INFILTRATION: AN ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFECT OF...

INFILTRATION: AN ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFECT

OF ANIMAL GRAZING ON AGRICULTURE LAND IN

ABEOKUTA SOUTH WEST NIGERIA

"A CASE STUDY OF COLLEGE OF ANIMAL

SCIENCE FARM UNAAB"

ADENLE ADEMOLA A.

MATRICULATION NUMBER 02/0664

DEPARTMENT OF WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

AND AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY

UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE ABEOKUTA, NIGERIA

A PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF

BACHELOR OF WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT AND

AGRICULTURE METEOROLOGY (B.WMA).

IN THE DEPARTMENT OF WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT AND

AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY

COLLEGE OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE, ABEOKUTA,

OGUN STATE

The project report investigates the effect of animal grazing on agricultural land at the

University of Agriculture Abeokuta. The study was conducted within the month October

when there was five days rainfall cessassional interval. Specifically the study site is the

College of Animal Science Farm of the university. The site locations used for this

experiment includes: the vegetative land, the farms old and new paddock, the animal's

foot or traffic path and the door step of the old paddock. The experiment was done in

replicates ..

The significant changes in soil structure pointed to the cause of hindrance to infiltration

rate on the old and new paddock as a result of the cfTect of grazing practices. Equally the

slow rate of infiltration as witnessed by foot path and door step are due to animal grazing

as compared to a non disturbances to infiltration rate on vegetative land.

Titk Page

('crt ification

Dcdication

Acknowlcdgcmcnt

Abstract

Tahh: of Content

List of Table

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

CHAI)TER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

Bn:l'ds of cattlc usc fix animal grazing in Nigeria.

2.0.1 N'dama Cattle

2.0.2 Mutum Cattle.

2.0.3 White Fulani Cattle

2.0.4 Cross (Mutum & N'dama)

2.1 Movement of Cattle during Grazing

2.2 Grazing Management of Cattle

2.3 Grazing Methods

2.3.1 Set Stocking Method

2.3.2 Strip-Grazing Method

2.3.3 Rotational Grazing Method

2.3.4 Rational Grazing Method

2.3.5 Split-herd and creep grazing

2.3.6 Zero Grazing (Soilage)

T.T Infiltration

2.8 Variability ofInfiltration Rate

2.9 Comparison ofInfiltration Models

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Description of the study Area

3.2 Characteristic of the Project Site

3.3 Materials

3.4 METHODS

CHAPTER FOUR

4. 0 Regression Equation 30

4.1 Multiple Regression of Average Old Paddock 30

4.2 Multiple Regression of Average New Paddock 32

4.3 MUltipleRegression of Average Door Step 33

4.4 Multiple Regression of Average Footpath 34

4.5 Multiple Regression of the Average Vegetative Land 36

4.6 Correlation Results 37

4.7 T Test Results 40

4.8 Graphical Representation of Average Infiltration Rate and Accumulated Water

Depth against Elapse Time 45

4.9 Interpretation of Graphs 47

4.9.1 Interpretation of Old Paddock Average Graph 47

4.9.2 Interpretation of New Paddock Average Graph.

4.9.3 Interpretation of Doorstep Average Graph

4.9.4 Interpretation of Foot/Traffic Path Average Graph.

4.9.5 Interpretation of Vegetative Land Average Graph.

4.10 Interpretation of Average Accumulated Infiltration

CHAPTER FIVE5.0 Conclusion

5.1 Recommendation

Table I:

Table 2:

Table 3:

Table 4:

Table 5:

Table 6:

Table 7:

Table 8:

Table 9:

Table 10:

Table II:

Table 12:

Table 13:

Table 14:

Table 15:

Table 16:

Table 17:

Table 18:

Table 19:

Table 20:

Combined Table of Old Paddock Replicates

Combined Table of New Paddock Replicates

Combined Table of Door Step Paddock Replicates

Combined Table of Foot Path Paddock Replicates

Combined Table of Vegetative Land Paddock Replicates

Replicate I Old padlock

Replicate 1 New Paddlock

Replicate 1 Doorpost

Replicate I Foot path/traffic path

Replicate 1 Vegetable and ungrazed cal

Replicate 2 Old padlock

Replicate 2 New Paddlock

Replicate 2 Doorpost

Replicate 2 Foot path/traffic path

Replicate 2 Vegetable

Replicate 3 Old padlock

Replicate 3 New padlock

Replicate 3 Foot path

Replicate 3 Vegetative

Replicate 3 Door step

Man's deliberate effort to till the soil cultivate crop and rear animal for food

clothing, shelter and other purposes is an age thing. The surface of the earth that is not the

sea where these man's activities are carried out is the land which is part of the four global

J"t':llms nanwly Riosphere. Atmosphere. Hydrosphere and T.ithosphere.

The role of land to IlIlIn IInd Agriculture to nUIIl cllnnol hul h(: slresscd in Ihlll il is on land

thatth\.' whole \,fm •.lIl·s Agricultural practices are carried out (Iwena. 1(95) gave some of

till' Ii.'atun's of land that land is the solid part of the earth crust where productions like

crop 1~lrtlling Animal Itlrming can take place. It is one of lhe factors of production that

l'annot he wished away by any producer whether primary. secondary and tertiary

producer.

This glohal realm is II free gin of nature it is permanently immobile and it is

suh.kd to the universal law of diminishing return that alleet every fixed factor of product

which land is II parI.

The land needs to be rewarded with rent for it to appreciate. (Iwena, 1(95)

l'Iassilicd thl' USl'Sofland liS non-Agricultural and Agricultural uses orland. he listed non

agricultural uses of land as I lousing either for estate. township or settlement, transport

such as mad railway and airport, petroleum coal as mining uses of land and uses such a'i

school. stadia, lIlosqu\.', church, hospital as social economic uses of land. lie further listed

forestry wildlili." and game reserves, fishery. plantation and crop farm and livestock

The important of livestock especially ruminant to human existence is emphatic.

The ruminant animal are the source of meat and milk for human consumption as protein

sources, raw material such as wool, hide, and skin, for textile and fabric and leather

industries. They are also sources of income. To small scale farmer these ruminants are

sold to meet compelling farming financial obligations and as symbols of wealth and

honors when slaughtered for consumption at home or during ceremonies and festival.

The natural food by herbivores domestic animal is pasture herbage and for most of the

years this form all and most of their diet (Me Donald, et aI., 1993). Livestock production

from pasture depends on quality intake and the efficiency with which livestock digest and

utilize the nutrient content depends on the accessibility to good and quality pasture.

(Awogbade, 1983) most livestock farmer depend on natural grass land to be to meet their

animal minimum quality of herbage which is effective for digestion and nutrient

utilization and the closest and cheapest access to this is by grazing. Which farmers adopt

(Nomadic pastural production strategies) (Awogbade, 1983).

The nomadic pastoral production strategies as practiced by Fulani is a system of

animal production which has it strategic movement of animal and human from one

ecological zone to another in search of grasses. This is termed animal grazing.

