Influence of Martin Luther King, Jr., And Malcolm on Black Progression
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Transcript of Influence of Martin Luther King, Jr., And Malcolm on Black Progression
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Abayomi Fashoro and Gerard Johnson
EDGE
December 5, 2003
Professor Bruce Lusignan
Understanding the Influence of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., and Malcolm on Black
Progression
While several African-Americans are content ith their social stat!s in modern-
day America, other African-Americans s!ch as "everend Jesse Jac#son and "everend Al
$har%ton contend that the &lac# str!''le for (!stice and e)!ality is far from bein'
finsished* +he history of the African-American is not the ty%ical history of the immi'rant
ho 'rad!ally assimilated into the American ay of life and 'rad!ally reached the
American Dream, rather it is a dar# history filled ith ine)!ity, o%%ression and the
str!''le to realie the American Dream* +he nited $tates of America, a nation fo!nded
on the %rinci%les of e)!ality and freedom, ironically, as b!ilt ith the blood, seat, and
tears of millions of Africans ho ere stolen from their homeland, stri%%ed of their
h!manity and sold as slaves* .ot s!r%risin'ly, &lac#s ere vieed as inferior to hites,
re'arded as less than h!man and treated orse than %lantation %ets* +he ei'hteenth and
nineteenth cent!ries fo!nd &lac#s s!b(ected to inh!mane %!nishments s!ch as merciless
hi%%in's, beatin's, and occasional lynchin's* /oever, in the 150s and 104s, many
&lac#s became tired of America4s in(!stices and decided to do somethin' to ri'ht the
ron's the e%erienced on a daily basis* An immediate effect of their determination as
the 6ivil "i'hts 7ovement* +he %rimary %!r%ose of the 6ivil "i'hts 7ovement as to
establish e)!al %rofessional and ed!cational o%%ort!nities, as ell as le'al ri'hts, for
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&lac#s and hites in America* Dr* 7artin 8!ther 9in', Jr*, and 7alcolm : ere to
%rominent leaders of the 6ivil "i'hts 7ovement, ho instilled a sense of reli'ion, %ride,
and %erseverance into the &lac# comm!nity* +hro!'h their tireless efforts, Dr* 9in' and
7alcolm : hel%ed African-Americans ac)!ire their ;inalienable; ri'hts ori'inally
%romised to them in the
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familiar ith Dr* 7artin 8!ther 9in', Jr*4s, contrib!tions to the 6ivil "i'hts 7ovement,
fe %eo%le are familiar ith the details of Dr* 9in'4s life and the events that %ers!aded
him to become a 6ivil "i'hts activist* Dr* 7artin 8!ther 9in', Jr*, as born in Atlanta,
Geor'ia, on Jan!ary 5, 121, to schoolteacher Alberta 9in' and &a%tist minister
7ichael 8!ther 9in' ?Timeline@*
ict!re B Dr* 7artin 8!ther 9in', Jr*, %reaches %eacef!l %rotests*
&eca!se his father as a %reacher, reli'ion became a central idea in Dr* 7artin
8!ther 9in', Jr*s, life, and after his (!nior year at 7oreho!se 6olle'e, Dr* 9in' decided
;to become a minister and thereby serve society; ?Online@* =n 1
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the 10s, African-Americans, li#e flies, ere fied in a eb of ine)!ality and o%%ression
of hich they co!ld not free themselves* Dr* 9in' soon became tired of eistin' in an
!n(!st society, and event!ally, he decided to %eacef!lly fi'ht America4s in(!stice* Dr*
9in', hoever, as not the only African-American fr!strated ith Americas
discriminatory le'islat!re* D!rin' the sities, most of the &lac# %o%!lace !sed the 6ivil
"i'hts 7ovement as a means of revoltin' a'ainst Americas in(!stice* Dr* 7artin 8!ther
9in', Jr*, as one of the most infl!ential leaders of the 6ivil "i'hts 7ovement, hose
%rimary aim as to create a social order ;%ermeated by love and s%irit!ality of
nonviolence as it 'ros from the J!deo-6hristian reli'ion; ?7arsh, 235@* Dr* 9in'
st!died and %reached many of 7ahatma Gandhi4s ideas, s!ch as %eacef!l %rotests and
boycotts, as means of %ers!adin' the America to abandon its discriminatory le'islat!re*
>n A%ril
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15, hich rid states of ;all las %rohibitin' African-Americans from castin' their
vote in all %!blic elections; ?Civil Rights Movement@* =n addition to these or#s, Dr*
7artin 8!ther 9in', Jr*, also f!rthered the advancement of &lac# .ationalism and
ed!cation* =n a variety of his s%eeches and ritin's, incl!din' ;= /ave a Dream; and
;+he .e'ro is Ho!r &rother,; Dr* 9in' %romoted &lac# .ationalism and ed!cation as he
told African-Americans to remain %ersistent in their str!''le for e)!ality* Dr* 9in'
!nderstood the reality of the &lac# sit!ation in America and he believed that &lac#s co!ld
most effectively im%rove their stat!s in America thro!'h ed!cation, !nity, and, most
im%ortantly, reli'ion*
Dr* 7artin 8!ther 9in', Jr*, hoever, as not the only African-American, ho
desired to better the stat!s and conditions of &lac#s in America* 7alcolm 8ittle, later
#non, as 7alcolm :, as another &lac# 6ivil "i'hts activist, ho hel%ed lead &lac#s
o!t of America4s shado of in(!stice*
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ict!re 2B 7alcolm 8ittle, later #non as 7alcolm :, %romotes social e)!ality
thro!'h any means necessary*
7alcolm : as born into a loer-class family in >maha, .ebras#a, on 7ay 1,
125, and he later moved to /arlem, .e Hor#, here he lived for a 'reat %ortion of his
life* As an adolescent, 7alcolm : became ;a h!stler, sellin' dr!'s and brin'in' hites
to %rostit!tes; in /arlem ?Martin Luther King and Malcolm X@* Actions s!ch as these
ere merely the be'innin' of 7alcolm :4s criminal activities, and event!ally, the %olice
ca!'ht and convicted 7alcolm : for b!r'lary* While on trial, the (!ry ;as more
interested in 7alcolm :4s relation ith a hite oman than in the b!r'laries;
?Martin Luther King and Malcolm X@* 6onse)!ently, 7alcolm : received ten years,
instead of to years, for his criminal offense* As a res!lt of this &lac# o%%ression,
