtechnology.

scanning tips with a height of 500nm and a curvature radius of 7nm at the tip were produced.Specially developed software forelectron beam guidance in theVIDAS image processing softwareof H.W.P. Koops’ research teamwas outstanding in that the expo-sure time for each pixel could be set individually, thus meetinga requirement of 3D EBID technol-ogy. 3D deposition lithographywas used to carry out “rapid pro-totyping” of electronic and opti-cal elements with sub-micrometerdimensions for the first time.

INNO_25_Nano_ENG.qxd 31.01.2006 14:50 Uhr Seite 46

Within a few minutes, 3-dimensionaldeposition products then grow fromthe molecular fragments and atoms.Since molecules are used individually,the procedure is 1 million times slow-er than conventional resist electronbeam lithography.

Nanostructuring was studied bymeans of direct-write using singlebeam lithography at the IBM T. J.Watson Research Center in the USA,and by electron shadow projectionand size-reducing electron projectionat the Technical University of Darm-stadt, Germany. The technique ofelectron shadow projection has sincebecome known as EPL (Electron Pro-jection Lithography). Other funda-mental investigations and initial ap-plications, such as single beam depo-sition and etching procedures, werecarried out at the Deutsche TelekomResearch Center, FTZ.


EBID – innovativenanostructuring technology

Experiments in size-reducing electronprojection (Tübingen in 1971, Darm-stadt in 1984) made it clear that thedesired high resolution in electronbeam lithography could only beachieved with a loss of sensitivity ofthe registration procedure. The high-est resolution can be achieved whensmall molecules are used for registra-tion by means of direct metallizationdeposition. The EBID (Electron BeamInduced Deposition) nanostructuringtechnology involves directing a jet oforgano-metallic molecules onto thesubstrate in a vacuum. The moleculesadsorbed in the substrate are thendecomposed by an electron beamthat is focused to a diameter of just afew nanometers, thus delivering anenergy density of up to 2 MW/cm2.

ography

Rapid prototyping procedures arefabrication processes used to directlyand rapidly implement existingdesign data to produce workpieceswith as little manual handling aspossible. The procedures that havebecome known as rapid prototypingsince the 1980s are usually mastermolding methods that use physicaland/or chemical effects to build up the workpiece in layers frommaterials that have no shape or areneutral in shape.

Starting in the fall of 1997, aresearch team at Deutsche TelekomAG commissioned by USA-basedCorning Inc. developed a rapidprototyping technology for spectralfilters based on photonic crystals.Photonic crystals are 3-dimensional,periodical, dielectric structures builtup using the EBID technique whichconsist of rods with diameters of 1/5of the wavelength that are arrangedat a distance of 1/3 of the wave-length from each other. A PC filterfor infrared light with a wavelengthof 1.5 µm such as used in telecom-munications needs to consist ofapprox. eighty 0.3 µm x 2 µm rodsthat are spaced at 0.5 µm intervalsand made of a material with thehighest possible refractive index (n > 2.8). The team developed andpatented the production of photoniccrystals (PC) and other miniaturizedplanar optical components usingEBID technology. Spectral filters (3 µm x 3 µm) were fabricated in aslittle as 40 minutes and proved tohave nanometer precision in wave-guide measuring structures.

Rapid prototypingusing EBID

special

2

Organo-metallic molecules or etching gas

Evaporatingradicals

Etch dipMask

Residual gas

Electron beamJet

Deposit Adsorbedmolecules



Photo mask repair

Computer-controlled gas dosing fororgano-metallic and inorganic gasesand sublimable substances evolvedduring the development of the EBIDtechnology. It allowed the supply ofmaterials through cannulae onto thesubstrate surface in the scanningelectron microscope. This opened upa multitude of applications for elec-tron beam-induced reactions, provid-ing the basis for the development of photo mask repair as a soundtechnology needed by industry – atechnology in which a small numberof structures must be very accuratelyprocessed.

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Fig. 3:User interface with samplecopying function.

Fig. 4:Sample copying function:determination of thestructural geometry to berepaired, reference sample,mask defect, repair result.

Figs 5/6:Photo mask – prepared for analysis and repair.

Fig. 7:MeRitTM MG control console..

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the number of defects is < 20. Therepair of a mask takes an average ofhalf a day. A forecast by InternationalSematech in 2001 stated that theproduction of a defect-free mask forextremely fine integrated circuitstructures may cost up to US $ 1 mil-lion. It has become evident that themetal ion beam technology previous-ly used to repair photo masks alsoblackens the photo masks in placeswhere they should be transparentafter processing. This reduced theproduction results of the chip andcomputer component manufacturers.