The supporter of migratory pastoral system emphasized the advantages in

nomadic as a response to the seasonal changes in rainfall and drought, the accumulation

of expanse of herd and general failure of ranching scheme which are some of the

arguments of migratory pastoral system. (Gicher and Baker, 1982). The argument of the

supporter of migratory pastoral system is valid and it is applicable to South West Nigeria

where variation in Annual rainfall and drought drastically affect the distribution and

availability of vegetation as herd of livestock is increasing yearly and ranching system

cannot cater for this increase even ranching system which as failed as said by (Gicher and

Baker,1-982) is not the usual practice. Migratory pastoral system is therefore the order of

the day in south west Nigeria.

1.1 Problem Statement

World wide there are more than 1.5 billion sheep and goat and 1.2 billion cattle:

this estimate suggests that this number will increase to about 1.8 billion sheep and goat

and 1.6 billion cattle by the end of this century (Botkin ef. al .. 200 I) and south west

Nigeria cannot be an exception usually these livestock are maintained on pasture and

ranges which is part of Agricultural land. This expected increase will also have a telling

impact on agricultural land; some of the likely impacts before the end of this century are

leaching, soil compaction, and reduction in soil aeration, hindrances to soil water

infiltration, water logging and flooding, runoff generation among other. This impact is

due to the negative correlation between animal grazing and agricultural land and it is

quite unfortunate that most livestock farmer are not aware of this detrimental correlation

and this calls for urgent attention.

1.2 Aim of the Study

• To carry out the infiltration assessment of the effect of animal grazmg on

agricultural land.

1.3 Objective of the Study

• To give a descriptive association between average infiltration rates on grazing

land and elapse time.

• To give an equation which describes the relationship between infiltration rate,

accumulated depth of water on grazing land and elapse time.

• . To use a statistical method to show the significant difference of the effect of

animal grazing on agricultural land

• To produce a graph showing the relationship between average infiltration rates

average accumulated infiltration and elapse time on grazing land.

-Benin and Nigeria. They are no seasonal movement. However, grazing being entirely

and concave forehead accentuated by prominent orbit arched the pull board and straight

and the horn short. They develop an umbilical cord and tights. The skin of true dwarf

breed is usually unpigmented throughout although some variation occur. It responds in

tenn of growth rate, breeding performance to improve management although their dwarf

characteristics remain constant.

2.0.3 White Fulani Cattle

(Hill,1998) Describe white Fulani as the most cosmopolitant in distribution of

_. -West African type. Homed group of Zebu cattle and this is probability due to it somewhat

better tolerant to trypanosomiasis then West African Zebu. It is triple purpose animal of

powerful frame and docile temperament well fitted to cultivation and general packed or

haulage purpose.

Although it has been improved for milk production. It is a good beef animal and

despite the slopping sacrum has well to dry season ranging and respond well to move

intensive grazing. In it natural habitat over 95% of these cattle are in the herd of Nomadic

or transhumance Fulani. For whom they represent as source of prestige as basis wealth

and investment and together with their product to provide the mean of exchange for

purchase of daily needs.

2.0.4 Cross (Muturu & N'dama)

It is a cattle breed in crossing Muturu and N'dama. They are horned type animal.

They develop an umbilical cords and tight. They are trypano -tolerant animal. It colour

varies with black and white patches with brown colour etc. the head is short and broad

with straight profile. They are usually beef type animal producing fair good carcass. They

are slow moving animal intensive grazing.

2.1 Movement of Cattle during Grazing

-~ Travel (walking) influences the energy requirement of grazing cattle (Walker et

aI., 1985;) observed a decreased in daily travel distance in five and seven years old cattle.

Comparewith three year old cow further indicating that previous grazing experiences can

influence current behaviour. The genetic cost of travel can increase maintenance

requirement from 10 to 25% in grazing animal compared with stall fed animal (Riberi et

al., 1977).

Some individual cattle range further than other, some readily range into upland,

habits while other seems contented to utilize riparian habitant (Ruthenhouse, 1984).

(Harley, 1982) determined that travel occurred at the same time as foraging and only

occasionally did animal travel without foraging. Cattle on grass land range, travelled less

per day under continuous than under short duration when confined to 30 acre paddock.

2.2 Grazing Management of Cattle

Understanding how livestock adjust their grazing behavior to content with

changing environmental and forage dynamics is paramount to development of

management strategies design to optimize livestock production (Demment et a/., 1986)

emphasis on grazing management is well desired, deserved because of via relatively low

cost and potential great return per management input (Lewis and Rolesky 1988).

However, behavior variable should be more sensitive to management changes than

nutrient intake because intake may be buffered by adaptive behaviour «Hodgson, 1982).

Grazing management is a tool that can be use to increase the amount of soil

moisture that become available for plant use (Rauzi, 1973). The reason for this is that

grazing affect plant material both standing crop and often, which has a pronounced on

infiltration (Rauzi and Smith, 1973). Secondly can affect the surface porosity of soil due

>----- to trampling and "vegetative root thinning". Thus, changing the run off of the range land.

(VanHaveren, 1983)when runoff occur, it erosive nature transports soil nutrient from the

site and can even reduce A horizon top soil depth, which decreases, the amount of water

that can be stored in the profile of the soil (Mc Ginty et al., 1991). The A horizon is rich

in organic matter, giving it the ability to hold more water than deeper soil horizon,

erosion research has shown that loss of soil reduces crop yield due to a decrease in the

amount of water available to plant (Schertz et al., 1989).Also the (USDA, 1989) reported

that a shallow soil with sloping terrain erosion may completely destroy crop productivity.

When the ability of a soil profile to store water is reduced, plant run out of water sooner.

Increasing the frequency and severity of drought. (Mc Ginty et aI, 1991). This situation

adversely affect vegetative growth and therefore has a direct effect on the productivity of

rangeland.

2.3 Grazing Methods

(Robert, 2002) defined grazing as the process of feeding on standing plant other than

browse by livestock grazing as the process of conserving or feeding on standing

vegetation as by man domestic livestock and certain species of wildlife (Lewis, 2002). He

classified the degree to which an area is cropped by grazing into ungrazed, lightly grazed

moderately grazed, closely grazed and severely grazed. (Anonymous source). A lecture

note of the department of Animal Production and Health of the University of Agriculture

classified the grazing methods as:

• Set stocking,

• Strip grazing,

• Rotational grazing,

--.-S-plit-herd creep grazing and

• Zero or soilage grazing.

2.3.1 Set Stocking Method

This is a least complicated and least productive system of grazing control. The

cattle are given free access to a given area of pasture at a predetermined stocking rate. No

part of the grazing area is reserved for conservation but the pasture may be topped.

2.3.2 Strip-Grazing Method

This described strip -grazing as a method involving short term grazing of pasture

followed by long period of rest of varying under this is a restricted grazing method, this

system grazing ensure efficient pasture utilization with little selection and wastage.

