Indigenous self determination within the justice …...Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous...

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1 Indigenous self-determination within the justice context: Literature review Larissa Behrendt Research Director Amanda Porter Senior Researcher Alison Vivian Senior Researcher

Transcript of Indigenous self determination within the justice …...Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous...

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Indigenousself-determinationwithinthejusticecontext:

LiteraturereviewLarissaBehrendtResearchDirector

AmandaPorterSeniorResearcher

AlisonVivianSeniorResearcher

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Tableofcontents

Introduction................................................................................................................................3

I Background:...........................................................................................................................4A. RoyalCommissionintoAboriginalDeathsinCustody.....................................................................4B. ImplementingRCADIC:VictorianAboriginalJusticeAgreement.....................................................8

II Self-determinationininternationallaw...............................................................................10A. Self-determinationasaconceptininternationallaw...................................................................11B. UnitedNationsDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples.................................................12

Indigenousself-determinationintheDeclaration..............................................................................13CollectiverightsofIndigenouspeoplesincludedintheDeclaration..................................................15

C. Indigenousjusticesystemsandinternationallaw........................................................................17

III ImpactofIndigenousself-determination:Theevidence......................................................20A. NorthAmericanandAustralianevidence.....................................................................................20B. Self-determinationandIndigenousjusticesystems......................................................................22C. Self-determinationanditsimpactoncriminaloffending..............................................................23

JumbunnaIHL’sresearchfindingsaboutcrimeandself-determination............................................25

IV Indigenousself-determinationandgovernmentpolicy.......................................................28A. Self-determinationandpolicydevelopment:Transparencyandaccountability............................30B. GovernmentpolicydirectedatfacilitatingIndigenousself-determination...................................30C. Transparency,accountabilityandoversightcasestudies..............................................................32

1. AboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderCommission..........................................................................322. VictorianCharterofHumanRights.................................................................................................34PolicymakingundertheCharter.....................................................................................................35OversightundertheCharter...........................................................................................................353. WaitangiTribunal............................................................................................................................36

V Self-determinationandIndigenousjusticemechanisms......................................................39A. ConceptionsofIndigenousjustice:Restorativeandreparativejustice.........................................40B. Casestudies:IndigenousJusticeMechanisms..............................................................................42

1. Preventionandearlyintervention..................................................................................................422. Policing............................................................................................................................................483. Indigenouscourtsystems................................................................................................................534. Sentencing.......................................................................................................................................685. PrisonandPost-release...................................................................................................................69

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IntroductionTheVictorianGovernmenthasannounceditscommitmenttoself-determinationastheprimary

driverofAboriginalaffairspolicy.1Morespecifically,ithasagreedtoenterintotreatynegotiations

withtheAboriginalpeoplesofVictoria,recogniseIndigenousself-governmentanddevelop

optionsforapermanentAboriginalrepresentativebody.2TheGovernmenthasbegun

engagementwithVictorianAboriginalcommunitiestoidentifyanddeliveroutcomesthat

empowerthemtoexercisetheirrighttoself-determination,andautonomyforself-governmentin

mattersrelatingtotheirinternalandlocalaffairs.3

Theworktoprogressself-determinationacrossgovernmentisbeingguidedbytheUnitedNations

DeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples,whichdefinesself-determinationasbeingableto

freelydetermineone’spoliticalstatusandeconomic,socialandculturaldevelopment.4

Self-determinationwasafoundationprinciplefortheVictorianAboriginalJusticeAgreement

(AJA),establishedin2000inresponsetotherecommendationsoftheRoyalCommissioninto

AboriginalDeathsinCustody.5Itwillbeacrucialcomponentofthenext(fourth)phaseofthe

VictorianAJA(AJA4),tobelaunchedin2018,andfutureAJAs.

ThisliteraturereviewisthefirstpartofaprojecttoexplorehowtheVictorianKooricommunity

wishtobuildoncurrenteffortstosupportself-determinationinthejusticecontext.Itwillto

explorenationalandinternationalexamplesofself-determination,particularlyinthejusticecontext.The

literaturereviewwillhelpinformapotentialsuiteofoptionstobeproposedtotheKooricommunityina

consultationprocessthatwillhelpguideKooricommunityperspectivesofreformstheywouldliketosee

acrossthejusticesystem.6

1AboriginalVictoria,‘Self-DeterminationforAboriginalPeople’<http://consult.aboriginalvictoria.vic.gov.au/Open-Meeting>.2SarahMaddison,KirstyGoverandCoelKirkbyforAboriginalVictoria,‘TreatyFactSheet’(2016).<http://consult.aboriginalvictoria.vic.gov.au/Open-Meeting>.3KooriJusticeUnit,‘RequestforQuotation–Self-determinationwithinthejusticespace’(onfilewithauthors)4.4Ibid.5Ibid.6Ibid3.

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I Background:

A. RoyalCommissionintoAboriginalDeathsinCustody

TheRoyalCommissionintoAboriginalDeathsinCustody7wasestablishedin1987andpublished

asareporttotheFederalParliamentin1991.TheRCADICinvestigated99deaths,ofwhichnearly

twothirds(63)occurredinpolicecustody.TheFinalReportconsistedof5volumes,99individual

reportsand339recommendations.TheRoyalCommissionfoundthatthehighnumberof

Aboriginaldeathsincustodywasduetotheover-representationofAboriginalpeopleincustody.

TheRCIADICdidnotfindthatthedeathsweretheresultofdeliberateviolenceorbrutalityby

policeorprisonofficers.However,theCommissionfoundthattherewaslittleunderstandingof

thedutyofcareowedbycustodialauthorities(includingpolice)andthereweremanysystem

defectsinrelationtoexercisingcare.

Themessageofthesereportsiswell-knownandhasbeenstatedmanytimes:Indigenouspeoples

comeintocontactwiththecriminaljusticesystematvastlydisproportionateratesrelativetothe

non-Indigenouspopulation.FigureOneshowstherateofimprisonmentofIndigenousAustralians

per100,000comparedwithnon-IndigenousAustralians.Currentstatisticsindicatethat

IndigenousAustralianscomprise2.3percentofthetotalAustralianpopulation,yetaccountfor24

percentofthetotalprisonpopulationand33percentofthetotalnumberofpersonsheldin

policecustody.8Thisfigurebecomesmoredramaticwhenbrokendownbyjurisdictionswhere

Aboriginalpersonsmakeupalargeproportionofthetotalpopulation.Forexample,withinthe

NorthernTerritorywhereAboriginalpersonsrepresent28percentofthetotalpopulation,

Aboriginalpersonsmakeup83percentoftheprisonpopulation.Table1belowshowsthe

breakdownofthisfigureamongstatesandterritories.

Table1:Indigenousover-representationincustody

7EliottJohnston(1991),NationalReportoftheRoyalCommissionintoAboriginalDeathsinCustody,Canberra:RoyalCommissionintoAboriginalDeathsinCustody.8ChrisCunneenandJuanTauri,IndigenousCriminology(2016,PolicyPress).