Photo masks alwayscontain defects atthe first stage oftheir fabrication

Since the lithography resists used fordefinition of the mask structure can-not be filtered to render them infi-nitely pure, and since dry etchingprocesses reproduce particles residingon the surface, all fabricated masksbear a number of defects. The posi-tional coordinates and size of thesedefects are determined using opticalmeasuring systems. If there are toomany defects, e.g. > 20, the mask isdiscarded and re-made, despite fabri-cation costs of approx. € 80,000 upto this point! The mask is repaired if

A photo mask is a 16 cm x 16 cm x 6 mm quartz platecovered by an absorber structure in the form of achromium layer with perforations bearing the informa-tion for a structuring process during the fabrication of semiconductor components and computer chips.These structures are generated by electron beamirradiation and dry etching. Approx. 30 photo masksform a set such as used for the fabrication of a Pentiumchip. This set contains approx. 12 gross masks withstructures less than >1 µm wide, approx. 10 masks withfiner detail, and an additional 8 so-called high-endmasks. The latter bear structures that are 260 nm wideand are used to generate the finest structures on thewafer with a width of 65 nm. The mask structures are 4 times larger than the corresponding wafer struc-tures, since ASML steppers with 4-fold size-reducingCarl Zeiss UV-optics are used for exposure of thewafers. Photo masks can contain up to 10 millionstructural elements and all of these elements must be fabricated free of defects.

Photo mask

special

Hans W.P. Koops, [email protected], www.smt.zeiss.com

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Britain-based Cambridge Instru-ments introduced the first com-mercial scanning electron micro-scope (SEM) – Stereoscan Mark I –in 1965. Today, the SEM is consid-ered to be the ultimate nanotech-nology tool.

During the past 40 years, theSEM has become an indispensabletool in multiple disciplines. Fromits early home in materials sci-ences, the SEM has entrencheditself in electronics, forensics, thepaper industry and archeology. Itis also used in pharmaceuticalresearch laboratories, food tech-nology and biology for the specif-ic requirements to which it hasbeen modified. Last but not least,the semiconductor industry alsomakes extensive use of the SEMin process control and failureanalysis.

Insights into the Nano World: 40 Years of

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Ann iversary

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transforming the instrument into amulti-versatile analysis system. Thisnew system, CrossBeam®, providesentirely new insights into the areabelow the surface of a specimen. Thebenefit of CrossBeam® technology isthe time-saving in-situ observation of material removal by ion etching or milling and polishing. The EVO®

generation provides the widest rangeof SEMs for analysis. The newly de-veloped backscatter electron detector

further enhances the SEM’s analyticalcapabilities. The emerging combina-tion of Raman spectroscopy and SEMnavigation is accommodated by anapplication-oriented microscope –the EVO® 50Raman.


Fig. 1:Scar, part of the pistil,dahlia.

Fig. 2:Stereoscan I (1965)

Fig. 3:DSM 950 (1985)

Fig. 4:EVO® 50 (2005)

Ongoing development

Ongoing development has resulted inentirely new functions since the firstscanning electron microscopes wereintroduced. Two of these new devel-opments are exceptionally important:the development of the ZEISSGEMINI® column in 1992, giving aboost to resolution, and the combi-nation of the SEM column with afocused ion beam (FIB) column,

Scanning Electron Microscopy

1



Variable pressure

Modern SEM systems can be operat-ed both in the traditional high-vacu-um mode and the VP (variable pres-sure) mode. In the VP mode, a smallamount of gas – up to approx. 400Pa – is introduced into the chamberand compensates for the chargeaccumulating on the surface of non-conductive specimens in a highvacuum. This allows naturally insulat-ing materials such as paper and

Water vapor

A direct descendant of the first fivemicroscopes produced in Cambridgeis the recently introduced new gener-ation of ZEISS EVO® XVP/EP REMs.Their new design allows the use ofmuch higher chamber pressures andeven permits the introduction of wa-ter vapor.

Its eXtended Variable Pressure(XVP) and Extended Pressure (EP)modes operate at up to 750 Pa and

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plastic to be analyzed without requir-ing a surface coating. By eliminatingthis need, time-consuming specimenpreparation is greatly reduced, theoverall operation of the microscope issimplified, the range of applicationareas where the SEM can play a roleis widened and specimen throughputis increased. This increased flexibilityis one of the key reasons behind theSEM's adoption for the examinationof ceramics, plastics, forensic speci-mens and art objects.