7alcolm : s%ent a 'reat %ortion of his life hatin' hite %eo%le* While in (ail, 7alcolm
: became a faithf!l adherent of the 7!slim faith and the .ation of =slam, a &lac#
or'aniation that des%ised hite %eo%le* After servin' his ten-year (ail sentence,
7alcolm : became a member, and %rominent leader, of the 6ivil "i'hts 7ovement*
D!rin' the 6ivil "i'hts 7ovement, 7alcolm : %ersistently %reached se%aratism and
%hysical retaliation a'ainst hite o%%ressors* D!rin' the 6ivil "i'hts 7ovement,
7alcolm : believed that ;hites ere inherently the enemies of .e'roes; and !nless
&lac#s %rotected themselves, hites o!ld contin!e to !nmercif!lly #ill &lac#s
?Goldman, @* Abo!t one year %rior to his assassination, hoever, 7alcolm : altered his
beliefs re'ardin' hites, and he ac#noled'ed the %ossibility of brotherhood beteen all
races* >n Febr!ary 2, 15, 7alcolm : as assassinated in /arlem, .e Hor#*
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Altho!'h 7alcolm : altered his o%inions concernin' hites, many of 7alcolm
:4s ideas ere vital to the s!ccess of the 6ivil "i'hts 7ovement* 7alcolm :, !nli#e Dr*
7artin 8!ther 9in', Jr*, did not directly hel% to chan'e America4s discriminatory
le'islat!re hoever, 7alcolm : hel%ed &lac#s create their on identity* 7alcolm :
instilled ideas of &lac# .ationalism into the African-American comm!nity, hich
com%elled &lac#s to have %ride in their &lac# c!lt!re and challen'e America4s notions of
;e)!ality*; D!rin' the sities, many %eo%le sim%ly considered 7alcolm : a radical
&lac# activist, b!t in reality, 7alcolm : as far 'reater than a radical* 7alcolm : as
an ins%iration to a myriad of African-Americans, str!''lin' to re'ain their Iinalienable
ri'hts* 7ost of 7alcolm :4s %hiloso%hies concernin' &lac# .ationalism and !nity are
still %ertinent to today4s African-American comm!nity, for the &lac# str!''le for e)!ality
is not yet com%lete, and in order for today4s &lac# comm!nity to advance f!rther in
American society, they sho!ld incor%orate some of 7alcolm :4s ideas into their beliefs*
%on eaminin' the or#s of Dr* 7artin 8!ther 9in', Jr*, 7alcolm :, and the
conditions of the %ast, one may )!estion the develo%ment or de'eneration of Dr* 7artin
8!ther 9in', Jr*, and 7alcolm :4s notions of &lac# .ationalism and ed!cation in today4s
&lac# comm!nity* Additionally, one may also )!estion the manner in hich the
%ro'ression or disinte'ration of these ideas have benefited or hindered today4s &lac#
comm!nity* &lac# .ationalism is the first, and %erha%s most essential, conce%t that one
sho!ld analye in order to %ro%erly eval!ate the %ro'ression of &lac#s in America* 7any
%eo%le, &lac#s and hites ali#e, often misinter%ret the definition of this conce%t beca!se
they strictly relate &lac# .ationalism to 7alcolm :4s ideas of &lac# se%aratism and
violence* >ne sho!ld act!ally define &lac# .ationalism, hoever, as an ideolo'y hose
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%rimary tenets %ossess &lac# I%olitical, economic, and c!lt!ral a!tonomy either ithin or
from hite; America ?&ron and $ha, 23@* nderneath the %rimary s!b(ect of &lac#
.ationalism, there also eist vario!s s!bcate'ories, s!ch as economic and comm!nity
&lac# .ationalism* +hese to s!bcate'ories are fairly similar in that economic &lac#
.ationalist contend that African-Americans sho!ld %ractice economic a!tonomy ithin
their comm!nity, hile comm!nity &lac# .ationalists ar'!e that &lac#s ;sho!ld control
and s!%%ort comm!nities and instit!tions here they %redominate; ?Dason, 0C@*
Altho!'h many %eo%le are familiar ith most &lac# .ationalist ideas, s!ch as these, fe
%eo%le are #noled'eable of the ori'ins of &lac# .ationalism*
+he notion of &lac# .ationalism is not a ne conce%t to America, b!t instead, is a
dee%-rooted %hiloso%hy, hich ori'inated in America d!rin' the late ei'hteenth cent!ry*
7any of the early &lac# .ationalists accent!ated ;the in(!stice and hy%ocrisy of the
American %olitical system and the br!tality and vicio!sness of slavery; ?Davis and
&ron, 2
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:s efforts in the 6ivil "i'hts 7ovement* While many African-Americans believe that
Dr* 7artin 8!ther 9in', Jr*, and 7alcolm :4s ideas concernin' &lac# .ationalism remain
%rominent in today4s &lac# comm!nity, others consider &lac# .ationalism a less
%ertinent iss!e in modern-day America than it as %rior to the 6ivil "i'hts 7ovement*
rior to the 6ivil "i'hts 7ovement, there as a vast division in American c!lt!re*
Whites tended to %!rchase their 'oods from hite oned stores, and &lac#s tended to
%!rchase their %rod!cts from &lac# oned stores* +h!s, by sho%%in' at African-
American stores and residin' in almost entirely &lac# comm!nities, many African-
Americans, d!rin' the sities, ehibited a de'ree of &lac# .ationalism thro!'h their
;ethnic %ride and aareness; ?/enry, ne of the
%rimary 'oals of the &lac# anther arty as to hel% African-Americans become more
%rominent fi'!res in America, and thro!'h their militant %rotests, marches, and
cam%ai'ns, the &lac# anthers, as ell as other &lac# .ationalist or'aniations,
!ltimately hel%ed &lac#s inte'rate into the American c!lt!re*
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ict!re 3B +he &lac# anther arty Emblem
As one eval!ates &lac# .ationalism ithin today4s &lac# comm!nity, one may
notice that the ma'nit!de of &lac# .ationalist ideas is )!ite similar to that d!rin' the
sities* Altho!'h many of the renoned &lac# .ationalist leaders are no lon'er alive,
there remain n!mero!s &lac# .ationalist or'aniations in America* Act!ally, there are
more &lac# .ationalist factions and leaders in todays &lac# comm!nity than there ere
in the sities, b!t todays &lac# .ationalist or'aniations and leaders see# less %!blicity
than those of the earlier &lac# 'enerations* 6ornel West is an eam%le a %rominent
African-American leader and &lac# .ationalist, ho does not receive m!ch %!blicity, b!t