Indigenous persons as apercentageoftotal:

population police custodyincidents

prisonpopulation

NewSouthWales 2.1 16.5 20.4Victoria 0.6 9.0 5.8Queensland 3.3 31.4 27.0

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Source:Adapted fromLyneham et

al.9

Figure1:Indigenousover-representationincustody(rateper100,000adultpopulation)

Source:AustralianBureauofStatistics10

IndigenousAustraliansaresimilarlyover-representedasvictimsofcrime.InNewSouthWales,

researchdatademonstratesthatIndigenouswomenaremorethantwicelikelytobethevictimof

sexualassaultthannon-Indigenouswomenandseventimesmorelikelytosuffergrievousbodily

harminanassaultthannon-Indigenouswomen.11ResearchdatademonstratethatIndigenous

womenare30timesmorelikelytobehospitalisedforassaultthannon-Indigenouswomenin

Australia.12SimilarlyIndigenousmalesareover-representedasvictimsofviolence.13Aboriginal

Australiansarehenceover-representedatallstagesofthecriminaljusticeprocessing,bothwithin

thecriminal(‘adult’)andjuvenilejusticesystems,bothasperpetratorsandasvictimsofcrimes.9LBeacroft,MLynehamandMWillis,‘TwentyYearsofMonitoringSincetheRoyalCommissionintoAboriginalDeathsinCustody:AnOverviewbytheAustralianInstituteofCriminology’(2012)AustralianIndigenousLawReview15.10AustralianBureauifStatistics,PrisonersinAustralia2010.ReportNo4517AustralianBureauofStatistics.11ChrisCunneen,‘CriminalisationandPolicinginIndigenousCommunities’,inC.Cunneen,L.BehrendtandT.Libesman(eds)IndigenousLegalRelationsinAustralia(OxfordUniversityPress,2009),125.12Ibid.13AustralianInstituteofCriminology,IndigenousVictimsofViolence(Canberra:AustralianInstituteofCriminology).

WesternAustralia 3.0 45.7 41.2SouthAustralia 1.7 45.5 20.6Tasmania 3.5 16.7 12.6NorthernTerritory 27.8 94.4 83.2AustralianCapitalTerritory 1.2 19.4 10.4Australia 2.3 33.1 24.3

2000 1750

Indigenous

Non-indigenous

1500 1250 1000 750 500 250

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 0

Rate

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Unfortunately,twentyyearsonfromthepublicationoftheRCIADIC,therateofover-

representationhasactuallyincreasedinmostjurisdictions.TheAustralianPrisonsProjecthas

shownIndigenousimprisonmentrateshavegrownsignificantly.14ResearchfromtheBureauof

CrimeStatisticsandResearch(‘BOCSAR’)suggeststhattherateofIndigenousimprisonmentis

rising;between2001and2008theadultIndigenousimprisonmentrateroseby37percent

nation-wideand48percentinNewSouthWales.15TherateofimprisonmentofIndigenous

womenandIndigenousyoungpeopleinparticularhasrisenconsiderablyinrecentyears.16The

phenomenonofover-representationisparticularlypronouncedamongIndigenousyoung

people.17

Indigenousyoungpeoplearesignificantlyover-representedwithinthejuvenilejusticesystemand

therateofIndigenousjuvenileoffendingismuchhigherthanthenon-Indigenousrate.Therateof

over-representationofIndigenousyoungpeoplehassteadilyincreasedsince1994(Richards,

2011).Intheyear2005/2006therewere44Indigenousyouthper1,000underjuvenilejustice

supervisioncomparedwith3per1,000fornon-Indigenousyouth(AustralianBureauofStatistics,

2008).Indigenousyouthcomprisedalargershareofthoseindetention,andmadeup56.3per

centin2008/2007,comparedwith47.5percentin2006/2007and45percentin2005/2005.18

14ChrisCunneen,‘Punishment:twodecadesofpenalexpansionanditseffectonIndigenousImprisonment’(2012)AustralianIndigenousLawReview15(1).15JaqelineFitzgerald,‘WhyareIndigenousImprisonmentRatesRising?’NSWBureauofCrimeStatisticsandResearch(2009).16ECrawford,AboriginalYoungPeopleandCrime(2011,SydneyInstituteofCriminology).17KellyRichards,‘TrendsinJevenileDetentioninAustralia’(2011)TrendsandIssuesinCrimeandCriminalJusticeMay2011. A higher proportion of juvenile than adult detainees is Indigenous. According to data from the AustralianBureauofStatistics,asat30June2008,54.7percentofjuveniledetaineeswereIndigenous,comparedwith24.3percentofadultprisonersinAustralia(AustralianBureauofStatistics,2008a).18Crawford,aboven15.

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Figure2:Rateofjuvenilesindetentionper100,000populationat30June,1994-2008

A. Source:Richards(2011)

ResearchindicatesthatIndigenousyoungpeoplestillreceivemorereferralstocourtandfewer

policecautionswhencomparedwithnon-Indigenousyoungpeople.19StatisticsfromtheNSW

BureauofCrimeStatisticsandResearch(‘BOCSAR’)indicatethatAboriginalyoungpeopleare

morelikelytohavetheirmatterstogotocourt,morelikelytopleadguiltyandaremorelikelyto

receivemoreseriousandheavierpenaltiesthannon-Aboriginalyouth.20LukeandCunneennote

thatIndigenousyoungpeoplearelesslikelytogetbailbecausetheyaremorelikelytohavea

recordofpreviousoffendingand/orfailingtomeetbailconditions.21TheYoungPeopleinCustody

HealthSurvey,foundhighratesofdrugandalcoholuse,mentalillnessandparentalimprisonment

amongjuvenilesincustody,withsomedifferencesbetweentheAboriginalandnon-Aboriginal

populations.22SomeoftheindicatorsfromthesurveyareshowninTable2below:

Table2:YoungPeopleinCustodyHealthSurveyIndicator Aboriginal Non-AboriginalAlcoholandSubstanceAbuseOneormoreparentswithanalcoholordrugproblem 40% 26%Drankalcoholatriskylevelspriortoimprisonment 81% 67%Reportedalcoholhadcausedproblemsinthelastyear 70% 51%Reportedcommittingcrimetogetalcoholordrugs 72% 58%Reportedbeingdrunkatthetimeofoffence 60% 49%Mentalhealth

19ChrisCunneen,Conflict,PoliticsandCrime(2001,AllenandUnwin).20NTaylor,StatisticsonJuvenileDetentioninAustralia:1981-2005.TechnicalandBackgroundPaperno.22.(2006,AustralianInstituteofCriminology).21GarthLukeandChrisCunneen,SentencingAboriginalPeopleintheNorthernTerritory:Astatisticalanalysis(1998,NorthAustralianAboriginalLegalAidService),20.22CVechchiatroetal,NSWYoungPeopleinCustodyHeathSurveyFullReport(2009:justiceHealthandJuvenileJustice).

Non-indigenousIndigenous

200820072006200520042003200220012000199919981997199619951994

500

400

300

200

100

413.9 420.4

24.3 17.6

Rate of juveniles in detention per 100,000 population at 30 June, 1994–2008, by Indigenous status

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Reportedeverself-harming 18% 15%ParentalImprisonmentHadaparentwhohadbeentoprison 61% 29%

Source:AdaptedfromJusticeHealth(Vecchiatoetal,2009)

TheprinciplesoftheIndigenousrighttoself-determinationrunsthroughthepagesoftheRCIADIC

aswellasitsFinalReport’s339recommendations.23Manyoftherecommendationseither

implicitlyorexplicitlyrefertotheneedfornegotiationwithIndigenouspeopleandorganisations.

Perhapsthemostcohesiveencapsulationofthissentimentisreflectedinrecommendation188of

theRCIADIC:

ThatgovernmentsnegotiatewithappropriateAboriginalorganisationsandcommunitiestodetermine guidelines as to the procedures and processes which should be followed toensurethattheself-determinationprincipleisappliedinthedesignandimplementationofanypolicyorprogramorthesubstantialmodificationofanypolicyorprogramwhichwillparticularlyaffectAboriginalpeople.24

Theoverarchingimportanceofself-determinationisenshrinedinkeydocumentsunder

internationallaw.

B. ImplementingRCADIC:VictorianAboriginalJusticeAgreement

TheVictorianAboriginalJusticeAgreement(AJA)isanagreementbetweentheVictorian

GovernmentandtheAboriginalcommunityofVictoriawhichaimstoimprovejusticeoutcomes

andminimisetheover-representationofAboriginalpeopleinthejusticesystembyimproving

accesstojusticeandthrougheffectivejustice-relatedservicesandprograms.