2.3.3 Rotational Grazing Method

This method involve a division of the available pasture into paddock with

permanent fence usually (2- 5 are block) with watering facilities in the entire paddock.

The animal are allow to remain in one paddock .They are retu~ed to the original paddock

after all the other have been grazed and that the interval depend on the number of

paddock and whether the programme incorporate alternate grazing and cutting for

conservation.

2.3.4 Rational Grazing Method

French man Andre Viosin, described it as an elaboration of Rotation grazing. This

method attempts to vary the rest period between grazing according to the season of the

year.

2.3.5 Split-herd and creep grazing

------ Since the physiological need of different group within a herd demand different

grazing management to meet the nutritional required of cattle. Split-herd and Creeping

grazing is an option. Cattle herd consist of cows in early-mid and late lactation, heifers

being grazed with adult cow and so on .Top grazer with high yielding cow are feed first

by allowing rotational grazing at low intensity then bottom grazer with low yielder are

followed in consideration of the requirement of the animal and their account to which

they turn herbage.

2.3.6 Zero Grazing (Soilage)

This is a long established system of grazing control. The practice is a very popular

as a result of intensification of grassland management and the improvement of machinery

for harvesting fresh herbage. The system has achieve a reduction in herbage wastage

caused by selective grazing and by trampling and fowling, yard ling the herd all the year

round and cutting the grass during the growing season for direct feeding of the animals.

2.4 Animal grazing or pastoralizing in Nigeria

The nomadic pastoral production strategy as practiced-by Fulani's is a system of

animal production which has it strategic movement of animal and human from one

ecological zone to the other. Movement. When they occur, are always in response to

seasonal variation in weather condition and Forage availability (Awogbade, 1983).

Willians,1981) has listed and described four system of pastoralism Le. grazing

management system are used through the world. Nomadism, semi-sedentary,

transhumance and sedentary. The Nomadic pastorist occupies semi and savannah land

movingin response to the seasonal grazing and water of this herd and flock.

The perennial search for grass and water place intense pressure upon him

---espeCially during period of drought, while in search for grass to take livestock into tsetse

fly area is risking infection from trypanosomiasis. Nomad have an intense infinity for

their animals knowing and naming each of them often by colour, size percentage or

month in which they are born. Their cattle respond to various commands and reprimand

either by voice or by trapping loudly on their walking stick. The trick of commanding

them to scatter when a cattle head tax collector appear on the scene and their recall

remustering after his departure are good example of this communication between the herd

men and his stock (Hill, 1998).

The policy of government at settling the transhumance livestock producer

emanate from strong belief that no sustained husbandry can be embarked upon without

the producer right to land. By setting the Nomadic pastorialist not only in a land made

available to them for both animal and crop raising ,they could also benefit more than

infrastructure provided by government to improve their well being (Ennovon, 1998).

Supporter of migratory pastoral system emphasis the advaJ.ltageof Nomadism as a

response to seasonal change in rainfall and drought. (Gicher and Baker, 1982).

2.5 Impact of grazing

Grazing has significant effect on the soil structure and damaging one are

particularly likely in dry rangeland subject to erosion as well as considerable fluctuation

in annual rainfall. Averagely such impacts require careful and continuous adjustment of

grazing intensity (Tomannek et al.,1994). Heavy grazing level are associated with

reduced rate of water infiltration (since the soil particles are liable to compact) increase

runoff, accelerated erosion (Rauzi and Smith, 1973). Any land use which changes the soil

and vegetative cover and hoof impact on soil structure (Arnold, 1981,2002) over grazing

occur when the stock rate (Animal per unit land per unit time) exceed the carry capacity

of the pasture or ranch or when livestock are not properly distributed across a ranch or

pasture.

Overgrazing tend to reduce protective vegetative cover and compact the soil (hoof

impact) causing deterioration in soil. Structure thus over grazing can lead to reduced

infiltration, increase over land flow and increase potential for non point source pollution

generation transport (Thenes et al., 1985).

2.6 The effect of animal grazing on soil bulk density.

The soil bulk density is an index of compaction and densification. The density of

any material is the ratio of it mass to volume. The relationship is used variously to define

soil particle density. Soil dry density and soil wet total bulk density (Hillel,

1980:.Campbell et aI, 1994).The soil particle density is the measure of dry soil mass to

volume of solid. The wet bulk density is the ratio of mass of soil and liquid to volume of

solid, air water .usually the dry bulk density is measure by many researchers (Campbell et

al 983 ).So whenever the term bulk density is used for soil, the dry bulk is assumed.

(Ahn, 1970, 1979), also caused irreversible increase in bulk in bulk density.

of trampling and thinning. (Augers, 1995) Calculated the static ground pressures exerted

by mature cattle to be in the order of 24 pounds per square inch at stand still. pressures

will he limf times thWl Wllount as the animal moves and the weight is trWls1erred

hetween hoof (Foth,1990).Thus it is logical that as the stocking increases, the effect of

additional trampling will be and measurable (Hartge,1994) Bulk density is then a

function of the root mass that occupies the soil column. Since above ground foliage is

proportional to the roof mass, increased grazing will also increase bulk densities.

However, the ability of livestock to alter soil bulk densities is not solely a function of

stocking densities.

Pre existing soil texture and soil and moisture conditions are important variables to

consider when investigating the relationship between soil and grazing

intensity(Hudson,1965).Soil physics dictates that wet soil will compact more readily than

dry soil because of the lesser force that is required to compact a wet soil than to compact

the same soil to the same density when dry(Hudson, 1995).Given that geographic climate

di1fers ,the ease of soil compaction due to wetness, on average, will be regionally

dependent(CuIly, I993).Soil texture is also important in determining the potential for soil

compaction a visit to beach gives insight as though the ground is heavily traveled the

coarse textured remains loose and unconsolidated.(Bartoil et aI,1992) found that coarse

textured soil bulk densities were not affected by grazing intensity. However, bulk density

was found to increase with grazing intensity on fme textured soil. This indicates that

there must be a greater awareness of the effect of over grazing on soil with significant

clay fraction.

2.7 Infiltration

Infiltration is a relatively new concept in hydrology unlike precipitatio~

evaporation, ground water and surface run off which have been observed and studies

(Horton, 1933) described the flow of water through the soil surface following (Musgrave

and Holton, 1964) the infiltration process can be seen as having three part surface entry,

the movement of water through the soil and the lastly reduction of the soil storage

capacity (Ayo Ade, 2003) said that for infiltration to occur, water has to enter the soil

surface concerned, be transmitted through the soil surface and eventually stored with. It

to make good and soil moisture deficient. Thus, the storage and movement of soil

moisture is linked with infiltration. He further said water will continue to enter the soil if

there is no hindrance to surface entry as long as water is being transmitted down with the

soil profile. Among the factor influencing the transmission capacity of soil profile are

texture and structure of successive horizontal making up the soil profile (Akitola, 1974).