he remains a si'nificant and infl!ential &lac# leader* =n addition to the increase of &lac#
.ationalist leaders, s!ch as 6ornel West, there are also lar'er amo!nts of &lac#
.ationalist or'aniations in modern-day America, for %ractically all of the &lac#
.ationalist %arties from the sities, s!ch as the &lac# anthers and the .ation of =slam,
remain in eistence* =n addition to these %arties, there are ne &lac# .ationalist
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divisions, s!ch as the .e &lac# anther arty* 7oreover, a recent st!dy shos that
ei'hty-fo!r %ercent of African-Americans %!rchase most of their 'oods from &lac#
oned b!sinesses, seventy %ercent of African-Americans believe that their children
sho!ld st!dy some ty%e of African lan'!a'e, and nearly fifty-si %ercent of African-
Americans %artici%ate in &lac# only or'aniations ?Davis and &ron, 2
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African-American ;men and omen e%ressed a stron' desire to learn,; b!t most &lac#s
did not have the same ed!cational o%%ort!nities and reso!rces as hites ?&ron and
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a res!lt of &lac# children not receivin' the same )!ality ed!cation as hites, most
Americans ;e)!ated African Americans * * * ith limited intelli'ence; ?7eacham, 5K5@*
&lac# schools also did not have the same amo!nt of technolo'y as hite schools beca!se
&lac# schools received less national f!ndin' than hite schools*
=n today4s African-American comm!nity, hoever, st!dies sho that there is a
'reater %ercenta'e of African-American st!dents enrolled in secondary %!blic schools
than there ere %rior to the 104s* Within the %ast decade, &lac#s have also e%erienced
;loer dro%-o!t and s!s%ension rates,; hich once more s!''ests that there are more
&lac#s in school today than d!rin' the 10s ?Willie,
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attend historically &lac# colle'es for a variety of reasons* Generally, IAfrican American
st!dents ho attended inte'rated hi'h schools *** tend to enroll in %redominately hite
!niversities; ?French and $eidman, 510@* "e'ardless of the colle'e that African
Americans %refer to attend, the statistics concernin' &lac# colle'e enrollment remain the
same* %on eaminin' the increase in the %ercenta'e of African-American 'rade school
and colle'e st!dents, one may reasonably concl!de that &lac#s are %ro'ressin' in the
ed!cational strata beca!se more African-Americans have the o%%ort!nity to access the
same ed!cational reso!rces as hites in today4s society than d!rin' the 6ivil "i'hts
7ovement* Active efforts by colle'e recr!iters to recr!it talented African-American 'rade
school and hi'h school st!dents to selective colle'e instit!tions and Affirmative Action
%olicies that ma#e colle'e admission officers sensitive to race also contrib!tes to African-
Americans 'ainin' access to the same ed!cational reso!rces as hites* =nterestin'ly
eno!'h, Affirmative Action, a %olicy desi'ned to hel% narro the achievement 'a%
beteen minorities and hites, threatens to !ndo some of the or# of Dr* 9in' and
7alcolm and other 6ivil "i'hts or#ers*
One of the most controversial topics today in America, tends to polarize Blacks
and Whites. Recent legislation involving Affirmative Action such has Prop. 54, always
exposes the racial tension caused by Affirmative Action, usually revealing whites to be
opposed to legislation strengthening Affirmative Action and Blacks in favor of it.
Affirmative Action has recently come under scrutiny with the Supreme Court Cases
dealing with the University of Michigan Law Schools admissions policies. The plaintiffs
in these cases are claiming that the their Civil Rights are being violated because they are
being discriminated against in favor of lesser qualified Blacks as a result of the
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University of Michigans allegeded quota system designed to obtain diversity by
increasing the percentage of Black students at the school. Although the Supreme Court
has not made a landmark decision with regards to Affirmative Action since Bakke vs. the
Regents of the University of California, their decision on the legality of the University of
Michigans admissions policy will be a major decision that will have a large impact on
Black advancement and access to opportunities traditionally open only to whites.
Ironically, a policy designed to give minorities equal access to the same opportunities as
whites with the help of Civil Rights leaders like Dr. King, has become an issue along
racial lines that may reverse the strides he made for Blacks. Although abused in some
cases and clear that the practice of Affirmative Action deviates from its intended practice
and is therefore a problematic policy, it is still essential for selective schools to have an
Affirmative Action policy to ensure that qualified Blacks are considered for admission
and are able to receive their high quality of education so that their progress continues to
steadily increase.
In order to understand the importance of Affirmative Action, one must consider
its origins, its benefits, its weaknesses, and why it threatens to reverse the racial
understanding developed between whites and Blacks during the Civil Rights Movement
and the work of Civil Rights activists. Although no quick and easy solutions exist, it is
clear from the bitter debate regarding Affirmative Action and its applications in college
admissions that there is a strong need to reconsider it as a policy to create equality of
opportunity between whites and blacks. Judging from the racially divisive nature of the
debate, one may conclude that it may need to be restructured as a policy to yield better
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results and more importantly, one may conclude that there is a need for our country to
engage in more discussion regarding race relations.