Thefirstagreement,in2000,wasaresponsebytheVictorianGovernmenttoareviewofthe

implementationoftheRCIADICreport.Thesecondphaseoftheagreementwaslaunchedin2006

andthethirdin2013witheachphasebuildingonthepreviousone:

• Firstphase–2000:laidthefoundationforimprovedjusticeoutcomesforAboriginalpeopleinVictoriabydevelopingpartnershipsandinfrastructureandputtinginplacearangeofnewjusticeinitiatives;25

24EliottJohnston,aboven7,vol5,111.25AboriginalJusticeAgreement:AnpartnershipbetweentheVictorianGovernmentandtheKooriCommunity(VictorianDepartmentofJustice,2004)<http://assets.justice.vic.gov.au/justice/resources/802c8052-893e-428f-9546-bb42a55e6371/aja1.pdf>

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• Secondphase–2006:withastrongplace-basedapproach,itfocusedonthepreventionofyoungAboriginalpeopleenteringthejusticesystem,reducingreoffending,andmakingthejusticesystemmoreresponsiveandinclusiveofAboriginalVictorians;26and,

• Thirdphase–2013:continuedtheworkofthepreviousphasesbutincludesalong-termchangestrategy.ThisphaseconcludesandistobeevaluatedinJune2018.27

AnimportantaspectoftheAJAshasbeenthattheyunderstandtheneedfortheAboriginal

communitytobecentrallyinvolvedintheattemptstoaddresstheseissuesandthatpartnership

withgovernmentisaneffectivestrategyforachievingsystemicchange.

OtherjurisdictionsinAustraliahavealsoimplementedAboriginalJusticeAgreements.28

Evaluationsoftheseagreementshaveconcludedthat,generally,‘itispossibletoconcludethat

IJAshavecontributedtoamorecoherentgovernmentfocusuponIndigenousjusticeissuesand,in

thosejurisdictionswheretheyexist,theyhavebeenassociatedwithcriminaljusticeagencies

developingIndigenous-specificframeworks’and‘haveledtodevelopmentofanumberof

effectiveinitiativesandprogramsinthejusticearea.’Theycanalso‘advanceprinciplesof

governmentaccountabilitywithindependentmonitoringandevaluation,withmaximum

Indigenousinputintothoseprocesses’and‘haveeffectivelyprogressedIndigenouscommunity

engagement,self-management,andownershipwheretheyhavesetupeffectiveandwell-

coordinatedcommunity-basedjusticestructuresand/orledtothedevelopmentoflocalised

strategicplanning,aswellasthroughencouraginginitiativesthatembodysuchideals.’The

VictorianAboriginalJusticeAgreementwascitedasthebestexampleoftheseoutcomes.29Asthe

AJAentersitsnextphase,itcontinuestobuildupontheself-determiningworkoftheprevious

plans.

26Ibid.27Ibid.28Queensland(theQueenslandAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderJusticeAgreement(2000));Victoria(theVictorianAboriginalJusticeAgreement(2000);NewSouthWales(theNewSouthWalesAboriginalJusticeAgreement(2003)andAboriginalJusticePlan(2004));WesternAustralia(theWesternAustralianAboriginalJusticeAgreement2004-2009(2004));theACT(theACTAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderAgreement(2010))(ACTIJA)29FionaAlisonandChrisCunneen.IndigenousJusticeAgreements.IndigenousJusticeClearingHouse.CurrentInitiativesPaper4,June2013.https://www.indigenousjustice.gov.au/wp-content/uploads/mp/files/publications/files/initiative004.pdf

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II Self-determinationininternationallawSelf-determinationisthemostfundamentalofallhumanrightsandisgroundedintheideathat

peoplesareentitledtocontroltheirowndestiny.30IthasbeendescribedbytheUnitedNations

HumanRightsCommitteeasthe‘essentialconditionfortheeffectiveguaranteeandobservanceof

individualhumanrightsandforthepromotionandstrengtheningofthoserights’.31

Self-determinationisnotoriouslydifficulttodefineandtheconceptdefiesanyconcrete

definition.32Itsmeaningvariesaccordingtocontextandmayrefertoindividualself-determination

orcollectiveself-determination.Indigenoussovereigntyasencompassingabroadrangeofrights

seemstounderpinbothconceptstoenableIndigenouspeoplesIndigenouspeoplesto‘preserve

theirdistinctidentityanddignityandgoverntheirownaffairs’.33TedMosesobservesthat

Indigenousself-determination:

isaconceptofsweepingscopethatencompassesallaspectsofhumandevelopmentandinteraction,cultural,social,politicalandeconomic.Itisnotsimplyapoliticalrightasitisoftencharacterized.Anditisnotexclusivelyaneconomicright.Itisacomplexofcloselywovenandinextricablyrelatedrightswhichareinterdependent,wherenooneaspectisparamountoveranyother.Itisarightthatformsthebasisofallotherrights.34

Regardlessofthechosendefinition,therearecommonfeaturestoalldefinitionsofself-

determination:controlandconsent.ForIndigenouscommunitiesandpeople,itwillvaryinform

accordingtoparticularcustoms,needsandaspirations.35Perhapsmostimportantly,Indigenous

peoplesaroundtheworldhaveclaimedtheirrighttoself-determinationandhaveuseditasa

vehicleforre-imaginingtheirrelationshipswiththecountrieswithinwhichtheylive.

30SJamesAnaya,IndigenousPeoplesinInternationalLaw(2nded)(NewYork,OxfordUniversityPress,2004),98.31HumanRightsCommittee,GeneralComment12:Article1,21stsess,UNDocHRI/GEN/1/Rev.1at12(1994).32AntonioCassese,Self-determinationofPeoples:Alegalreappraisal(GreatBritain,CambridgeUniversityPress,1995),41.33SiegfriedWiessner,‘IndigenousSovereignty:AReassessmentinLightoftheUNDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples’(2008)41VanderbiltJournalofTransnationalLaw1141,1166-1156.34AndreaMuehlebach,‘WhatSelfinSelf-Determination?NotesfromtheFrontiersofTransnationalIndigenousActivism’(2003)10Identities:GlobalStudiesinCultureandPower241,258-259(referenceomitted).35MeganDavis&HannahMcGlade,‘InternationalHumanRightsLawandtheRecognitionofAboriginalCustomaryLaw,LawReformCommissionofWesternAustralia(LRCWA),ProjectNo94,BackgroundPaperNo10(March2005),411.

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A. Self-determinationasaconceptininternationallaw

Self-determinationemergedasaconceptandrightininternationallawinthepost-WorldWarII

period.Debateswithintheinternationalarenaduringthistimewereconcernedwithrestructuring

Europeanddevelopingastableworldorder.GiventhehorrendouscrimesthatEuropehad

witnessed,discussionsinevitablyturnedtohumanrights.Fromthesediscussions,ahumanrights

frameworkemerged.Atthistime,theframeworkwasfocusedonindividualrights.

Therighttoself-determinationemergedasafoundationalprincipleofinternationallawandis

enshrinedinanumberofUnitedNationsinstrumentsincludingthe:

• UnitedNationsCharter;• UNInternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights(‘ICCPR’);• UNInternationalCovenantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights(‘ICESCR’);and• DeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples.

Article1ofboththeICCPRandICESCRstates:

Allpeopleshavetherightofself-determination.Byvirtueofthatrighttheyfreelydeterminetheirpoliticalstatusandfreelypursuetheireconomic,socialandculturaldevelopment.

Allpeoplesmay,fortheirownends,freelydisposeoftheirnaturalwealthandresourceswithoutprejudicetoanyobligationsarisingoutofinternationaleconomicco-operation,basedupontheprincipleofmutualbenefit,andinternationallaw.Innocasemayapeoplebedeprivedofitsownmeansofsubsistence.