The maximum rate at which water can be absorbed by a soil in a given time

condition is known as infiltration capacity of the surface (Horto~ 1933) infiltration rate

refer to the amount of the rain water that passes into the ground surface in unit time. The

actual infiltration rate is equivalent to infiltration capacity for a given surface whenever

rainfall intensity is greater or equal to the infiltration capacity (Ward, 1975).

The hydrologic significance if infiltration was identified by (Ayo Ade, 2003) as

having influence on the pattern of runoff, determination of the amount of moisture in the

soil and is related to the transpiration of plant and evaporation of soil moisture. He further

stressed that infiltration rate and infiltration capacity vary over space and time on to

several factor.

2.8 VARIABILITY OF INFILTRATION RATE

Several factors influence the process of infiltration hence the rate of infiltration

varies over both space and time. The factors controlling the rate of infiltration over a

given surface relate to the characteristics of that surface as a penneable medium as well

as characteristics of the percolating fluid.

The initial surface entry of rain water into the soil depends on the soil surface and

surface cover conditions. Studies have shown that vegetation is one of the most important

factors affecting surface entry of water. Vegetation or mulches protect the soil surface

from rainfall impact. Infiltration is reduced by surface compaction, the in-washing of fine

particles into surface pores and by frost. On the other hand, sun cracks and vegetation

cover favors infiltration. Infiltration tends to be greater in areas with vegetation cover

rather than bare ground because vegetation forces water to infiltrate by reducing surface

water movement and also reduces compacting of the surface by raindrops. (Ward, 1975).

The rate of downward transmission of water through the soil profile is controlled

by the characteristics of the various horizons constituting the soil profile. The most

relevant soil properties are texture and structure which detennine to a large extent the

degree of penneability of the soil. As the water passes into the soil, the available storage

capacity in the soil decreases. The storage capacity of the soil may therefore directly

affect the rate of infiltration of rain water during rain storm as infiltration rates tends to

diminish as the storage capacity is depleted. The storage capacity of any soil horizon as

mentioned earlier depends on porosity, thickness of the horizon and the amount of water

already present. The nature and magnitude of the porosity of-a given soil horizon in turn

depend on texture, structure, organic matter content, biological activity and degree of root

penetration. Organic matter promotes a crumb structure and thus improves permeability.

Also, massive root system perforates the soil making it unconsolidated and porous.

Intense biological activity in the soil o[pens the soil up resulting in high entrance capacity

(Musgrave and Holton, 1964).

The characteristics of the percolating rain water may also hinder or favours have

infiltration rates. Clcar water will infiltrate more eao;ily and quickly than muddy watcr

pollllll..-d by tine clays and colloids.

The suspendcd matcrials in the infiltrating water block the fine pores through

which watcr has to pass. Salts atTect the viscosity of water and may form complcxes with

the soil colloids, especially in alkali soils. Viscous water does not infiltrate as easily or

quickly as non-viscous water. Also, warm water infiltrates bettcr than cold water as

shown by the greater proportion of rainfall that occurs as runoffs in temperate regions in

the cool months of spring and autumn compared to the warm summer months. Rate of

evaporation is admittedly another important factor. Thus, the clarity, temperature and

viscosity of the percolating water are the major characteristics which can hinder or

encourage high rates of infiltration, all other things bcing equal.

A further factor which influcnces the amount of water that infiltrates into thc soil

is. of course, the time the water has to infiltrate. This depends on the slope of the ground

surface. On steep slope for instance, watcr will movc rapidly over the surface and will

thus have little time to infiltrate. In contrast, in depressions or on flat surfaces will be held

until it infiltratcs or is othcrwise cvaporated {Jackson] 977}.

Infiltration rates are expressed in units of depth of water that passes into the ground

surface per unit of time, usually an hour. Infiltration rate is .obviously higher when the

soil is dry and can absorb much moisture than after it has been wetted. Thus, during a

given rainstorm we fmd that the infiltration rate decreases with time and eventually

assumes a near constant uniform value. Values of infiltration capacity earlier defined are

based usually on this near constant infiltration rates arrived at the end of a test run using

one of the infiltrometers described above.

Rates of infiltration decreases with time for a given rain storm for two main

reasons. First the wetting of the soil at the beginning of the rain causes granules of clay or

silt to extend thus closing some of the pore spaces in the soil. Second, the film of water

surrounding each soil grain forms a net of interconnected veins of water offering

frictional resistance to the infiltrating water. This slows down the rate of downward

movement of the water, thus slowing the rate of entrance of new water from the surface

{Leopold, 1974}. The frictional resistance offered increases with the depth of wetting in

the soil.

Available data on infiltration rates suggests that the values are relatively low in

the tropics mainly because of high rainfall intensities. This leads to considerable runoffs

and soil erosion and has an adverse effect on the amount of soil water available for plant

growth {Jackson 1977}.

Minimum infiltration rate vary considerably between soil types. Infiltration rates

also vary with soil texture. In general, sandy soils have higher infiltration rates than clay

because of their higher permeability and effective porosity. Human activity such as

grazing, cultivation and urbanization also affect infiltration rates. Overgrazing will reduce

infiltration rates and encourage high surface runoffs and soil erosion. This is because

overgrazing leads to destruction of the vegetation and the compaction of the soil surface

due to trampling by grazing animals. Arable farming also tends to reduce infiltrationand

favor greater water yield and the increased possibility of erosion, unless adequate

protective cover for soil especially in mountainous steep sided and high rainfall

environments. The forest cover encourages infiltration and thereby reduces storm flow

water scientist, and a large member of model for its computation has been developed.

Infiltrationmodels can be classified. In general into three groups (Mishra et al., 1999):

I. Physically based (or theoretical or mechanistic),

2. Semi-empirical and

3. Empirical, physically based models rely on the law of conversation of mass and the

Darcy law

Depending on the consideration of dimensionality, flow dynamics hydraulic

conductivity-capillary head, moisture content retention relation, and initial and boundary

condition, physically based models of varying complexity have been derived. Example of

such models are the models of Green and Ampt (1911), Phillips (1957, 1969), Mein and

Larson (1976 & 1973), Parlange (1978). Among others.

Semi-empirical models employ simple forms of continuity equation often

spatially lumped and simple. Hypothesis as the infiltration rate-cumulative infiltration

relation (or the flux-concentration relation). These models are used on the system

approach popularly employed in surface water hydrology and are a compromise between

empirical and physically based models. Examples of semi-empirical models are the

models of Horton (1998), Holtan (1961), Overton (1964); Sutddlife ss (1970), Griger and

lritz (1991). Among others. Empirical models are based on data derived from either field

or laboratory experiment. Examples of such model are SCS-CN, Kostiakw (1932),

Huggins and modified by Kostiakov (Collis George (1977) models, among others.