5



Fig. 5:TEM lamella,taken from pit.

Fig. 6:Tungsten crystals

Fig. 7:Ciliate

Fig. 8:Fracture in weld seams ofconcrete steel: dimpledfracture with manganeseoxide forming a honeycombstructure.

3000 Pa, respectively, and open up anew realm of research in life science,healthcare, food and pharmaceuti-cals, and also create a foothold in the new science of bioelectronics.

www.zeiss.de

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LSM 5 LIVE – the confocal live cellimaging system was honored withthe “Oscar of Inventions” in July2005, thus placing it among the 100most important technical products ofthe year. The LSM 5 LIVE confocallive cell imaging system from thesuccessful LSM 5 line was introducedin October 2004. With its one-of-a-kind combination of scanning speed,image quality and sensitivity, it givesscientists in life sciences uniqueinsights. With up to 120 confocalimages, the LSM 5 LIVE recordscellular processes with perfect image

Fourth Consecutive R&D100 Awardfor Carl Zeiss Microscopy

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Pr i zes and Awards

quality of 512x512 pixels and ex-traordinary sensitivity. The entire opti-cal concept has been systematicallytailored to biomedical applications.With its precise optics, creative beamsplitter design and innovative beamdelivery, the LSM 5 LIVE opens upnew horizons: fluorescence yield atthe limits of what is technically possi-ble.

www.zeiss.dewww.rdmag.com

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Design Award for ZEISS Victory 32 FL

Two Awards for the1540XB CrossBeam®

At Semicon Europe 2004 in Munich,the 1540XB CrossBeam® electronmicroscope already received the “Edi-tors’ Choice Best Product Award“from the “Semiconductor Interna-tional” magazine. During SemiconWest 2005 in San Francisco, themicroscope also received the “BestTool Award“ in the “Yield Manage-ment” category of the “Eurosemi ICIndustry Award” contest.

An international jury at the NorthRhine-Westphalia Design Center pre-sented the 2005 red dot award foroutstanding design quality to theSports Optics Division for the ZEISSVictory 32 FL line of binoculars.

Victory 32 FL binoculars are com-pact, lightweight, ergonomically de-signed products with lenses contain-ing fluoride (FL) to meet the highestdemands. They feature a large fieldof view and are excellent for nearrange observation. With good re-serves for low-light conditions, theydeliver high resolution and detailrecognition.

The Victory 8x32 T* FL is partic-ularly well-suited for traveling, hikingand stalking prey. The Victory 10x32T* FL is designed for the extreme de-mands of birdwatchers, hunters andnature lovers. www.zeiss.de

http://de.red-dot.org

www.smt.zeiss.comwww.eurosemi.eu.com/www.reed-electronics.com/semiconductor/

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Carl Zeiss SMT AG acquired innova-tive manufacturer NaWoTec GmbHshortly before the market launch ofits electron beam-based mask repairsystem in 2005. NaWoTec has beendeveloping the MeRiTTM MG mask re-pair system based on the GEMINI®

1560 FE SEM since 2001 as part of a cooperation agreement with CarlZeiss SMT AG. To inspect and simu-late repair results, the company usedthe recently honored AIMSTM FAB 248and MSM 193 UV mask inspectionand stepper simulation microscopesproduced by Carl Zeiss SMT AG. Nowthere is a one-stop total solution forphoto mask problems. The brand and

Carl Zeiss SMT AG Acquires NaWoTec G

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Company News

technology behind the electronbeam-based mask repair system isprotected by a series of patent appli-cations. There are also additionalfuture-oriented patents for applica-tions of 3D nano-structuring withelectron beams in medical diagnos-tics and treatment, electrical engi-neering, electronics, optics, mechan-ics and electron optics.

With its processes and accuracy,the MeRiTTM MG electron beammask repair system meets thedemands of mask manufacturersfor the 65 nm and 45 nm“node.” It can be used in a clean room with the quality andcertification required for maskfabrication. Defects can bereproducibly repaired with anaccuracy of 5 nm: open defects(e.g. in the chromium absorber,Fig. 1) are repaired by depositingmaterials containing chromium;excess material in a closed defect(Fig. 2) is removed using electronbeam induced etching. Duringthis process, the base must not be affected. Missing maskstructures are deposited in accor-dance with the CAD (ComputerAided Design) structural drawingor copied from other intact areasand added to or removed fromthe location of the defect.