The concept of Affirmative Action came about in the early 1960s during the Civil
Rights movement, a time when Blacks began to make their denial of their constitutional
rights by whites known to the rest of the nation and demand not only an immediate end of
their second-class citizenship, but also a demand for more rights that were promised to
them under the 13th, 14th and 15thamendments. Because of the work of Civil Rights
leaders like Dr. King, Reverend Jesse Jackson and Julian Bond, the government began to
take notice and initiated the first steps to address the grievances of minorities and the
gross inequalities the existed between Blacks and whites at the time. On March 6, 1961,
newly elected President John F. Kennedy issued Executive Order 10925, which
established the Presidents Committee On Equal Employment Opportunity. The
Presidents Committee On Equal Employment Opportunity was created to end
discrimination in government and government contractor employment based on race,
color, religion, sex, or national origin. In the Order, President Kennedy mandated that
The contractor will not discriminate against any employee or applicant for employment
because of race, creed, color, or national origin. The contractor will take affirmative
action to ensure that applicants are employed, and that employees are treated during
employment, without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin (Kennedy (1)).
+his as the first time in the contet of civil ri'hts that the 'overnment !sed the term
Iaffirmative action, hich referred to ta#in' the necessary action to eliminate the then
ides%read discrimination based on race*
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.ot satisfied ith the eistin' le'islation re'ardin' race relations and former
resident 9ennedys !nillin'ness to challen'e his racist $enate, 6ivil "i'hts leaders
met ith resident resident 8yndon &* Johnson re'ardin' the %li'ht of &lac#s in
America* +he res!lt of this meetin' and %ress!res %!t on the 'overnment by 6ivil "i'hts
leaders led to the 6ivil "i'hts Act of 1rder 0125* +itle =, $ec* 0 mandated that I.o %erson in the
nited $tates shall, on the 'ro!nd of race, color, or national ori'in, be ecl!ded from
%artici%ation in, be denied the benefits of, or be s!b(ected to discrimination !nder any
%ro'ram or activity receivin' Federal financial assistance ?+itle =, $ec* 0@* A year
later in 15 resident Johnson delivered a commencement address at /oard niversity
and ac#noled'ed to anio!s &lac# 'rad!atin' st!dents that im%artial treatment as not
eno!'h to '!arantee e)!ality of o%%ort!nity beteen &lac#s and hites* =n his address,
he shoed that he had been listenin' to the cries of &lac#s ready for chan'e and im%lied
that the 'overnment o!ld be more %roactive in ens!rin' %arity amon' &lac#s and
hites* =n his address he ar'!edB
IHo! do not ta#e a %erson ho, for years, has been hobbled by chains and
liberate him, brin' him !% to the startin' line of a race and then say, ;yo!
are free to com%ete ith all the others,; and still (!stly believe that yo!
have been com%letely fair* L We see# not (!st le'al e)!ity b!t h!man
ability, not (!st e)!ality as a ri'ht and a theory b!t e)!ality as a fact and
e)!ality as a res!lt ?Johnson@*
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$hortly after his commencement address on $e%tember 2rder 2rder statedB
I=t is the %olicy of the Government of the nited $tates to %rovide e)!al
o%%ort!nity in Federal em%loyment for all )!alified %ersons, to %rohibit
discrimination in em%loyment beca!se of race, creed, color, or national
ori'in, and to %romote the f!ll realiation of e)!al em%loyment
o%%ort!nity thro!'h a %ositive, contin!in' %ro'ram in each eec!tive
de%artment and a'ency ?Johnson 0@*
+his Eec!tive >rder essentially made Affirmative Action national %olicy that the
'overnment o!ld be dedicated to enforcin'*
As las and Eec!tive >rders ere bein' %assed d!rin' the 10s and &lac#
st!dents ere becomin' more anio!s, colle'es be'an to ma#e more of an effort to
recr!it &lac# st!dents and racially diversify their %o%!lations* +his ne trend in actively
%!rs!in' &lac#s as not only d!e to the 'overnments determination to rectify the
ine)!alities beteens hites and &lac#s, b!t as also d!e to the vario!s st!dent %rotests
led by 6ivil "i'hts 'ro!%s li#e $t!dent .onviolent 6oordinatin' 6ommittee ?$.66@
demandin' more access to %redominantly hite colle'es* As a res!lt, !niversity officials
created %ro'rams to actively recr!it &lac# a%%licants and consider race in their
admissions %rocess by admittin' )!alified &lac#s, even if they had loer 'rades and test
scores than their hite co!nter%arts* $chools (!stified their actions by revealin' their
desire to correct %ast discrimination a'ainst &lac#s* nfort!nately, it as %recisely this
reasonin' that event!ally contrib!ted to the bitter debate re'ardin' Affirmative Action,
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the discreditin' of &lac#s )!alifications and led to co!rt cases attem%tin' to decide the
%ro%er a%%lication of Affirmative Action* 7ost colle'es hoever, had different
motivations for actively %!rs!in' &lac# a%%licants* I+hey so!'ht to enrich the
ed!cation of all their st!dents by incl!din' race as a another element in assemblin' a
diverse st!dent body of varyin' talents, bac#'ro!nds, and %ers%ectives and Iin
addition, %erceivin' a idely reco'nied need for more members of minority 'ro!%s in
b!siness, 'overnment, and the %rofessions, they acted on the conviction that minority
st!dents o!ld have a s%ecial o%%ort!nity to become leaders in all al#s of life
?&oen and &o# K@* For eam%le, in 15 /arvard 8a $chool dean Erin Grisold
la!nched a s%ecial s!mmer %ro'ram for &lac# (!niors st!dyin' at historically &lac#
colle'es to %ers!ade them in enrollin' in la school* /is effort as d!e to the fact that
Ibarely %ercent of all la st!dents in America ere &lac#, and over one-third of them
ere enrolled in all-&lac# schools ?&oen and &o# K@* .ot s!r%risin'ly, this trend in
admittin' more &lac# st!dents had ne'ative conse)!ences*
As more and more &lac# st!dents ere enrolled into !niversities across the