TheStatesPartiestothepresentCovenant…shallpromotetherealisationoftherightofself-determination,andshallrespectthatright,inconformitywiththeprovisionsoftheCharteroftheUnitedNations.

Self-determinationwasvestedin‘peoples’.Thus,itwasanexceptiontotheindividual-rightsfocus

ofthehumanrightsframeworksinceitwasoneofthefewareaswherearightvestedinagroup.

Originally,itwaslinkedtothedecolonisationmovementandtheoriginalintentwasthatitwould

applyonlyto‘peoples’withintheterritoryofdefeatedEuropeanempires.However,othercultural

andpoliticalgroups,includingIndigenouspeoples,startedtoclaimarighttoself-determination

andtheprinciplewasextendedtoothercolonialsituations.

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Thisdecolonisationprocesswasnotappliedacrosstheboard.Internationallawdevelopedwhat

becameknownasthe‘bluewaterthesis’36thatheldthatthedecolonisationproceduresappliedto

populationsseparatedphysically–bywater–fromtheircolonisingpowers.Therefore,according

tointernationallaw,colonisedpopulationsthatwereaminoritywithintheboundariesof

independentcolonialstateswereexcludedfromdecolonisationprocedures.Bythisdefinition,the

IndigenouspopulationsofAustralia,AotearoaNewZealand,CanadaandtheUnitedStateswere

excluded.Whilestatesovereigntyoverdistantorexternalcolonialterritorieswaseroding,it

remainedovertheenclavesofindigenousgroupswithinstatesandworkedtokeepthemoutside

therealmofinternationallaw.

Indigenouspeoplesdidnotacceptthisattemptedexclusionandcontinuedtoasserttherightto

self-determination.Actingonseveralfronts,Indigenouscampaignersarguedforabroadeningof

thedefinitionandchallengedtheexclusionasbeingraciallydiscriminatory.Largelybecauseof

theiradvocacy,internationallawlaterclarifiedthattheprincipleofself-determinationappliesto

allpeoplesincludingIndigenouspeopleswholivewithinthebordersofnationstates.Therightas

itrelatestoIndigenouspeopleshasbeendescribedbyJamesAnaya,formerSpecialRapporteuron

therightsofIndigenouspeoples,asencompassingarangeofcollectivehumanrights.These

includenon-discrimination;culturalintegrity;controloverlandandresources;socialwelfareand

development;andself-government.37Otherelementsincludetherighttofreedomofspeech,to

peacefulassembly,tofreedomofassociation,tovoteandtotakepartintheconductofpublic

affairsdirectlyorthroughchosenrepresentatives.38

B. UnitedNationsDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples

TheDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples(Declaration)wasadoptedbytheUnited

NationsGeneralAssemblyon13September2007andisthemostcomprehensivestatementof

therightsofIndigenouspeoplesininternationallaw.Italsoprovidesguidanceonthe

36ThenotionwasadoptedintoGeneralAssemblyResolution1541inPrinciplesIVandV.SeealsoAnaya,aboven31,43;Ofuatey-Kodjoe,ThePrincipleofSelf-DeterminationinInternationalLaw(NellenPress,1977)119;GordonBennett,AboriginalRightsandInternationalLaw(RoyalAnthropologicalInstituteofGreatBritainandIreland,1978)12-13.37Anaya,aboven30,129ff.38Ibid.

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responsibilitiesofcountries(calledstatesininternationallaw)andtheapplicablestandardsthat

statesshouldmeet.

Asweobservedabove,thehumanrightsregimegenerallyrelatestoindividualrights.Butin

contrast,theDeclarationisnotableforoutliningcollectiverightsofIndigenouspeoples,including

self-determination.Somecountries,includingAustralia,havecontinuedtoresistusingtheterm

self-determinationtoarticulateIndigenouspeoples’rights,arguingthatitimpliessecessionand

challengestoterritorialintegrity,despitenumerousattemptstodispelthismisconception.Thisis

reflectedinAustralia’sinitialoppositiontotheDeclaration,whichwasbasedonconcernsthat

Indigenousrightstoself-determinationwouldpotentiallyimpairthe‘territorialandpolitical

integrityofaStatewithasystemofdemocraticrepresentativegovernment.’39Itwasalso

concernedthattherighttoself-determinationmightbe‘misconstrued’,andthatitpotentially

couldadverselyaffectthirdparties’rights(includinglandrights)40.Australiasubsequentlygave

qualifiedsupporttoimplementingthestandards,emphasisingthattheDeclarationis‘non-binding

anddoesnotaffectexistingAustralianlaw’andthatit‘cannotbeusedtoimpairAustralia’s

territorialintegrityorpoliticalunity’.41

Indigenousself-determinationintheDeclaration

Articles3,4and5oftheDeclarationrelatetotherighttoself-determination:

Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttoself-determination.Byvirtueofthatrighttheyfreelydeterminetheirpoliticalstatusandfreelypursuetheireconomic,socialandculturaldevelopment.

Indigenouspeoples,inexercisingtheirrighttoself-determination,havetherighttoautonomyorself-governmentinmattersrelatingtotheirinternalandlocalaffairs,aswellaswaysandmeansforfinancingtheirautonomousfunctions.

Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttomaintainandstrengthentheirdistinctpolitical,legal,economic,socialandculturalinstitutions,whileretainingtheirrighttoparticipatefully,iftheysochoose,inthepolitical,economic,socialandculturallifeoftheState.

39RobertHill,AustralianAmbassadortotheUnitedNationscitedinSarahJoseph,‘TheHowardGovernment’sRecordofEngagementwiththeInternationalHumanRightsSystem’(2008)27AustralianYearbookofInternationalLaw45,47-48.40Commonwealth,ParliamentaryDebates,Senate,10September2007,53-54(MarisePayne).41JennyMacklin,MinisterforFamilies,Housing,CommunityServicesandIndigenousAffairs,‘StatementontheUnitedNationsDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples’(Statement,3April2009)<http://jennymacklin.fahcsia.gov.au/statements/2009/04>.

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Thesecollectiverightsgobeyondtheindividual,thefamilyorthecommunityorganisationbutare

heldbyIndigenouspeoples.Theterm‘Indigenouspeoples’isnotdefinedbytheDeclarationbut

scopeofrightscontainedintheDeclarationisdirectedatself-identifieddecisionmakingentities

whichgovernthroughtheirowninstitutionstoachievetheirpolitical,economic,social,and

culturalgoals(articles18&19).TheDeclarationalsooutlinestheresponsibilitiesof

countries/statestoengagewithIndigenouspeoplestoensurethatIndigenouspeoplescanattain

thoserights.

Thepost-wardecolonisationmovement(thatonlyappliedtothewholepeopleofacolony)that

wedescribedaboveledtoconceptsofinternalself-determinationandexternalself-determination:

• Internalself-determinationistherightofapeopletofreelychoose• Externalself-determinationistherightofapeopletobefreefromexternaldomination,

whichduringthedecolonisationera,alsomeanttherighttodeclareindependence.

ItisapparentthattheDeclarationenvisagestherighttointernalself-determinationforIndigenous

peopleswhoshareterritorywiththenationstate.Indigenouspeoplesareentitledtogovern

themselvesandmakedecisionsrelatedtotheirinternalaffairsandthestateisrequiredto

negotiatewithIndigenouspolitical,legal,socialandculturalinstitutions(arts18,19).However,it

isargued42thatarticle46excludestherighttoexternalself-determination:

NothinginthisDeclarationmaybeinterpretedasimplyingforanyState,people,grouporpersonanyrighttoengageinanyactivityortoperformanyactcontrarytotheCharteroftheUnitedNationsorconstruedasauthorizingorencouraginganyactionwhichwoulddismemberorimpair,totallyorinpart,theterritorialintegrityorpoliticalunityofsovereignandindependentStates.