MeRiTTM MG

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Inspection AIMSTM

E-BeamRepair

CleaningPellicle

Hans W.P [email protected]

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G mbH

NaWoTec stands for Nano WorldTechnologies and describes thevarious applications of electronbeam-based nano-structuringthrough the induced etching anddeposition of 3D structures formetrology, optics, light genera-tion, detection, maximum fre-quency electronics, semiconductortechnology, energy technology,biotechnology, and medical analy-sis and treatment. The MeRiTTM

MG photo mask repair system is a globally recognized product.Different demonstrators weredesigned, built and patentedduring development of the tech-nology: applications such asminiaturized, electrostatic lenseswith particularly small lensdefects, mini-electron sources,micro-tubes for GHz switchingamplifiers, a multi-sensor probefor metrology and nano-analytics,and a free electron laser as THzradiation source for security,medical and analytical applica-tions, field electron sources forelectron microscopes and flatscreen monitors were examined.

NaWoTec GmbH was founded in1999 as a spin-off of DeutscheTelekom and was supplied withapplications and equipment from Deutsche Telekom’s T-NovaTechnology Center.

In 2001, C. Hockenmeyer andH.W.P Koops began initial develop-ment activities with 6 employees.

NaWoTec GmbH

The delivery of basic instruments,as well as global sales and servicewas agreed in 2001 in a coopera-tion agreement with Carl Zeisssubsidiary LEO GmbH: NaWoTecdevelops and delivers the equip-ment for the photo mask repairsystem with process gas injectionand process control software,customer demonstrations andprocess development tailored to the customer, as well as anapplication laboratory for photomask repair.

The company grew to 30 employ-ees at the end of 2002.

The first system for use in thedevelopment lab at Intel wasdelivered in the fall of 2003.

NaWoTec received the InnovationAward from German Industry inthe Start-up category in December2003.

The MeRiTTM MG electron beam-based mask repair system waspresented by Carl Zeiss SMT AG at Semicon 2004 in Europe, theUSA and Japan as a multi-genera-tion tool.

NaWoTec was acquired by Carl Zeiss SMT AG in 2005.

details

Mag=24.00 K X 200 nm

Mag=24.00 K X 200 nm Mag=24.00 K X 200 nm

Mag=24.00 K X 200 nm 1

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“Beam me up, Scotty!” This be-came reality in science fictionmovies as early as the 1970s.Whenever the crew of the Enter-prise needed to get out of a diffi-cult situation at the other end ofthe galaxy, a brief command fromCaptain Kirk was all that wasneeded to make his crew disap-pear in a glittering nothing andshow up again at a faraway placealmost instantaneously.

Transfer process

The lasers – a pulsed UV laser forcutting and a continuously emittinginfrared laser for optical trapping –can be coupled to a microscope andconcentrated on a minute focal spotthanks to an objective with a highnumerical aperture. Special lens andmirror mounts ensure that the laserlight runs parallel to the optical axisof the light microscope and that thelaser focus remains in its predefinedposition: precise laser micromanipula-tion with highest possible accuracy of less than 1 µm is achieved.

The energy transfer is sufficientfor exact fragmenting without anycontact with the specimen. Since thisprocess runs very quickly without any heat transfer, adjacent biologicalmaterial or biomolecules such asDNA, RNA or proteins outside thefocus are not affected. After thecutting process, the selected area isisolated from the object surfacethrough a single laser pulse. Thespecimen can be “beamed” severalmillimeters away, against gravity, andtransported directly into a vessel.

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This fantastic imagination has nowbecome reality for a small, inconspic-uous worm: C. elegans, a nematodeonly 1 mm long, which normally re-mains hidden underground, has nowfollowed the Enterprise crew. Thetechnology called Laser Microdissec-tion and Pressure Catapulting (LMPC)enables a single, multicellular organ-ism to be “beamed” out of its envi-ronment, against gravity and in anon-contact manner, thus openingup entirely new possibilities, e.g. forthe isolation of living cells.

Non-contact isolation

Intact organisms can be isolated in anentirely non-contact manner withoutaffecting their vitality. This proceduremarks the breakthrough in modern,laser-based isolation techniques andprovides entirely contamination-free,pure and homogeneous specimens.The production of morphologicallyexactly defined base material, e.g.tissue samples from medical, biotech-nological, cancer research or pharma-ceutical research, are one of the mostdemanding tasks in genomic andproteomic research.