co!ntry, hite enrollment sli'htly decreased* +his trend led to increased racial tensions
and the %olariation of &lac#s and hites on this %olicy* +he conce%t of Affirmative
Action in colle'e admissions as challen'ed in the "e'ents of the niversity of
6alifornia v* &a##e $!%reme 6o!rt case* =n this case, Allan &a##e, ho as denied
admission to 6 DavisM medical school tice des%ite earnin' better 'rades and test
scores than s!ccessf!l &lac# a%%licants, claimed that he as a victim of Ireverse
discrimination* >n J!ne 2C, 1KC , the $!%reme 6o!rt iss!ed its decision re'ardin' the
case* +he 6o!rts decision as s%lit ith fo!r (!stices findin' that the system of racial
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)!otas !sed by the medical school ere discriminatory and violated +itle = of the 6ivil
"i'hts Act and fo!r J!stices a'reein' ith the admissions %roced!re as a le'itimate
device in overcomin' %ast discrimination*
=n the co!rts decision, J!stice oell, ho rote the decision, roteB
I"acial and ethnic classifications of any sort are inherently s!s%ect and
call for the most eactin' (!dicial scr!tiny* While the 'oal of achievin' a
diverse st!dent body is s!fficiently com%ellin' to (!stify consideration of
race in admissions decisions !nder some circ!mstances, %etitioner4s
s%ecial admissions %ro'ram, hich forecloses consideration to %ersons
li#e res%ondent, is !nnecessary to the achievement of this com%ellin' 'oal,
and therefore invalid !nder the E)!al rotection 6la!se ?2CK-320@*
=n other ords, J!stice oell ac#noled'ed that s%ecial admissions %ro'rams that
discriminated a'ainst %eo%le beca!se of their race violated the E)!al rotection 6la!se
b!t ar'!ed that ta#in' race into consideration in !niversity admissions as needed to
overcome %ast discriminations* As a res!lt, Allen &a##e lost his case and the 6o!rts
decision led to a broad inter%retation and a%%lication of Affirmative Action by
!niversities* +his decision alloed !niversities to %ractice Affirmative Action at their
on discretion and conse)!ently contrib!ted to the hei'htened racial tensions beteen
hites and &lac#s* &eca!se of this broad decision, Affirmative Action has become
ab!sed by some schools, ca!sed the )!alifications and credibility of &lac#s to be
)!estioned by hites, and has become a heated to%ic that has left a bitter taste in the
mo!ths of both &lac#s and hites*
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Affirmative Action a%%lied to colle'e admissions, %racticed correctly %rod!ces
many benefits for %eo%le of all races* =n addition to increasin' the racial and ethnic
diversity of colle'es, it hel%s to develo% st!dents into more ell ro!nded ad!lts, %rod!ce
more ed!cated &lac#s that are )!alified for hi'hly s%ecialied (obs, and more im%ortantly
it leads to the event!al %hasin' o!t of Affirmative Action as a remedy to the dis%arity in
o%%ort!nity beteen &lac#s and hites* =n other ords, Affirmative Action ill
event!ally %hase itself o!t and allo Dr* 9in's dream to be realied*
7a(ority of the %ro%onents of Affirmative Action in colle'e admissions ar'!e that
it %rovides more diversity in !niversities* =n order to !nderstand the %ers%ective of these
s!%%orters of Affirmative Action, one m!st !nderstand hat is meant by diversity* +he
>ford Dictionary of 6!rrent En'lish defines diversity as the state of bein' varied and a
ran'e of different thin's* +o have a better 'ras% of hat diversity is in the contet of
colle'e, consider Jeffery F* 7ilems definition dran from the or# of G!rin and 6han'B
I"tructural diversit# refers to the n!merical and %ro%ortional
re%resentation of st!dents from different racialNethnic 'ro!%s in the st!dent
body ?/!rtado et al* 11C, 111@ L diversit#$related initiatives ?i*e*
c!lt!ral aareness or#sho%s, ethnic st!dies co!rses, and so forth@ that
occ!r on colle'e and !niversity cam%!ses* Altho!'h demo'ra%hic shifts or
chan'es in the str!ct!ral diversity of cam%!ses fre)!ently %rovide the
stim!l!s for diversity-related initiatives ?6han' 111b@, some colle'es and
!niversities incor%orate these ty%es of initiatives even tho!'h their
cam%!ses are racially and ethnically homo'eneo!s* L diverse
interactions, is characteried by st!dents echan'es ith racially and
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ethnically diverse %eo%le as ell as diverse ideas, information , and
e%eriences* eo%le are infl!enced by their interactions ith diverse ideas
and information as ell as diverse %eo%le ?7ilem 32@*
9ee%in' these definitions of diversity in mind, the benefits of diversity are clearer* When
%eo%le are thr!st into environments made !% of vario!s #inds of %eo%le from dissimilar
bac#'ro!nds, they are forced to interact ith others that are different from them and learn
abo!t other c!lt!res if they are to be s!ccessf!l in their ne environment* +his echan'e
beteen vario!s c!lt!res res!lts in some of the individ!als racial biases bein' bro#en
don and a healthy disc!ssion of racial iss!es* +his res!lts in the formation of ne
%ers%ectives beteen the individ!als and contrib!tes to them 'roin' into ell-ro!nded
ad!lts ith a more mat!re vie on life* G!rin conc!rs hen she Iar'!es that L
diversity, broadly defined, can facilitate L better %re%aration for the many challen'es
they ill face as involved citiens in a democratic, m!ltiracial society ?)td* in 7ilem
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sit!ation li#e the one mentioned earlier, one has to be creative in order to come !% ith a
sol!tion and overcome their differences* 6olle'es ith diverse %o%!lations %rovide
%erfect %ractice for these #inds of sit!ations and %re%are an individ!al for real orld
sit!ations as a res!lt* =f one ere to attend a colle'e made !% of %eo%le similar to them,
they o!ld not be able to 'ain the e%erience needed to deal ith %eo%le different from
them and o!ld lose o!t on the o%%ort!nity to 'ain ne ideas and different ays of
loo#in' at thin's, learned only from dealin' ith a diverse mi of %eo%le*
=n addition to diversifyin' !niversity %o%!lations, Affirmative Action contrib!tes
to the ed!cation of more &lac#s, hich leads to the increase in the n!mber of )!alified