Theargumentthattherighttoexternalself-determinationasitemergedduringthe

decolonisationeracannotbeappliedtoIndigenouspeopleswithintheboundariesofthenation

stateisself-evident.Secessionortherighttodeclareindependencearenottheambitionsofmost

Indigenouspeoples.Insteadtheyseekinternalautonomyandtherighttoenterintonegotiations

andagreementswithlocal,stateandfederalgovernmentsasdistinct,self-governingpeoples.In

thisway,whatmaybesoughtisacolonialorsettlerexternalself-determinationrelatedtothe

placeofautonomousIndigenouspeopleswithinthenationstate.Thismightalsobedescribedas42DylanLino,‘Thepoliticsofinclusion:Therightofself-determination,statutorybillsofrightsandIndigenouspeoples’(2010)34MelbourneUniversityLawReview839,848.Referencesexcluded.

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relationalself-determinationthatconceivestheIndigenous-staterelationshipasoneofnon-

domination,whereIndigenouspeoplesarenotunilaterallycontrolledbythestate.43

CollectiverightsofIndigenouspeoplesincludedintheDeclarationSomeoftheparticularcollectiverightsofIndigenouspeoplesandofcountry(State)

responsibilitiesassociatedwiththerighttoself-determinationarelistedbelow:

RightsofIndigenouspeoplesArticle3 Therighttoself-determination,whereIndigenouspeopleshavetherightto

determinetheirpoliticalstatusandpursuetheireconomic,socialandculturaldevelopment.

Article4 Therighttoautonomyorself-governmentinmattersrelatingtotheirinternalandlocalaffairs.

Article5 Therighttomaintainandstrengthentheirdistinctpolitical,legal,economic,socialandculturalinstitutions.Therighttoparticipatefullyinthepolitical,economic,socialandeconomiclifeofthecountry.

Article7 Therighttoliveinfreedom,peaceandsecurityasdistinctpeoples.Article8 Therighttobefreefromforcedassimilationandfromdestructionofculture.Article9 TherighttobeanIndigenouscommunityornationinaccordancewiththe

community’sornation’straditionsandcustoms.Article10 Therighttonotbeforciblyremovedfromtheirlandsorterritories.Relocationshould

onlytakeplacewithfree,priorandinformedconsentandafteragreementoncompensationandthepossibilityofreturn.

Article11 Therighttopractiseandrevitalisetheirculturaltraditionsandcustoms.Thisincludestherighttoprotectpast,presentandfuturemanifestations.

Article12 Therighttopractise,developandteachtheirspiritualandreligioustraditions,customsandceremonies;andtherighttouseandprotectreligiousandculturalsitesandceremonialobjects.

Article13 Therighttorevitalise,use,developandteachtheirhistories,languages,oraltraditions,philosophies,writingsystemsandliteratures.

Article14 Therighttoestablishandcontroltheirowneducationalsystemsandtoprovideculturallyappropriateeducation.

Article18 Therighttoparticipateindecision-makingrelatingtomattersthataffecttheirrightsthroughrepresentativesthattheyhavechosen.Therighttomaintainanddeveloptheirowndecision-makinginstitutions.

Article20 Therighttomaintainanddeveloptheirpolitical,economicandsocialsystems.Therighttoenjoytheirtraditionalandothereconomicactivitiesandmeansofsubsistenceanddevelopment.

Article21 Therighttoimprovetheireconomicandsocialconditions,includingineducation,employment,vocationaltraining,housing,sanitation,healthandsocialsecurity.

Article22 Therighttodetermineanddevelopprioritiesforexercisingtheirrighttodevelopment.Therighttodevelophealth,housingandothereconomicandsocialprogramsandadministerthem(asfaraspossible)throughtheirowninstitutions.

43Ibid854.

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Article23 TherighttomaintainandstrengthentheirdistinctivespiritualrelationshipwiththeirtraditionalCountry,orlandsthattheyoccupyanduse.

Articles24,28,29and32

Therighttolands,territoriesandresourceswhichtheyhavetraditionallyowned,occupiedorotherwiseusedoracquired,includingtherighttodevelopprioritiesandstrategiesforuseofthatland.Therighttoconserveandprotecttheenvironmentandtheproductivecapacityoftheirlands,territoriesandresources.Therighttorestitutionfororcompensationforsuchlandsthathavebeentaken,occupied,usedordamagedwithouttheirfree,priorandinformedconsent.

Article30 Therighttomaintain,control,protectanddeveloptheirculturalheritage,traditionalknowledge,andtheirsciences,technologiesandcultures.Therighttomaintain,control,protectanddeveloptheirintellectualproperty.

Article33 Therighttodeterminetheirownidentityandmembershipaccordingtotheircustomsandtraditions.Therighttodeterminethestructureoftheirinstitutionsandmembershipaccordingtotheirownprocedures.

Article35 Therighttodeterminetheresponsibilityofindividualstotheircommunities.Article39 Therighttoaccessfinancialandtechnicalassistancetoenjoytherightsincluded

withintheDeclaration.Responsibilitiesofcountries(States)tosupportIndigenouspeoplesArticle19 TheresponsibilitytoconsultandcooperateingoodfaithwithIndigenouspeoples

concernedthroughtheirownrepresentativeinstitutionssoastoobtaintheirfree,priorandinformedconsentbeforeadoptinglegislativeoradministrativemeasuresthataffectthem.

Article32 TheresponsibilitytoconsultandcooperateingoodfaithwithIndigenouspeoplesconcernedthroughtheirownrepresentativeinstitutionssoastoobtaintheirfree,priorandinformedconsentbeforeapprovinganyprojectthataffectsIndigenouslands,territoriesorresources.

Article38 Theresponsibilitytotakeappropriatemeasures,inconsultationandcooperationwithIndigenouspeoples,toachievethepurposesoftheDeclaration.

Articles8,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,20,21,22,32

TheresponsibilitytoprotectspecificrightsincludedintheDeclarationandprovideredressorcompensationwherenecessary.Theseincluderightsrelatedto:

• Integrityasdistinctpeoples,culturalvaluesandprotectionfromassimilationordestructionofculture;

• Indigenouspeoples’cultural,intellectual,religiousandspiritualproperty;• Repatriationofceremonialobjectsandhumanremains;• Indigenouspeoples’histories,languages,oraltraditions,philosophiesetc;• Culturallyappropriateeducation,includinginlanguage,wherepossible;• Dignityanddiversityofcultures,traditions,histories,andaspirations;• Culturallydiversemedia;• Protectionfromeconomicexploitation,especiallyforchildren;• CompensationfordispossessionfromCountry;• Improvedeconomicandsocialconditions,withemphasisontheneedsof

Indigenouselders,women,youth,childrenandpersonswithdisabilities;• Protectionagainstviolenceanddiscrimination;• Controllands,territoriesandresources;• Fairandjustredressforadverseenvironmental,economic,social,culturalor

spiritualimpactonIndigenouslands,territoriesorresources.

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C. Indigenousjusticesystemsandinternationallaw

AboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeoplefrequentlyassertthatbeforeinvasiontheirpeoples

wereself-governingandexercisedsovereigntyovertheirlandsandwater;andthatpostinvasion,

theyhavenotcededtheirlandsorsovereignty.Asaconsequence,theircommunities,like

Indigenouspeoplesthroughouttheworld,retaintheir‘distinctivenessaspoliticalcommunities’,

claim‘aninherentsovereigntythatisindependentofthesettlerstate’andconsiderthata

‘separateautonomousstatus[is]all-pervasiveand[lies]beneathnearlyalltheirclaims.44

However,whileIndigenouspeoplesmayknowthemselvestobedistinctfromthesettler

population,theextenttowhich,andthemannerinwhichnationstatesacknowledgethestatusof

Indigenouspoliticalcollectiveswithintheirbordersdiffers.Forexample,withinthelegaland

politicalinstitutionsoftheUnitedStates,itisunambiguouslyacceptedthatIndigenouspeoples

(tribesorNativenations)aresovereignwiththeinherentrighttoself-governmentbut,according

toUSlaw,aredomesticdependentnations.Bycontrast,Australianeverhasacknowledged–

eitherbytreatyorthroughitsConstitution,legislationorcaselaw–thestatusofIndigenous

peoplesas‘peoples’asunderstoodininternationallaw.