Beam Me Up

www.palm-microlaser.com

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The combination of P.A.L.M. and CarlZeiss has opened up new opportuni-ties for biomedical applications. CarlZeiss Microscopy and P.A.L.M. havealready worked together in the fieldof laser-based micromanipulators formany years. During this time, theydeveloped a strong sales alliancewhich has repeatedly proven itsvalue. Therefore, the merger is thelogical result of a successful partner-ship, but also part of a continuinginvestment strategy aimed at per-manently increasing the applicativeknow-how of Carl Zeiss. The goal is

to integrate technical and applicativeknowledge into complete solutionsthat perfectly meet the requirementsof modern biomedical and clinicalresearch, as well as routine appli-cations. Furthermore, the worldwideservice and support network of bothcompanies will be considerably en-hanced as a result of the merger.

P.A.L.M. Joins the Microscopy Group

Masthead

Innovation, The Magazine from Carl ZeissNo. 16, December 2005

Published by: Carl Zeiss AG, Oberkochen, GermanyCorporate Communications Marc Cyrus Vogel.

Edited by:Dr. Dieter Brocksch, Carl Zeiss 73446 Oberkochen, Germany Phone +49 (0) 73 64 - 20 34 08Fax +49 (0) 73 64 - 20 33 70 [email protected]

Gudrun Vogel, Carl Zeiss Jena GmbH07740 Jena, GermanyPhone +49 (0) 36 41 - 64 27 70 Fax +49 (0) 36 41 - 64 29 41 [email protected]

Articles in which the author’s name hasbeen given do not necessarily reflect the opinion of the editors.

Authors: If no information is given to the contrary, they can be contacted viathe editor.

Authors from Carl Zeiss:[email protected]

If readers have any inquiries about how the magazine can be obtained or if they wish to change their address (the customer number should beindicated, if applicable), we would kindlyask them to contact the editor.

Photo/text sources:M. Stich, Oberkochen Service CenterOberkochen, Carl Zeiss AGNASANASA’s Planetary PhotojournalDevelopment TeamNASA/CXC/M.WeissESASOHO LASCOTautenburg Landessternwarte ThüringenAstrophysikalisches Institut PotsdamSven Kohle & Till Credner, AlltheSky.comCarl Zeiss AGPlanetarium JenaArmagh Observatory (M. Popescu)WIKIPEDIAPlanetarium Online (A. Scholl)

English version of the magazine:Translation Service (S-KS), Carl Zeiss AG,Oberkochen

Picture sources: Unless otherwisespecified, all photographs werecontributed by the authors or originate in the Carl Zeiss archives.

Design: Corporate Design, Carl Zeiss, 73446 Oberkochen, Germany.Layout and composition: MSW, 73431 Aalen, www.msw.de.Printed by: C. Maurer, Druck und Verlag,73312 Geislingen a. d. Steige, Germany.

ISSN 1431-8040© 2005, Carl Zeiss AG, Oberkochen.

Permission for the reproduction ofindividual articles and pictures – with appropriate reference to the source– will gladly be granted after priorconsultation with the editors.

www.zeiss.dewww.palm-microlaser.com

Microlaser Technologies

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InnovationT h e M a g a z i n e f r o m C a r l Z e i s s

Carl Spitzweg, the Astrologist, 1860/64The astrologist himself looks as if he came from a different planet. Totally emaciated by his studies,he has turned into an almost androgynous figure.Gaunt and bony, he has donned the owl-likeappearance of a creature of the night, constantlyseeking the darkness of the room at the top of thetower, reachable only by climbing many steps.Spitzweg caricaturized the scholar with a goateeand special, eye-magnifying lenses. His blue cap,ankle-length garment and conspicuously radiantsleeves round off his unworldly, Merlin-likeappearance.However, it is not the scientist who is standing inthe limelight, but a gentleman in the typical nobleattire of the 17th century. In order to peer into the wisdom of the heavens, he has kneeled in frontof the wooden telescope, doffed his hat and pointedhis sword to the rear. With his mouth wide open,he is endeavoring to unravel the mysteries beforehim, while the expert rubs his hands gleefully in the background.

Georg Schäfer Museum, Schweinfurt, Germanywww.museumgeorgschaefer.de

Sombrero galaxy (Messier 104)Spiral galaxy in the Virgo cluster of galaxies located some 28 million light years from the earth.The picture combines data from the Hubble and Spitzer space telescopes. R. Kennicutt (StewardObservatory) et al., SSC, JPL, Caltech, NASA

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