&lac#s for s%ecialied (obs, and the realiation of self a!tonomy fa!'ht for by activists
s!ch as 7alcolm :* IFrom 10 to 115, the %ercenta'e of &lac#s a'ed 25 to 21 ho
had 'rad!ated from colle'e rose from 5*< to 5*< %ercent* L +hese trends have led to
stri#in' 'ains in the re%resentation of minorities in the most l!crative and infl!ential
occ!%ations ?&oen and &o# 1-0@* =f the n!mber of &lac# 'rad!ates contin!es to 'ro,
event!ally Affirmative Action ill no lon'er be needed since &lac#s ill be as %re%ared
as hites for com%etitive (obs hich ill not only lead to the brea#in' don of the
stereoty%e that &lac#s are inferior to hites, b!t also the realiation of e)!ality of
o%%ort!nity as#ed for in Dr* 9in's dream* J!stice &lac#m!n said it best hen he rote
in his o%inion re'ardin' the "e'ents v* &a##e $!%reme 6o!rt case I=n order to 'et
beyond racism, e m!st first ta#e acco!nt of race* ?&oen and &o# C@
Affirmative Action in colle'e admissions is only an iss!e hen it comes to
selective instit!tions, s!ch as $tanford and /arvard ho receive more a%%lications than
they can admit* &oen and &o# in their boo#, "hape of the River, estimate that Ionly
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abo!t 20 to 30 %ercent of all fo!r-year colle'es and !niversities have eno!'h a%%licants
to be selective abo!t ho is admitted to their schools ?&oen and &o# 5@* =t is not
s!r%risin' hy the debate re'ardin' the le'itimacy of Affirmative Action is so bitter
'iven the hi'h com%etition to 'et into these schools, the sli'htest %ossibility that a select
fe are receivin' %referential treatment over others is 'oin' to incite the an'er of many
%eo%le* &eca!se of the above %ossibility, hites are adamantly o%%osed to Affirmative
Action in any sha%e or form* Altho!'h hites are 'enerally for the conce%t of e)!ality of
o%%ort!nity, hen Affirmative Action is offered as a tool to '!arantee that this occ!rs,
hites let their stron' disa%%roval of it be #non* Altho!'h it is common #noled'e that
hites that have felt discriminated a'ainst d!e to Affirmation Action are o%%osed to its
!se, it may not be ell #non that some &lac#s are (!st as o%%osed to its %ractice*
As a niversity of 6alifornia "e'ent, Wardell 6onnerly has itnessed ab!ses in
the a%%lication of Affirmative Action by the niversity of 6alifornia ?6@ system* 7artin
+ro in his essay %referential &dmissions in 'igher Education, rites a brief history
abo!t the admissions %roced!res at the niversity of 6alifornia and hi'hli'hts their
%revio!sly )!estionable %olicies to diversify their cam%!sesB
I=n the 1C0s and early 110s, a n!mber of the 6s ei'ht I'eneral
cam%!ses fo!nd that they had more, and in some cases many more,
eli'ible a%%licants than they co!ld admit* L With the a%%roval of the
"e'ents, &er#eley decided to admit half the enterin' class on the basis of
their scores on the combined $A+NGA* =n fillin' the other half, all
eli'ible minority a%%licants ere a!tomatically admitted* L in 1C1 it
abandoned the '!arantee of admission for all eli'ible a%%licants from
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minority 'ro!%s* Het it contin!ed t 'ive a h!'e advanta'e to &lac# and
/is%anic a%%licants ?215@*
As a res!lt, it is no s!r%rise that des%ite bein' &lac# and %ossibly bein' a beneficiary of
Affirmative Action, that he o!ld adamantly be o%%osed to its %ractice* +hro!'ho!t his
essay One (ation)ndivisi*le he )!estions the merits of Affirmative Action and com%ares
it to a Isystem of %references and de facto )!otas ?6onnerly
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c!rrent resident of $tanford niversity, rote a statement to the $tanford Fac!lty $enate
re'ardin' $tanfords commitment to diversityB
I$electin' st!dents for admission to a !niversity s!ch as $tanford is an
incredibly diffic!lt and intricate %rocess* A ide ran'e of considerations is
ta#en into acco!nt, b!t academic %erformance and intellect!al %otential
ill alays to% that list* L the consideration of race and ethnicity as one
factor amon' many in that admission %rocess is consistent ith o!r history
as an instit!tion L*
$imilar to the manner in hich schools ta#e into acco!nt hether or not a %ros%ective
st!dent is an athlete, has s%ecial m!sic ability, or is dedicated to their comm!nity race is
ta#en to acco!nt !nder the same conditions* .o sin'le factor eists that 'ives one %erson
a distinct advanta'e over another %erson* As a res!lt, it is nearly im%ossible for hites,
and moreover %eo%le of other races, to be discriminated a'ainst !nder s!ch %olices*
$tanfords, as ell as several other colle'es, commitment to academic ecellence
disco!nts 6onnerlys idea that Affirmative Action %res!%%oses &lac#s to be inferior*
Accordin' to &oen and &o#s, to former =vy 8ea'!e residents, etensive research on
colle'e admissionsB
I+he most f!ndamental ob(ective is to be s!re that the )!alifications of all
admitted st!dents are above a hi'h academic threshold* Admissions
officers see# to offer %laces in the class only to those a%%licants hom
they deem intellect!ally ?and otherise@ ca%able of com%letin' the
academic %ro'ram s!ccessf!lly and benefitin' from the e%erience ?23@*
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$ince Iacademic achievement and intellect!al %otential are considered before race, those
minorities that the !niversities 'ive s%ecial consideration to, and %ossibly acce%t, are (!st
as )!alified as the hite a%%licants* +herefore, hen %racticed correctly, the a%%lication
of Affirmative Action does not %res!me that &lac#s are inferior to hites li#e 6onnerly
ar'!es, instead, it ma#es admissions officers more aare of the fact that there arein fact
)!alified minorities that may contrib!te to the intellect!al and %olitical develo%ment of
their cam%!s*
/oover =nstit!te Fello $helby $teele is another &lac# scholar, ho o%%oses
Affirmative Action* =n addition to com%arin' it to a %ro'ram of racial %references li#e
6onnerly and believin' that it distills a sense of inferiority !%on &lac#s, he feels that
diversity is not a s!fficient reason to !tilie Affirmative Action* =n his boo#, Content of