Despitethedifferentapproachesofthedomesticlawofnationstates,internationallawupholds

therightsofIndigenouspeoplestoidentifyasdistinctpeopleswiththerightofself-determination,

whichisconstitutedbyanumberofcollectiverights.Cruciallytherighttocollectiveself-

determinationnecessarilyimplieslaws,legalsystemsandmechanismsbywhichpeoplesmay

assertaseparate,collectiveidentitytothatofthenationstate;haveprocessestomakeand

implementdecisionsandsetfuturedirection.Inordertofulfiltheseroles,agreedvalues,norms

andrulesareneededtocreatetheinstitutionsandmechanismsthroughwhichacollectivecanact.

Therefore,pursuanttotheprincipleofself-determination,theDeclarationisexplicitin

acknowledgingtherightsofIndigenouspeoplestoidentifyandliveaccordingtotheirownlaw

(arts9,11,18,33);tomaintainandbuildtheirpoliticalsystemstomakelaw(arts3,5,20);to

maintaintheirlegalinstitutionstoadministerlaw(art5,40);andtoresolvedisputeswiththe

44PGMcHugh,AboriginalSocietiesandtheCommonLaw.AHistoryofSovereignty,Status,andSelf-Determination(OxfordUniversityPress,2004)62-63

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nationstatethroughinstitutionsthataccommodatethelawandlegalsystemsofthepeople(s)

concerned(art40).SpecificspeciesoflawarealsoexplicitlyacknowledgedintheDeclarationsuch

asIndigenousintellectualproperty(art31).

Theexistenceoflaw,itspracticeandinstitutionsthatcanadministerlawfortheIndigenous

peoplesconcernedalsoisnecessarilyimpliedthroughthespecificcollectiverightsprotectedinthe

Declaration.Forexample,therighttoliveasdistinctpeoples(art7);freelyengageinalltraditional

andeconomicactivities(art20);own,use,developandcontrolthelandstheyowned,occupiedor

used(art26);determinetheresponsibilitiesofindividualstotheircommunities(art35);andright

tomaintainconnectionswiththeirmembersacrossborders(art36)eachrequirecommon

understandingsbythecollectiveofwhattherightsentail.Eventheobligationofnationstatesto

ensurethattheyobtainthefree,priorandinformedconsentoftheIndigenouscollectiveaffected

byanydecisionofthenationstate(art19)requirestheexistenceofsystemsandlawsaccordingto

whichcollectiveconsentcanbedefinedandgranted.

Collectivedecision-makingisemphasisedthroughouttheDeclaration,whichreliesupontherules,

norms,values,law–thatis,thenormativesystems–thatCrawforddefinesasAboriginalpublic

law.45Aboriginalpubliclawconsistsofthe‘bodyofrules,traditionsorunderstandings’thatdefine

theIndigenouspolity,andprovidetheauthoritytomembersofthatcommunitytoactasa

politicalcollective.Inotherwords,‘publiclawiswhatdefinescollectiveaction.’46Heclarifiesthat

ithasitsownlegitimacyanditsown(Australian)domain.’‘ItisnotdelegatedbytheConstitution,

stilllessisitasubdivisionofthePublicServiceActsoftheCommonwealthortheStates.’47

AstheformerSpecialRapporteuronIndigenousRightsexplains,anydiminishmentintheauthority

oralteringofdefactoordejureindigenousinstitutionsofautonomousgovernanceshouldnot

occurunlesspursuanttothewishedoftheaffectedgroup.48Tothecontrary,nationstateshave

anobligationtoupholdtheexistenceandfreedevelopmentofindigenousinstitutions,including

legalinstitutions.However,theAustralianGovernmentmadeitclearatthetimeofits

45JamesCrawford,‘TheAboriginalLegalHeritage:AboriginalPublicLawandtheTreatyProposal’(1989)63TheAustralianLawJournal392,392.46Ibid.47Ibid.48Anaya,aboven30,129ff.

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announcementthatitwouldabidebytheDeclarationthatitsinterpretationofself-determination

asitrelatestopoliticalparticipationwasforIndigenouspeopletobeabletoparticipate‘fullyin

Australia’sdemocracy’.49

49JennyMacklin,MinisterforFamilies,Housing,CommunityServicesandIndigenousAffairs,‘StatementontheUnitedNationsDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples’(Statement,3April2009)<http://jennymacklin.fahcsia.gov.au/statements/2009/04>.

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III ImpactofIndigenousself-determination:TheevidenceSelf-determinationisarightofpeoples,includingIndigenouspeoples,whichisacknowledgedin

internationallaw.Further,countries,suchasAustraliahaveanobligationtofacilitatethatrightto

self-determinationbyengagingwithIndigenouspeoplesthroughtheirownpoliticalandlegal

institutions.Notonlyisself-determinationarightofIndigenouscommunities,butthereisrobust

andconsistentAustralianandinternationalevidencethatself-determinationandself-governance

arecriticaltoIndigenouscommunitiesachievingtheireconomic,socialandculturalgoals.

A. NorthAmericanandAustralianevidence

Almost30yearsago,theHarvardProjectonAmericanIndianEconomicDevelopment(Harvard

Project)andlater,theNativeNationsInstituteattheUniversityofArizona,commencedresearch

exploringthefactorsimpactingupontheprosperity,orlackofprosperity,ofIndigenous

communitiesinNorthAmerica.Acorefindingoftheirresearchisthat,ingeneral,Indigenous

communitiesprogresstowardstheirself-definedeconomicandcommunitydevelopmentgoals

whentheyexercisegenuinedecision-makingcontrolovertheirinternalaffairsandresources

(describedinAustraliaasexercising‘politicaljurisdiction’);50havemechanismsofself-governance

suchthatthingsgetdonepredictablyandreliably;areaccountabletointernalandexternal

stakeholders;havegovernancestructuresandmechanismsthathaveculturallegitimacywithin

thecommunitytheyserve;basetheiractionsonlong-termsystemicstrategies;andhave

community-spiritedleadership.51

Despitedifferentlegal,political,constitutionalandsocialhistoriesanddifferentcontemporary

challenges,researchersinAustraliafoundthesamefactorstoberelevant.Forexample,the

IndigenousCommunityGovernanceProject(ICGProject)52concludedthat‘whenIndigenous

50MichaelDodsonandDianeSmith,'Governanceforsustainabledevelopment:StrategicissuesandprinciplesforIndigenousAustraliancommunities'(DiscussionPaperNo250,CentreforAboriginalEconomicPolicyResearch,AustralianNationalUniversity,2003)10.51ForanoverviewoftheHarvardProject’sresearchfindings,seeMiriamJorgensen(ed),RebuildingNativeNations:StrategiesforGovernanceandDevelopment(UniversityofArizonaPress,2007)especiallychapter1.52TheIndigenousCommunityGovernanceProject(‘ICGP’)wasapartnershipbetweentheCentreforAboriginalEconomicPolicyResearch(‘CAEPR’)andReconciliationAustralia,whichundertookresearchoverfiveyearsonIndigenouscommunitygovernancewithparticipatingIndigenouscommunities,regionalIndigenousorganisations,andleadersacrossAustralia.TheICGPwasestablishedtounderstandtheeffectivenessofdifferentformsofgovernanceandtheirconsequencesforIndigenouspolicy,servicedelivery,self-determinationandsocioeconomicdevelopment,