Obviously, there are a large number of infiltration models but their suitable for

real would that clear, hence it is not always evident as to which model is bent and under

what condition. Using large field data, Skaggs et al (1969) evaluated the green-Ampt,

Horton, Holtan and Philip model. They obtained mode parameters for several

different soil a't varying initial water contents and surface condition. Adequate fit to

experimental infiltration data were obtained for all of the four model. However, the

Green-Ampt and Philip models predicted infiltration rate that were too low for times

greater than the duration of the experiment test.

The Holtan and Hortan models predicted steady state infiltration rates accurately.

Due to soil variation, crusting effects initial non-uniform soil water content, the model

parameters varied widely. Elrick DE, Bowman Dff (1964) compared the Green-Ampt,

Philip and numerical analysis gave the best agreement with observations but required

considerable input data-comparing the Green-Ampt and Philip models, FOK Y3 (1975)

showed the latter model can be derived from the former one and the maximum difference

between the models was less than 17%.

Rawls et al (1976) calibrated and compared the infiltration models of green and

Hampt (1911) horton model best represented the infiltration capacity curves. The models

of green and ampt, holtan and Phillip consistently over estimated the early portion of the

infiltration capacity curve and underestimated the later portion. Gifford (1976) examined

the suitability of horton, kostiakov and Phillip models for infiltration data collected from

a variety of mostly semi and rangeland plant community from both Australia and the

USA. Nearly 1100 infiltrometer plots were included in the analysis. His result indicated

that the horton model best fit the infiltrometer data only under certain condition.

Innes (1980) compared the green-ampt, holton, main-larson, philip and SCS-Cn

models for 10 different types of Hawii soil varying from clay to sand soil to silty clay

loam. The green-ampt, holton, main-larson, Philip models did not fit well. The mein-

larson model was found to be the best and SCS-CN performed well for dry soils but

poorly for wet conditions. Idike et al (1980) experimentally evaluated the green-Ampt

and Holtan, model generally failed to predict the delay in ponding.

Brakensiek et al (1981). Compared three versions of the combined green-ampt and main-

larson model on four different soil types using soil properties determined from laboratory

techniques and analytical methods. The observed infiltration data were divided into wet

and dry runs. All three models failed to satisfactory predict the wet runs, probably

because of change the soil properties due to reconsolidation and or formation of a surface

scale.

Only the version accounting for the entrapped air predicted satisfactory. Singh et

al (1992) evaluated the Horton and Philip models for determining the optimum slope of

graded check borders. Field evaluation revealed that the Philip model yielded values of

slope closer to the observed field values than the Horton model.

The above, discussion shows that in studies on comparative evaluation, only two

to four infiltration models have been considered, using either laboratory experiments or

held experiment and the result obtained have been mixed. Furthermore, it is not clear

which model is better and under what conditions. The models perform differently when

applied in the laboratory and in the field. The objective of this paper therefore was to

evaluate 14 popular infiltration models representing the three aforementioned groups of

models, compare their or their performance on a large set of filtration data collected in

the laboratory as well as in the field for various soil types, and finally comment on their

suitable for these soils.

3.1 Description of the study Area~~

The stud~ carned out in a part of the permanent site of the University of

Agriculture Abeokuta, College of Animal Science farm precisely. The university is

in which Abeokuta is found is Ogun state which lies with latitude 6CN and sCN and

camaceous at the basal considered thickness of clay, sand, shale of the continental

margm.

Generally the study area has a gentle slope which is valley determinate in the

rivers and streams in the study area.

3.3 Materials

Materials are:

• Infiltrometcr,

• soil moisture meter (moisture tester),

• Stop watch,

• SOL gallon,

• Meter rule,

• Graduated cup,

• Paper tape,

• Weighing Scale,

• Weighing vessel,

• Scoop,

• AbsorbenUReagent (Carbide)

• Scrubbing brush

• The farm layout map,

3.4 METHODS

• Site Preparation

• Experimental Set Up

• Experimental trial

• Replicate

• Plot Treatment

• Plot Management

• Data Collection

• Precautions

• Statistical Analysis

Site Preparation: It is only the site meant for control experiment that will prepare

i.e. the vegetation land (ungrazed land). This is just a piece of land not too far

from the Paddock that is not grazed on by the animals. The site is prepared

manually by using cutlass to clear the bushes and stumping if necessary. Also

include in the site preparation is site determination with the aid of rope to prevent

intruders.

Experimental Trial: Before the real experiment is carried out an experimental

trail was conducted for the purpose of reducing experimental error and for proper

understanding of the working of the instrument. The readings from the

experimental trial serves as a guide to the real reading but will be discarded and

not use during analysis.

(C) Experimental Set Up: The experimental set up involves the activities that are

general towards the usage of the infiltrometer and the moisture tester.

A. Infiltrometer set up: It involves the arrangement, positioning of the infiltrometer

to comply with the set standard. They are as follows:

(1) The cylinder is usually about 25cm deep and are formed of2mm rolled sheet.

(2) The inner cylinder, from which the infiltration is measure is 15cm in diameter.

(6) The meter rule is installed inside the inner cylinder with the help of a paper tafle.

(7) The water level in the inner cylinder is read with the field type point range or

(8) The point rod is set at the desired level to which water is to be added, water is

added to the inner cylinder from a container of known volume and gradua~ jar.

about 3 - 4th of the desired level, the matting is removed.

measurement.

(13) After the initial reading, meter rule or point gauges measurement are made at

frequent intervals to determine the amount of water that has infiltrated during the

time interval. Water is added quickly after each measurement so that a constant

average infiltration head could be maintained.

(14) Meter rule reading is taking before water level recedes more than 1cm

(15) The average depth of water maintained in the cylinder is 11cm, which is

approximately equal to water level expected in the border or basin during

irrigation.

(16) The buffer point is filled with water immediately after filling the inner cylinder

water level. The water levels in the two cylinders are kept the same.

B. Moisture tester set up

(1) The inside of the body and cap of the moisture tester are cleaned and free from

residues of any previous test.

(2) Using a weighing scale, weight out the standard weight of (20g).

(3) Put the material (soil samples) collected from each plot in the body of the vessel.

(4) Add absorbent/Reagent. Take two full spoon of absorbent/reagent and put in

cap. (I.e. but for bulky material use 3 -8 scoop to ensure adequate coverage).

(5) Seal the "vessel" and Hold the vessel horizontal to prevent mixing of sample and

absorbent before the instrument is sealed place put cap in position and tighten top

e>ldFloor of the 1JtML paddock

,~

Picture of vegetative land

• Accumulated infiltration dwing the period

• Date of experiment

• Plot number

• Replicate number

• Soil moisture content

(g) Plot Management: The following are the plot management practice that are

employed

• The control plot is weeded regularly i.e. ( a weed free plot space is ensured).

• Cattle were allowed to graze the land working throughout the foot path by the

Fulani's.

• Cattle are allows to dwell in the paddock for resting.

(h) Precautionary Measures:

• Care was taken to keep the installed depth of the two cylinders the same.

• Matting is used to prevent pudding and sealing of the surface soil.

• Error due to parallax on the plastic scale meter rule is avoided .