Our Character+ & (ew ,ision of Race in &merica, he ar'!esB
I-iversit#is a term that a%%lies democratic %rinci%les to races and c!lt!res rather
than to citiens, des%ite the fact there is nothin' to indicate that real diversity is
the same thin' as %ro%ortionate re%resentation* +oo often the res!lt of this on
cam%!ses ?for eam%le@ has been a democracy of colors rather than of %eo%le, an
artificial diversity that 'ives an ed!cation %arity beteen &lac# and hite
st!dents that has not been achieved in reality* L only 2 %ercent of &lac#
st!dents 'rad!ate from colle'e ?$teele5 - @*
$teele believes that Affirmative Action is a ty%e of hando!t 'iven to &lac#s in an attem%t
to s!%%ress the '!ilt that many hites %ossess as a res!lt of the in(!stices committed
a'ainst &lac#s* /e believes that the dis%arity that eists beteen &lac#s and hites that
are covered !% hen &lac#s are admitted to schools !nder Affirmative Action* =f one
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ere to eamine the Avera'e $A+ scores of minorities vers!s those of hites, or even, if
one ere to scr!tinie the %robability of admission beteen &lac#s and hites 'iven their
$A+ scores at selective instit!tions, one o!ld be inclined to concl!de that on avera'e,
&lac#s are not as )!alified as hites and are 'iven an !nfair advanta'e over hites*
Mean SAT Scores of Matriculants at Four selective Institutions,
by Race, 1951, 1976, and 1989
117
19
118
1!"! 1!#51"9! 1!""
0
200
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0P
20P
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$i-Hear Grad!ation "atesR
"ace 7=+ $tanford /i'hly
$elective
$elective 7oderately
$elective
8ess
$elective
All
=nstit!tions
&lac# C0*3P C1*CP 55*2P 3C*P 3
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Fi'!res 2 and 3 reveal that altho!'h on avera'e, &lac#s are admitted ith loer $A+
scores than hites, &lac#s are as ca%able as those hites ho have hi'her test
scores, and f!rthermore, &lac#s often ecel and s!r%ass their on e%ectations
hen faced ith the challen'e of overcomin' the ri'ors of colle'e life* As a res!lt,
!%on collectively analyin' Fi'!res , 2, and 3, it is clear that $A+ scores are rarely
a le'itimate %redictor for an individ!als %erformance in colle'e instead, other
factors m!st be loo#ed at, in con(!nction ith $A+ scores, to more acc!rately
%redict an individ!als s!ccess in colle'e* Fi'!re 3 dis%roves $teeles idea that
diversity %rovides a false a%%earance of ed!cational %arity beteen &lac# and
hite st!dents* Altho!'h, %arity is not f!lly achieved, the 'a% is narro at selective
instit!tions and only CP nationally*
Altho!'h 6onnerly and $teele have some valid %oints in their ar'!ments a'ainst
Affirmative Action, there are a myriad of %oints hich made !s reconsider the validity of
Affirmative Action in colle'e admissionsB 6onnerly and $teeles im%lied ass!m%tion that
a ma(ority of &lac#s benefitin' from Affirmative Action are not as %re%ared as hites for
the ri'ors of colle'e, and 6onnerlys o%inion that colle'e admissions sho!ld com%letely
i'nore race* +he ne'ative stereoty%es abo!t Affirmative Action, hich incl!de its broad
definition and its lac# of !niform a%%lication thro!'ho!t the vario!s colle'es in the
nited $tates, indicate that there is a need for a redefinition of Affirmative Action* =f
Affirmative Action cannot be redefined, then another system, hich has more defined
'oals and %roced!res, and better ins!res the ed!cational e)!ality beteen hites and
minorities, sho!ld be im%lemented* erha%s an administration system similar to that of
6ornell and $tanford, here race is only as im%ortant as a st!dents athletic ability, hich
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is considered alon' side a m!ltit!de of other factors, hen reviein' a %ros%ective
st!dents a%%lication*
The assumption that minorities, particularly Blacks, are not adequately prepared
for college and are consequently undeserving of the same college opportunities as whites
illustrates a need for our nation to further discuss, and define, race issues. Although the
evidence demonstrating Blacks competence and comparable ability with whites exists,
stereotypes, which suggest that Blacks are only able to gain admission to colleges
through the use of Affirmative Action, remain prevalent on college campuses and
throughout the general United States population. A study conducted by Daniel Solorzano
from the University of California at Los Angeles, Miguel Ceja from the University of
California at Davis, and Tara Yosso from the University of California at Santa Barbara
provides examples of these negative stereotypes. A Black females experience revealed
that [m]ost of my experience in regards to racism have come from students Like, a
couple of our class discussions were about the whole Proposition 209 issue and
affirmative action, and [the White] students really thought that the only reason Black
students were getting into these universities was because of affirmative action. A lot of
them could not fathom that we earned our way here (67). As &lac# st!dents, e can
relate to her e%erience beca!se e have 'one thro!'h similar sit!ations in o!r lives*
Even at $tanford, e sometimes feel that e have to or# tice as hard as other st!dents
to %rove o!r orth* E%eriences li#e these, in hich &lac#s feel as if they are constantly
bein' loo#ed !%on as Affirmative Action admits, hether acc!rate or not, shos that
there are misconce%tions on both sides of the iss!e that need to be corrected, and the only
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effective ay to correct these misconce%tions is to sit don and en'a'e in an o%en
dialo'!e*
Ward Connerlys idea of ignoring ones race and focusing on the individuals and
their individual humanity, we are creating equal, and thereby inviting those principles
present since the American founding to come inside our contemporary American home
(Connerly 24) is flawed to some extent. He feels that race does not accurately define an
individual, predict the fears you will have to face, the obstacles you will have to
overcome, and the strengths you will discover along your journey (Connerly 24).