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governanceisbasedongenuinedecision-makingpowers,practicalcapacityandlegitimate

leadershipatthelocallevel,itprovidesacriticalfoundationforongoingsocioeconomic

developmentandresilience’.53

Theresearchfindingsdemonstratethatstablepoliticalgovernancehasadirect,positiveimpacton

Indigenouscommunitiesandthatthecorollary,poorgovernanceunderminesthebuildingof

sustainableandworkableIndigenouseconomies.54ThiswassoinNorthAmericawhetherthe

tribeshadlargeresourcesoralackofresources.Infact,capableandculturallylegitimate

governanceisamorecrucialfactorthanavailabilityofnaturalresources,marketproximityor

educationalattainmentofthecommunity,althoughthesefactorsarebeneficial.Importantly,

Indigenousself-determinationisnotonlyanecessaryprecursorforeconomicprosperitybut

contributestoeffectiveservicedeliveryinhealth,education,forestry,naturalresource

managementetc.55

TheNorthAmericanandAustralianresearchsimilarlyidentifiedthat‘Indigenousskills,abilities,

knowledgeandleadershiparemobilisedandmosteffectivelyexercisedwheninitiativesare

anddesignedto‘explorethediverseconditionsandattributesofAustralianIndigenouscommunitygovernancearrangements,elucidateculturallybasedfoundationsofIndigenousgovernanceandextricatebroaduniversalprinciplesofwhatconstituteseffective,legitimateIndigenousgovernance,identifyingtransferablelessonstocontributetopolicyformulation’:DianeSmith,'ResearchingAustralianIndigenousGovernance:AMethodologicalandConceptualFramework'(WorkingPaperNo29/2005,CentreforAboriginalEconomicPolicyResearch,AustralianNationalUuniversity,2005),1-4.FortheICGPresearchfindings,seeJanetHuntetal,ContestedGovernance:Culture,powerandinstitutionsinIndigenousAustralia,(ResearchMonographNo29,CentreforAboriginalEconomicPolicyResearch,AustralianNationalUniversity,2008)(ContestedGovernance);JanetHuntandDianeSmith,'IndigenousCommunityGovernanceProject:YearTwoResearchFindings'(WorkingPaperNo36/2007,CentreforAboriginalEconomicPolicyResearch,AustralianNationalUniversity,2007)(‘ICGP:YearTwoFindings’);JanetHuntandDianeSmith,'BuildingIndigenouscommunitygovernanceinAustralia:Preliminaryresearchfindings'(WorkingPaperNo31/2006,CentreforAboriginalEconomicPolicyResearch,AustralianNationalUniversity,2006)(‘ICGP:PreliminaryFindings’).SeealsoJanetHuntandDianeSmith,‘UnderstandingandEngagingwithIndigenousGovernance:–ResearchEvidenceandPossibilitiesforEngagingwithAustralianGovernments’(2011)14(2-3)JournalofAustralianIndigenousIssues30.53HuntandSmith,‘UnderstandingandEngagingwithIndigenousGovernance’,aboven52.SeealsoHuntandSmith,‘ICGP:PreliminaryFindings’aboven52;HuntandSmith,‘ICGP:YearTwoFindings’,aboven52;Huntetal,ContestedGovernance,above,n52.54StephenCornellandJosephPKalt,‘ReloadingtheDice:ImprovingtheChancesforEconomicDevelopmentonAmericanIndianReservations’inStephenCornellandJosephPKalt(eds),WhatCanTribesDo?StrategiesandInstitutionsinAmericanIndianEconomicDevelopment(AmericanIndianStudiesCentre,UniversityofCalifornia,1992).55AlyceSAdams,AndrewJLeeandMichaelLipsky,'GovernmentalServicesandPrograms:MeetingCitizens'Needs'inMiriamJorgensen(ed),RebuildingNativeNations:StrategiesforGovernanceandDevelopment(UniversityofArizonaPress,2007)223.

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Indigenous-driven,towardsIndigenousgoals’.56WhereIndigenouspeoplearedrivingtheagenda

andmakingdecisionsaboutfuturedirection,capacitycanbeproductivelyreleasedand

mobilised,57andgreaterriskandaccountabilityfostersimproveddecisionmakingbasedon

previousexperience.58

Insummary,AustralianandNorthAmericanevidencedemonstratesthatcommunitieswhich

‘succeed’accordingtotheirowndefinitions,commonlydemonstratefivefeatures:

1. Realdecisionmakingauthority:Thegroupmakingthedecisionshasthecapacitytosetthedirectionandprioritiesandtodeterminethegoalsabouttheissuesthataffectthecommunity.

2. Effectiveimplementationbodiesandmechanisms:Thereareeffectivestructuresinplacethatareabletoimplementdecisionsandtomakesurethatthingsgetdone.

3. Culturalmatch:Theapproachestakenbythedecision-makinggroupandthedecisionsthataremadealignwiththeculture,normsandvaluesofthecommunity.

4. Sustainablestrategicplanning:Thedecision-makinggroupisplanningforthelong-term.5. Communityspiritedleadership:Thedecision-makinggroupputsthecommunityaheadof

otherinterests.

B. Self-determinationandIndigenousjusticesystems

ManyagenciesandindividualsarepartofanIndigenousjusticesystem:courts,lawenforcement,

andpublicsafetyoffices,lawoffices,jails,andtheassociatedpersonnel:judges,prosecutors,

defencelawyers,peacemakers,mediators,Elders,clerks,policeofficers,probationofficers,

detentionofficers,andvictimandwitnessadvocates.59Whileallcontributetothecapacityofa

communitytomanageitsownjusticesystem,muchoftheresearchconductedbytheHarvard

ProjectandNNIinrelationtojusticesystemshasbeentoevaluatetheimpactoftribalcourt

systemsoncommunities.

56HuntandSmith,‘ICGP:YearTwoFindings’,aboven52,34;CornellandKalt,StephenCornellandJosephPKalt,'TwoApproachestotheDevelopmentofNativeNations:OneWorks,theOtherDoesn't'inMiriamJorgensen(ed),RebuildingNativeNations:StrategiesforGovernanceandDevelopment(TheUniversityofArizonaPress,2007)3,19-22.(TwoApproaches)57HuntandSmith,‘ICGP:YearTwoFindings’,aboven52,29-30.58CornellandKalt,TwoApproaches,aboven56,21.59JosephThomasFlies-Away,CarrieGarrowandMiriamJorgensen,‘NativeNationCourts:KeyPlayersinNationRebuilding’inMiriamJorgensen(ed),RebuildingNativeNations:StrategiesforGovernanceandDevelopment(UniversityofArizonaPress,2007)115,116.

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Thisresearchfoundthattribesthatwereabletoestablisheffectivetribalcourtswereableto

moreeffectivelyassertanddefendtheirsovereignty,supporteconomicgrowth,enhancepublic

safety,promotecommunitydevelopmentandupholdthecommunityconstitution.60Infact,the

existenceofeffectivedisputeresolutionswasfoundto‘permeateandsupportallaspectsofdaily

life,reinforcingcommunitycohesion,communityhealthandcommunitylifeways.’61Inpart,thisis

hypothesisedtobeduetothenatureofthesystemsofIndigenousjusticethatarefocusedon

restorativeandreparativejustice,whichhaveahealingeffectinandofthemselves.62But

increasedcommunityhealthwasalsoconsideredtobeduetothecommunity’sandindividuals’

increaseinself-determinationandcapacitytotackleotherproblems.63

C. Self-determinationanditsimpactoncriminaloffending

Theevidenceisclearthatself-determinationhasapositiveimpactoncommunitywell-beingand

onthecapacityofcommunitiestoachievetheiraspirations.Perhapsthecorollaryisalsotrueand

theremaybeaconnectionbetweenthelackofautonomyorself-determinationandcommunity

distress.ResearchthatwehaveconductedatJumbunnaIHLsuggests(butdoesnotproveatthis

stage;moreresearchisrequired)thatthereissomecorrelationbetweenself-determinationand

crimeratesinAboriginalcommunities.