• Zero error is avoided on the stopwatch.

(i) Statistical Analysis:

Simple correlation and regression

T test

Graphical representation

Variables

Model Variables Entered Removed Method

1 accumulated

infiltration (em),. Enter

average rate

(cm/hr)a

Adjusted R Std. Error of the

Model R R Square Square Estimate

1 .725- .525 .406 12.7776

a. Predictors: (Constant), accumulated infiltration (an), average rate

(cm/hr)

Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

1 Regression 1443.862 2 721.931 4.422 .0518

Residual 1306.138 8 163.267

Total 2750.000 10

a. Predictors: (Constant), accumulated infiltration (an), average rate (cmlhr)

b. Dependent Variable: elapsed time

Standardized

Unstandardized Coefficients Coefficients

Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig.

1 (Constant) 10.625 9.035 1.176 .273

average rate (cmlhr) -28.627 24.982 -.279 -1.146 .285

accumulated infiltration (em) 694.196 256.122 .661 2.710 .027

Variables


1 accumulated


average rate

(cmlhr)8

a. All requested variables entered.




1 .4828 .232 .040 16.2459

a. Predictors: (Constant), accumulated infiltration (em), average rate

(cmlhr)


1 Regression 638.571 2 319.286 1.210 .348·

Residual 2111.429 8 263.929

Total 2750.000 10

a. Predictors: (Constant), accumulated infiltration (em), average rate (cmlhr)


Standardized



1 (Constant) 33.324 5.462 6.101 .000

average rate (em/hr) -8.772 43.058 -.079 -.204 .844

accumulated infiltration (em) -10.888 9.740 -.431 -1.118 .296

Variables


1 accumulated

infiltration (em).. Enter

average rate

(emlhrt





1 .9998 .999 .999 .6129

a. Predictors: (Constant), accumulated infiltration (em). average rate

(em/hr)


1 Regression 2746.995 2 1373.497 3.656E3 .0008

Residual 3.005 8 .376

Total 2750.000 10

Standardized



1 (Constant) -8.448 1.358 -6.219 .000

average rate (cmJhr) .110 .062 .028 1.769 .115

accumulated infiltration (em) 4.703 .073 1.018 64.067 .000

Variables


1 accumulated


average rate

(cm/hr)8

Variables


1 accumulated


average rate

(cmlhr)8





1 1.0008 1.000 1.000 .3592


(cm/hr)

Model Sum of Squares Of Mean Square F Sig.

1 Regression 2748.968 2 1374.484 1.065E4 .0008

Residual 1.032 8 .129

Total 2750.000 10

a. Predictors: (Constant), accumulated infiltration (em), average rate (cmJhr)


Standardized



1 (Constant) -3.830 .856 -4.475 .002

average rate (emlhr) .015 .047 .003 .324 .755


4.5 MULTIPLE REGRESSION OF THE AVERAGE VEGETATIVELAND

Variables


1 accumulated


average rate

(cmlhr)8





1 .9968 .991 .989 1.7110


(cmlhr)

Model Sum of Squares Of Mean Square F Sig.

1 Regression 2726.580 2 1363.290 465.684 .000·

Residual 23.420 8 2.927

Total 2750.000 10

a. Predictors: (Constant), accumulated infiltration (an), average rate (cmlhr)


Standardized



1 (Constant) -29.233 11.421 -2.560 .034

average rate (cmlhr) .251 .123 .243 2.043 .075


Correlation is used to show the relationship betweentwo variables. It could be positively correlated ornegatively correlatedr = 1 perfect positive correlationr=-l perfect negative correlationr=O zero correlation0.5 < r < 1 a high positive correlation-0r < 0.5 a low positive correlation-1 < r < 0.5 a low negative correlatio~.5 < r < 0 a high negative correlationo <

4.6.1 Correlations of elapsed time and average infiltration of averagevegetative landThe value is -0.937 meaning it has a low negative correlation

average

elapsed time infiltration

(min) (cm/min)

Elapsed time (min) Pearson Correlation 1 -.937 -5ig. (1-tailed) .000

N 11 11

Average infiltration (cmlmin) Pearson Correlation -.937 - 1

5ig. (1-tailed) .000

N 11 11

4.6.2 Correlations of elapsed time and average infiltration of averagefoot pathThe value is -0.5 meaning it is highly negatively correlated

average

elapsed time infi Itration

(min) (cm/min)

Elapsed time (min) Pearson Correlation 1 -.500


N 11 11

Average infiltration (cmlmin) Pearson Correlation -.500 1


N 11 11

4.6.3 Correlations of elapsed time and average infiltration of averagedoor stepThe value is -0.662 meaning it has a low negative correlation

average


(min) (cm/min)

Elapsed time (min) Pearson Correlation 1 -.662.

Sig. (1-tailed) .013

N 11 11

Average infiltration (cmlmin) Pearson Correlation -.662.

1


N 11 11

4.6.4 Correlation of elapsed time and average infiltration average newpaddockThe value is -0.335 meaning it is highly negatively correlated

average


(min) (cm/min)



N 11 11

Average infiltration (an/min) Pearson Correlation -.335 1

Sig. (1-tailed) .157 -

N 11 11

4.6.5 Correlations of the elapsed time and average infiltration ofaverage old paddockThe value is -0.4 meaning there is a high negative correlation

average


(min) (cm/min)



N 11 11

Average infiltration (cm/min) Pearson Correlation -.400 1


N 11 11

4.7 T TEST RESULTSReturns the probability associated with a Student's t-Test. We Use TTEST todetermine whether two samples are likely to have come from the same twounderlying populations that have the same mean.We set an hypothesis that:Ho ;J.11 = J.12 meaning the two sample came from the same population with thesame mean.HI ; J.11 = J.12 meaning the above is not true.We set our significance level to be 0.05 or 95%.If our significance value from the table < teh set significance level, then wereject HoWe test using the average vegetative land against all other reading.

4.7.1 T-Test for average vegetative land against average old paddockSince the significance level in the table below is less than 0.05, weconclude that their means are different.

Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean

Pair 1 average infiltration (cmlmin) 58.5455 11 16.01227 4.82788

average infiltration .0364 11 .12060 .03636

N Correlation Sig.

Pair 1 average infiltration (cmJmin) &11 .411 .209

average infiltration

Paired Samples Test

Paired Differences

95% Confidence

Interval of the

Difference Sig. (2-

Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Lower Upper t df tailed)

1 average

infiltration

(cm/min) - 5.85091E1 15.96305 4.81304 47.78497 69.23321 12.156 10 .000

average

infiltration-

41

4.7.2 T-Test for average vegetative land against average newpaddock.The significance level in the table below is less than 0.05 we thereforeconclude their means are different


Pair 1 average infiltration (cmJmin) 58.5455 11 16.01227 4.82788

average infiltration .0664 11 .14848 .044n

N Correlation Sig.