Although Connerlys ideas are noble, they ignore the reality of the world in which we
live. For a majority of people, their race and ethnicity makes up a large part of the light in
which they see themselves. Without their culture, the character and personality would be
different in a variety of ways. John Ladd agrees that race is an important part of an
individual. Research suggests that social groups only become distinguished and
identified, say as races, in contrast to another group, say the majority, who regard
themselves as raceless [] it should be obvious that racial identification is a crucial
aspect of an individuals being a member of a race, or, as the case may be, of several
races. Therefore, to deny racial identification to an individual is either to deny the
existence of that individuals race or to declare it morally insignificant or morally
reprehensible (Ladd 218). The colorblind approach to college admissions that Connerly
proposes, is flawed because in addition to asking one to forget that they are Black,
Latino, or any other race, and ignoring a large part of their identity, Connerlys approach
avoids addressing the underlying racial issues in our country. Using a colorblind
approach to college admissions not only reduces the chances of increasing diversity in
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colleges and accumulating the knowledge gained from interactions between people of
different races, but it also prevents people from engaging in dialogues that may help to
ultimately destroy several unjustified biases. Since college is a period where people grow
and change their ways of thinking, it is also an excellent time for people to engage in
racial dialogues and attempt to solve the racial dilemma in our country. Although racism
has always been, and may even continue to be an underlying problem in American
society, people can help to gradually eliminate racism by using casual conversations to
better understand other peoples opinions, races, and most importantly, culture.
+o concl!de, altho!'h the African-American str!''le for ed!cational, %olitical,
and economic e)!ality is not entirely com%lete, the overall stat!s of &lac#s in America
seems to be increasin' ith time, and th!s, there contin!es to be ho%e for &lac#
%ro'ression in America* rior to and d!rin' the 6ivil "i'ht, most hites discriminated
a'ainst African-Americans and de%rived &lac#s of ed!cational and %rofessional
o%%ort!nities e)!al to those of hites* +hro!'ho!t the many years, hoever, %rominent
African-American leaders, s!ch as Dr* 7artin 8!ther 9in', Jr*, and 7alcolm :, enhanced
the ideas of &lac# .ationalism and ed!cation, thro!'h the im%lementation of Affirmative
Action, hich o%ened a myriad of doors for &lac# advancement in America* &efore
cond!ctin' this research, e e%ected to discover that since the 6ivil "i'hts 7ovement,
there has been a de'eneration of &lac# .ationalism and &lac# ed!cation in America* We
e%ected to discover a decay of &lac# .ationalism s!bse)!ent to the 6ivil "i'hts
7ovement beca!se there are feer o!ts%o#en &lac# .ationalist ithin today4s African-
American comm!nity* >!r research, hoever, shos that altho!'h several African-
Americans ere avid &lac# .ationalist %rior to and d!rin' the 6ivil "i'hts 7ovement,
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c!rrently, more African-Americans consider themselves &lac# .ationalist in modern-day
America than %rior to, and d!rin', the sities*
Additionally, e e%ected to discover a decline in African-American ed!cation,
beca!se in modern-day America, most m!ltimedia %rod!cts %ortray African-Americans as
loer-class citiens or criminals, ho %ossess a %oor ed!cation, and in addition to these
details, the im%lementation of Affirmative Action has not 'reatly benefited the &lac#
comm!nity over the %ast decade* >ften times, African-Americans allo m!ltimedia
%rod!cts and stereoty%es, s!ch as these, to define them* +h!s, many &lac#s consider
themselves loer-class citiens, ho have no chance of becomin' infl!ential members of
society* &ased on these observations, e e%ected to discover a decline in the s!ccess of
&lac# ed!cation* "e%orts sho, hoever, that there are 'reater %ercenta'es of African-
Americans in secondary school and colle'e in today4s society than there ere d!rin' the
sities, and ith a fe revisions to todays Affirmative Action %lan, &lac#s sho!ld
contin!e to enroll in colle'e and become s!ccessf!l and %rod!ctive members of American
society* Americans, hoever, m!st contin!e to revise, and not eradicate, Affirmative
Action in order for all minorities, more s%ecifically &lac#s, to have the o%%ort!nity to
advance in American society* 7oreover, revies sho that the tests scores and
achievement rates of African-Americans in secondary schools are steadily increasin' in
many lar'e cities thro!'ho!t the nited $tates* Evidently, aside from hel%in' the &lac#s
'ain e)!al ri'hts in America, the 6ivil "i'hts activists, more s%ecifically Dr* 7artin
8!ther 9in', Jr*, and 7alcolm :, hel%ed instill ideas of &lac# .ationalism and &lac#
%ro'ression into the African-American %o%!lace, hich contin!e to flo!rish in today4s
&lac# comm!nity* African-Americans, hoever, m!st not become content ith their
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%lace in society, for the stat!s of &lac#s in America remains !ne)!al to that of hites*
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