Inner City InitiativesInner City Initiatives

REVERSING THE DECLINE IN REVERSING THE DECLINE IN THE INNER CITIES?THE INNER CITIES?

Stage 1 (1945-67)Stage 1 (1945-67)After the second World war many After the second World war many

local authorities were faced with local authorities were faced with a housing crisis. This was due a housing crisis. This was due to:to:

• Population growth due to the Population growth due to the post-war baby boom and post-war baby boom and increasing immigration.increasing immigration.

• Increased life expectancies – Increased life expectancies – people were living longerpeople were living longer

• Family breakdowns and divorce Family breakdowns and divorce leading to more single-parent leading to more single-parent families and smaller family units – families and smaller family units – more people leaving home earlier more people leaving home earlier and needing accommodation.and needing accommodation.

• Army personnel returning after Army personnel returning after the war.the war.

• Bomb damage during the war.Bomb damage during the war.• Inner city redevelopment Inner city redevelopment

schemes which meant that schemes which meant that displaced people had to be re-displaced people had to be re-housed.housed.

• The government actively The government actively followed a policy of followed a policy of decentralisation, decentralisation, encouraging both people and encouraging both people and industry to move out of cities.industry to move out of cities.

• Additional housing for the Additional housing for the growing population and growing population and those displaced from the those displaced from the inner cities was provided by inner cities was provided by encouraging people to move encouraging people to move into the newly constructed into the newly constructed and expanded towns, and expanded towns, constructed by local authority constructed by local authority housing in the suburbs.housing in the suburbs.

Comprehensive redevelopmentComprehensive redevelopment

• A Comprehensive Development Areas A Comprehensive Development Areas Programme (CDA) involved “knock it all Programme (CDA) involved “knock it all down and start again” and began in 1947.down and start again” and began in 1947.

• The programme involved the large-scale The programme involved the large-scale clearance of terraces in order to provide clearance of terraces in order to provide new housing and improve inner city new housing and improve inner city environments.environments.

• Most Local Authorities followed identical Most Local Authorities followed identical planning strategies replacing the former planning strategies replacing the former terraces and tenements with high-rise terraces and tenements with high-rise flats.flats.

• The whole landscape of parts of the inner The whole landscape of parts of the inner city was transformed with huge concrete city was transformed with huge concrete and glass tower blocks.and glass tower blocks.

• At the time some of these high rise flats At the time some of these high rise flats received architectural awards such as received architectural awards such as those in Hulme in Manchester.those in Hulme in Manchester.

• However the CDA policy was not entirely However the CDA policy was not entirely successful.successful.

• The policy did not keep pace with the rate The policy did not keep pace with the rate of housing decay and the redevelopment of housing decay and the redevelopment failed to match the speed of demolition.failed to match the speed of demolition.

• This added to the acute housing shortage This added to the acute housing shortage and left vast expanses of derelict land. and left vast expanses of derelict land.

• The community spirit was lost and The community spirit was lost and problems emerged with many of the tower problems emerged with many of the tower blocks.blocks.

• The policy also failed to tackle the social The policy also failed to tackle the social and economic problems, in particular and economic problems, in particular unemployment. unemployment.

HoweverHowever

• The tower blocks fulfilled some of the The tower blocks fulfilled some of the needs for modern housing in the inner needs for modern housing in the inner cities.cities.

• Flats had proper bathrooms and kitchens, Flats had proper bathrooms and kitchens, central heating and hot and cold running central heating and hot and cold running water.water.

Back to the negatives…..Back to the negatives…..

• Much of the housing was poorly designed Much of the housing was poorly designed and badly built.and badly built.

• Many flats suffered from excessive Many flats suffered from excessive dampness.dampness.

• Reinforced concrete used to construct the Reinforced concrete used to construct the towers often deteriorated.towers often deteriorated.

• Dark Dingy corridorsDark Dingy corridors• A haven for undesirablesA haven for undesirables• Rubbish was dumped everywhere but the Rubbish was dumped everywhere but the

collection point.collection point.• Lifts broke…old were people stranded.Lifts broke…old were people stranded.• Noise was a massive problem.Noise was a massive problem.

*sigh**sigh*• No gardensNo gardens• Very little privacy (Walls Very little privacy (Walls

were often paper thin)were often paper thin)• Physical and mental health Physical and mental health

problems continued to be problems continued to be high due to stress of high high due to stress of high rise livingrise living

• Electric heating systems Electric heating systems seemed to be too seemed to be too expensive for most expensive for most households and they used households and they used to breakdown frequently.to breakdown frequently.

Stage 2…..finally (1968- 1977)Stage 2…..finally (1968- 1977)

• Research in the cities highlighted the Research in the cities highlighted the complexity of problems including high complexity of problems including high unemployment, issues about race and unemployment, issues about race and immigration and the social dislocation immigration and the social dislocation caused by the CDA Schemes.caused by the CDA Schemes.

• The 1968 urban aid programme gave grants to The 1968 urban aid programme gave grants to local authorities to expand services in deprived local authorities to expand services in deprived areas and to establish community development areas and to establish community development projects using self help.projects using self help.

• More emphasis was being placed on improving More emphasis was being placed on improving services and attracting employment services and attracting employment opportunities.opportunities.