Paired Differences

95% Confidence Interval

Std. of the Difference

Mean Deviation Std. Error Mean Lower Upper t df Sig. (2-tailed)

Pair 1 average

infiltration47.7482

(cm/min) - 5.84791E1 15.97303 4.81605 69.20992 12.143 10 .0006

averageinfiltration

4.7.3 t test for the average vegetative land against door step.Since the significance level is less than 0.05, we conclude that theirmeans are different


Pair 1 average infiltration (cmJmin) 58.5455 11 16.01227 4.82788

average infiltration 14.2909 11 4.24487 1.27988

N Correlation Sig.



Paired Differences

95% Confidence Interval of the

Std. Std. Error Difference

Mean Deviation Mean lower Upper

Pair 1 average infiltration

(cmJmin) - average 4.42545E1 13.28972 4.00700 35.32639 53.18270

infi Itration

4.7.4 T-Test for the average vegetative land against average footpath.Since the significance level from the table below is less than 0.05 wereject the null hypothesis and conclude that the two samples are notfro the same population and therefore have different means


Pair 1 average infiltration (cmlmin) 58.5455 11 16.01227 4.82788

average infiltration 14.4364 11 2.77390 .83636

N Correlation Sig.

Pair 1 average infiltration (cmlmin) &11 .585 .059


Paired Differences

95% Confidence

Interval of the

Std. Error Difference

Mean Std. Deviation Mean Lower Upper t df Sig. (2-tailed)

Pair 1 average

infiltration53.89

(cmfmin) - 4.41091E1 14.56362 4.39110 34.32512 10.045 10 .000306

average

infiltration

4.8 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF AVERAGEINFILTRATION RATE AND ACCUMULATED WATERDEPTH AGAINST ELAPSE TIME

0.451:"E 0.40E~0.35•! 0.30c~ 0.25l!~ 0.20;. 0.15E~0.10E80.05C 0.00

o

0.45

1:" 0.40E

0.35E~.! 0.30l!

0.25c0

I 0.20~;: 0.15c0:::E 0.10~E 0.05:lI

8 0.00c0

-.-Average-&- Acctmulative

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55

Bapsed time (min)

Graph of New Paddock (Average)

~Average-e-Accumulated

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55Elapsed time (min)

;, 30.00oI.; 25.00•••••~ .:: .20.00•••••.! I;:. ~ 15.00I ••~; 10.00

:I •~ 5.00'"< 0.00

o

co-; 20.0~--- ~~:E 15.0-:::E-u~ -; 10.0I __

raE~::J 5.0 -u(,)

c( 0.0

o

Graph of Door Step (Average)

.....- Average

-e- Accurrulated

5 ~ 15 W ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Elapsed Time (min)

Graph of FootlTraffic path (Avera e-+-Awrage-e- Accumulated

1------I

G) 100.00••ca.."C 80.00G)••ca...

60.00 -..-- ~;;:.cc-::::e40.00- CJe-

CJ-e 20.00 -=sCJCJ 0.00 -<

0

Graph of Vegetative land (Average)

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55

8apsed time (min)

4.9 Interpretation of graphs

4.9.1 Interpretation of old paddock average graph

compaction is also the cause of Ocm/hrof infiltration rate. 1bis not unconnected with the

fact that more mature cattle are present in the herd of cattle in my study area and the exert

more pressure than when the cattle herd consist of small young animals.

4.9.2 Interpretation of new paddock average graph.

The initial rate of 0.33cm/hr at the first 5mins was due to exfiltration on the

site.fot the next 2Omin,the infiltration rate recorded was Ocm/hr.this was largely caused

by soil compaction and consolidation of the upper soil layer. Because the new paddock

has not been intensively utilized like the old paddock, The was a sudden infiltration rate

of O.4cm/hr.The soil below the upper compacted soil is not well compacted yet like the

upper soil. The water flow into the uncompacted soil filling the pore spaces. The next

O.cm/hr is because the water has saturated the pore spaces below sa more time is needed

for water to enter the adjourning soil zone but if other factor are constant it is expected

that the trend will repeat itself.

4.9.3 Interpretation of doorstep average graph

At the door step, two factor controls infiltration of water they are

The effect of animal trampling that is hoof trampling that tend to leads to the

disintegration of surface soil which one of the agent of weathering of rocks .the second

factor controlling infiltration rate of water is soil compaction, below the upper soil

surface that has been disturbed by trampling activities of the animals, there are

compacted soils, therefore the increase in the initial infiltration rate was because the

animals hoof has created spaces for water entrdIlce and for the initial 5min, the

infiltration rate of 26.80cm/hr was recorded. The drastic reduction of 14.

s60cm/hr/13.60cm/h and 12.0Ocm/hrwas due to soil compaction below. Also because

there was less or no organic matter deposition like the old paddock and new paddock,

surface water entry was quick.

4.9.4 Interpretation of foot/traffic path average graph.

At the traffic path of the animal the two factors controlling infiltration rate at the

doorstep are also applicable. Therefore the initial sharp infiltration rate of 22.80cm/hr

was due to animal trampling .while the constant of 13.60cm/hr for the rest of the

experiment's period was due to soil compaction during animal travelling. During animal

travelling the weight of the animal is transferred between the hoofs of the animal.

4.9.5 Interpretation of vegetative land average graph.

At the vegetative land, infiltration rate proceeded nonnally as expected because

there is no interference by animal. The maximum expected infiltration relte of 86.80cm/hr

for the first 5mins.further decrease continues till the end of the experiment.

4.10 Interpretation of AVERAGE Accumulated Infiltration

The resultant accumulated infiltration depth on each plot is dependent on the infiltration

rate and are both affected by similar factors.

Old Paddock

In the old paddock, for the first 5min,since there was no infiltration,

accumulated infiltration depth was O.OOcm.but 10min into the experiment, because there

was infiltration of OAcm/hr, the resultant accumulated infiltrationofO.03cm depth was

recorded. Till the end of experiment, infiltration rate of O.Ocmwas constant and the depth

of accumulated infiltration remained constant there was no surface entry of water.

In the new paddock, for the first 5min, the infiltration rate was 0.33cm/hr this

gives a resultant accumulation depth of O.03cm.and for the next adjourning 25min into

the experiment because there was no infiltration of water into the ground, The depth of

accumulated water remained constant at O.03cm.for the next 5 min (30min into the

experiment) an infiltration rate of O.40cmwas recorded. Thus the depth of accumulated

water increased to O.07cmand because there was no further infiltration till the end of the

experiment which lasted for 55mim,the accumulated infiltration depth remained at

O.07cm.