• The schemes were much more localised The schemes were much more localised in scale and involved local communities to in scale and involved local communities to a greater extent.a greater extent.

• It was unfortunate that an economic It was unfortunate that an economic downturn limited the funds for these downturn limited the funds for these schemes.schemes.

Stage 3 (1978 – 90)Stage 3 (1978 – 90)

• The new town policy was abandoned in an The new town policy was abandoned in an effort to stop further decentralization of effort to stop further decentralization of people and business.people and business.

• For the first time, inner cities were officially For the first time, inner cities were officially declared problem areas due to economic declared problem areas due to economic collapse caused by decentralization and collapse caused by decentralization and deindustrialization. deindustrialization.

• New policies have all attempted to tackle New policies have all attempted to tackle whole inner-city areas and they have whole inner-city areas and they have aimed to regenerate inner city economies aimed to regenerate inner city economies as well as to improve the environment and as well as to improve the environment and local services.local services.

• In 1987 Margaret Thatcher was re-elected In 1987 Margaret Thatcher was re-elected and introduced the “action for cities” and introduced the “action for cities” policy.policy.

There were four main There were four main programmes.programmes.1.1. The urban programme which gave 75 The urban programme which gave 75

per cent grants to the most needy local per cent grants to the most needy local authorities.authorities.

2.2. Derelict land grants for reclamation Derelict land grants for reclamation schemes such as garden festivals held in schemes such as garden festivals held in Liverpool, Glasgow and Gateshead. Liverpool, Glasgow and Gateshead.

• 3.Enterprise Zones in which efforts were made 3.Enterprise Zones in which efforts were made to economic activity by giving businesses tax to economic activity by giving businesses tax breaks for 10 years.breaks for 10 years.

• 4.Urban development corporations were 4.Urban development corporations were expanded from London to Liverpool. UDCs have expanded from London to Liverpool. UDCs have been described as the most important attack been described as the most important attack made on urban decay.made on urban decay.

Stage 4 (1991 onwards) : City Stage 4 (1991 onwards) : City challenge.challenge.• City challenge was launched in 1991, after urban City challenge was launched in 1991, after urban

areas continued to present a challenge to areas continued to present a challenge to planners and developers.planners and developers.

• City challenge was launched in 1991.City challenge was launched in 1991.• Local authorities, where there are severe urban Local authorities, where there are severe urban

problems, can bid for funds for specific urban problems, can bid for funds for specific urban projects.projects.

For ExampleFor Example

• In Sunderland, City Challenge money has In Sunderland, City Challenge money has been used to redesign parts of the city been used to redesign parts of the city centre with a new shopping precinct and centre with a new shopping precinct and bus station.bus station.

• In Leicester derelict inner-city land has In Leicester derelict inner-city land has been transformed into a show piece area been transformed into a show piece area with new shops, services and housing.with new shops, services and housing.

PortsmouthPortsmouth

• Portsmouth is another example Portsmouth is another example of the city challenge scheme.of the city challenge scheme.

• New developments to the New developments to the Northern Quarter - centred on Northern Quarter - centred on the former Tricorn site - and the former Tricorn site - and the Commercial Road area will the Commercial Road area will create an outstanding create an outstanding shopping area in the centre of shopping area in the centre of Portsmouth, to complement Portsmouth, to complement

   Southsea and Gunwharf Southsea and Gunwharf Quays. Quays.

• In the early 1990s there were many In the early 1990s there were many different schemes in operation and urban different schemes in operation and urban policy was criticized for being too policy was criticized for being too fragmentary.fragmentary.

• It was split between six different It was split between six different government departments and was not government departments and was not always good value for money.always good value for money.

• By the end of the 1990s a single By the end of the 1990s a single government department, the Urban government department, the Urban Regeneration Agency, has been created Regeneration Agency, has been created and in 1994 the Single Regeneration and in 1994 the Single Regeneration Agency, had been created and in 1994 the Agency, had been created and in 1994 the Single Regeneration Budget was launched Single Regeneration Budget was launched to draw together funding into a single to draw together funding into a single package.package.

• The SRB’s money is aimed at activities The SRB’s money is aimed at activities that make a real and sustained difference that make a real and sustained difference in deprived areas.in deprived areas.

• Increasingly public and private joint Increasingly public and private joint initiatives are being promoted.initiatives are being promoted.

And finally….And finally….

• In November 2000 the government released it’s In November 2000 the government released it’s urban white paper setting out it’s vision of urban urban white paper setting out it’s vision of urban living where people shape the future, live in living where people shape the future, live in attractive well kept towns and cities.attractive well kept towns and cities.

• They would live in a more environmentally They would live in a more environmentally sustainable way and share property and receive sustainable way and share property and receive good services.good services.

It proposed…It proposed…• That there should be stamp duty That there should be stamp duty

exemptions in disadvantaged exemptions in disadvantaged communities.communities.

• Tax credits for clearing contaminated Tax credits for clearing contaminated land.land.

• Capital allowances for “flats over Capital allowances for “flats over shops” schemes and other tax shops” schemes and other tax reforms for property conversions.reforms for property conversions.

• A new neighbourhood renewal fund A new neighbourhood renewal fund of £800 million over three years is of £800 million over three years is also to be introduced.also to be introduced.