Doorstep

At the door step/for the first 5min into the experiment infiltration rate of

26.80cm/hr gave a corresponding infiltration depth of 2.23cm..when the infiltration rate

increased to 14.40cm/hr, the depth of accumulated water increased to

3.43cm.furtherly,when when the infiltration was 14.0cm/hr depth of accumulated water

increased to 4.60cm.moreover, when the infiltration was 13.60cm/hr for a time of

15min,the accumulated infiltration increased to 5.73cm,6.68cm,8.oocm

respectively..35min into the experiment, the infiltration rate of13.20cm/hr was observed,

this increased the depth of accumulated water to 9.lOcm and finally, the infiltration rate

of 12.00cm/hr was constant till the end of the experiment, Thus, accumulated infiltration

depth of water were 1O.10cm,11.1Ocm,12.10cmand 13.10cm for every five minute

respectively

Foot Pathffraffic Path

At the foot path, averagely when the infiltration rate was 22.80cm/hr, The depth of

accumulated water was 19.0cm but since the infiltration rate was constant at 13.60cm/hr

till the end of the experimental period 55min.Theaccumulated infiltration depth

increasedfrom3.03cm,4.17cm,5.30cm,6.43cm,7.57cm,8.53cm,,9.83cm, 1O.97cm, 12.1Oem

and13.0cm for every five minute interval till the end of the experiment respectively.

Vegetative Land

At the vegetative land, averagely, for the first 5min into the experiment,

infiltration rate of 86.80cm/hr gave an accumulated infiltration water depth of 7.20cm,at

10min into the experiment, infiltration rate was 78.40cm/hr and the accumulated

infiltration depth of water increased to 13.60cm.at 15min into the experiment the rate was

78,40 cm/hr with the accumulated depth of water increasing to 20.3cm.20min into the

experiment an infiltration rate of 65.60cm/hr was recorded the accumulated depth of

water increased t025.77cm.at 25min into the experiment, infiltration rate was 56.40cm/hr

with the accumulated depth of water increasing to 30,46cm.at 35min into the experiment

the, the infiltration rate was 48.00cm/hr with the accumulated depth of water increasing

38.73cm.At 40.00min into the experiment ,the infiltration rate was 46.00cm/hr with

infiltration depth increasing to 42.57cm,for the last 15min to the end of the experiment,

infiltration rate was constant 44,40cm/hr with the accumulated depth of water increasing

form 46.27cm,49.97cm,53.66cm respectively for every 5min interval.

4.10 DISCUSSION OF THE EFFECT OF ANIMAL GRAZING ON

EACH SUB PLOT.

New paddock and old paddock

On the old and the new paddock, there wiII be aeration problem caused by the

CPllspl illal ion and anollllllliat ion or organic lIlaller.the exchange or gases het ween the pore

spaces and tlK' atmosphere is hindered because or the blockage or the pore spaces

At till' doorstep and tranic path there will he aeration prohlem hut not as severe as

that or thc old ami new paddock.

Vegetntive Land

Till' vcgetHtive land is the control expcrimcnt the land will not have aeration

hl.'causc grazing practiccs arc not su~jectedto the land.

Old ~lIId new paddock.

On the old and new pHddock. water logging or water detention is likely especially

during till.' raining. This lIlight create a marshy or lIluddy terrain on the plot especially

alkr trampling but the cattle. The water logging process will be more rapid on these two

plots becausc or soil compaction and long time accumulation or organic mineral which

pr~vcnt in1iltrationo

At till' door step and trallic path there will he slIrf:lce water detention hilt it not

bas rapid as the of the old paddock and new paddock. The cause of this is connected to

th~'lkpression at the surtace which is traceable to the ellcct of soil compaction

Vc~chltivc L~lIId.

At the vegetative Jand, the rapidity or water detention is very slow even there may

be water logging the occurrence of water logging or water detention is dependent on the

characteristic of precipitation like the intensity, duration etc

Old paddock and new paddock.

On the old and new paddock., the land is depressed due to the impact tramping,

long time resting and this also gives room for water depression

Door Step and Traffic Path

The depression on the land depends on the degree of standstill but usually. The

door step have depression because of constant trampling by animal when they are about

to move out for grazing, the trampling path have depression due to continuous

stampeding by the animals along the same path on regular basis in search for grasses.

Vegetative Land

The vegetative land surface will not be depressed.

Runoff represents the excess of precipitation over evapotranspiration losses when

allowances have been made for infiltration and surface detention.

Old and New Paddock

On the old "andnew paddock runoff generation will be high and will occur rapidly

because there are zero allowances for infiltration caused by compacted soil. The increase

in runoff is increased if the paddocks are not located on a leveled topography

Door Step and Vegetative Land

Runoff generation is slower as compared with the old and new paddock

Vegetative Land

On the vegetative land, runoff generation is not as rapid or visible as that of old

and new paddock and even at door step and vegetative land.

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.0 CONCLUSION

It was not surprising to find out that animal grazing appear to influence the

physical properties of Agricultural land, differences in bulk density, porosity, infiltration

rate, and Accumulated depth of water were all notices which produce different effect on

Agricultural land. Due to the change in the soil structure. It was also believed that

continuous accumulation of animal waste (dung) may be one of the most critical

determinate that dictates the problem associated with Agricultural land. Also trampling

intensity is directly related to soil compaction. Thus many of the problems encounter in

grazing management arise from mainly soil compaction and Accumulation of organic

While project of this ftlture cannot be used to make definite statement due to

limitations in the number of resources available to me, it can be viewed as a valid

indicator. Therefore the information yielded by this project is important in that it is a

"piece of the puzzle" that is needed in order to serve as a linking between the problem

arising from the effect on animal grazing on Agricultural land, in order to check the

problem, caused by grazing and make sound animal grazing management decision.

From the observation and inferences made, it is therefore recommended that

effective grazing management which is the foundation of grass land base live stock

production should be employed which include:

1. Rest rotations: Rest rotation should be employed which is a management scheme

in which there is a rest period for pasture of grazing unit.

2. Rotational grazing: In which animal are removed from one grazing area to another

without regard to specific graze rest period should be employed ..

3. Stock rating: Which involves regulating the number of specific kind and classes

of animal utilizing a unit of land for a specific time period. Should be employed.

4. Stock planning: Which involves efficient planning or the number and kind of

should be employed.

Equally sustainable grass land production practices which is the basis of grass

land management should be employed this will prevent indiscriminate animal grazing

one of such is by slashing and carrying in which grasses and cut and carried to animal in

their paddock this will limit the effect of soil compaction to just their paddock.

Ahn, P.M. (1970). West African soils. Oxford University press, Oxford, Great Britain.

322 pp.

Ahn, P.M. (1979). Micro aggregation in tropical soils: Its measurement and effects on the

maintenance of soil productivity. In: r. Lal and D.l Greenland (ed) Soil physics

properties and crop production in the tropics. John Wiley & Son Ltd., Chichester,

UK. Pp.78-85.a

Anderson, lM. and 1S.I. Ingram (eds) (1993). Tropical soil biology and fertility: A

handbook of methods. Second edition. CAB International, W Eallingford. 221 pp.

Angers, D.A. and G.R. Mehuys (1993). Aggregate stability water. In: M.R. Cater (ed.)

Soil sampling and methods of analysis. Canadian Society of Soil Science/Lewis

Publishers, Boca Raton, Florida, USA. pp. 651-657.

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