InanARCfundedJumbunnaIHLstudy(Jumbunnastudy),researchparticipantswereforthrightin

linkingexternalcontroltothecircumstancesofdistressintheircommunitiesthattheyconsider

contributestohighcrimerates.Thestudy’sobjectivewastoexplorefactors–positiveand

negative–thatimpactoncrimeratesonsixtownsinNewSouthWales.Wehopedtobetter

understandthebroadsocial,culturalandeconomicfactorsthatmightaffectratesofcrimeinsix

AboriginalcommunitiesinNSW.64

60Ibid117-121.61Ibid.62Ibid.63Ibid121.64Foranoverviewofthestudy,seeLarissaBehrendt,AmandaPorterandAlisonVivian,‘FactorsAffectingHighandLowCrimeRatesinAboriginalCommunities’inJ.F.Donnermeyer(ed)TheInternationalHandbookofRuralCriminology(Routledge,2015)33.

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CasestudieswereconductedinthreepairsofcommunitieswithproportionatelylargeAboriginal

populationswithsimilardemographicconditionsbutwithcontrastingcrimerates,namely

WilcanniaandMenindee,BourkeandLightningRidge,andKempseyandGunnedah.65However,it

isalsoimportanttonotethat,whilethesixtownsaremarkedlydifferentincharacter,they

nonethelesssharemanysimilarities,especiallyinrelationtothesocioeconomiccircumstancesfor

theAboriginalpopulations,wherepovertyandunemploymentarerife.Unemploymentinthesix

townsiswellabovethenationalaverageandpopulationsandaveragehouseholdincome,

significantlylower.Educationalattainmentineachtownisalsolowerthanthenationalnorm.

Therefore,cautionisneededinanalysingtheweighttobegiventodifferentfactors.

Ourmethodologywasdesignedtocanvasstheviewsofcommunitymembersinconversations

wheretheydirectedthediscussion,ratherthantoleadresearchparticipantstoparticulartopics

aboutcrime.66Conversationswerewide-ranginganddiverse.Whenaskedaboutcrimeasa

phenomenoninhisorherlocalcommunity,avarietyofcomplexandinterrelatedsocial,cultural,

economicissueswereraised:extremelydifficultsocioeconomiccircumstancesofthetowns

experiencingruraldeclineandlowincome/poverty;dangerouslevelsofalcoholconsumption;

unemploymentandlackofmeaningfulactivity;compoundingimpactoftheinabilitytopayfines;

over-policingandunderreportingofcrime;limitedsentencingoptionsandlimitedaccessto

alternativeregimes;andpoorqualityhousingandovercrowding.

Inaddition,researchparticipantsraisedseveralissuesthatdonotcommonlyappearinthe

academicliteratureaboutcrimeandcriminaljusticeissues.Theydescribedtheircommunities—

positivelyandnegatively—asintimatelyshapedbytheirlocalhistories,impactingupon

relationshipswithinthelocalAboriginalcommunity,betweentheAboriginalandnon-Indigenous

communities,andbetweentheAboriginalcommunityandthecriminaljusticesystemandother

serviceproviders.Educationandpolicingwerehighlighted.Intervieweesspokeaboutracism,

65The first two studies – Wilcannia/Menindee, and Bourke/Lightning Ridge were pilot studies funded by a UTSPartnershipGrantandAustralian InstituteofAboriginalandTorresStrait IslanderStudies(‘AIATSIS’)ResearchGrantrespectively.Thecontinuationoftheresearchinwassupportedbya2008AustralianResearchCouncilLinkagegrantinpartnershipwiththeNSWBureauofCrimeStatisticsandResearchandtheNSWDepartmentofAttorney-GeneralandJustice.66Forabriefoverviewofthemethodology,seeAlisonVivian,AmandaPorterandLarissaBehrendt,‘ReflectionsontheRatesofCrimeProject’,(2017)5Ngiya:TalktheLaw75.

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segregationandinequality;inter-generationaltrauma,loss,griefandanger;leadership,decision-

makingauthorityandautonomy;familyconflictandcommunitydivisions;stereotypingand

expectation;hopeandambition;resilienceandresourcefulness;relationswithstateentitiesand

‘remotecontrol’syndrome.Formanyinterviewees,thelinksbetweensuchissuesandcrimewere

self-evident;potentiallycausal.

Itshouldberememberedthatintervieweeswereaskedfortheiropinionsandwerenotledtoany

particularthemes,whichledtosomesurprisingresults–notsomuchintermsofcontentbut

certainlyintermsofemphasis.Itshouldalsoberememberedthatourcentralquestionwas‘Why

doesyourcommunityhavehigh/lowcrimerates?’Governance,autonomy,self-determination,

andself-governmentwerenotissuesimmediatelyontheagenda.Whileitisnotpossibletostate

thatthereisaprovencorrelationbetweenAboriginalself-determinationandthecrimeratesfrom

thestudy,itwouldcertainlybevalidtoconcludethattheresultswerestronglyindicativeofsucha

correlationandasubjectworthyoffurtherresearch.

JumbunnaIHL’sresearchfindingsaboutcrimeandself-determinationCommunityorganisationandcommunities’capacitytodeterminetheirowndestinymaynot

immediatelyspringtomindasafactorcontributingtotheprevalenceofcrimerates,butitwasa

prominentthemeinourdiscussionswithresidentsofthesixtowns.Inreflectingonwhytheir

communitieshadrelativelyloworhighcrimerates,wewerestruckbytheextenttowhich

researchparticipantsstressedlocaldecision-making,self-determinationandautonomyas

positivelyornegativelyshapingthenatureof‘crime’.Theymaynothaveexplicitlyusedthe

terminologyofself-determination,butpeopledescribingwhethertheircommunityhadthe

capacitytorespondgotheirlocalproblemswasastrikingandcommonstory.

Researchparticipantsintownswithlowcrimeratesfrequentlyspokeof‘communitycontrol’or

communityself-relianceasapositivecontributorto‘success’orrelativeharmony,bothas

preventingcrimeandasenablingthecommunitytorespondtocrimeandothercommunityissues

astheyarise.Bycontrast,theprevalenceofexternalcontrol,underminingofcommunitydecision-

makingandindifferencetocommunity-basedsolutionswerefrequentlyhighlightedasdestructive

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andcontributingtomalaiseanddistressinthetownswithhighcrimerates.Researchparticipants

vividlydescribedasenseofpaternalismandhelplessnessthatwaspalpable.

Researchparticipantsdescribedtheimpactofcommunitydecision-making,bothpositivelyand

negatively,on(1)communitycapacityandresourcefulnessontheonehand,and(2)the

underminingofcommunity-led,locallybasedresponsestocommunityproblemsontheother.

Similarly,researchparticipantsalsocommentedontheimpactofeffectivecommunitydecision-

making,oritslack,on‘good’leadership.

ViewingtheseconversationsthroughthelensoftheAustralianandNorthAmericanIndigenous

nationbuilding/self-determinationresearch,theresearchparticipants’observationsarenot

surprising.WhileontheonehandtheIndigenousnation(re)buildingapproachdescribedaboveis

theapproachofIndigenouscommunitiesthatarebuildinginstitutionalcapacitytoexerciserights

ofself-determinationsuccessfullyandstrategically.67Thenationbuildingapproachcanbe

contrastedwiththestandardapproachtoIndigenousgovernance,whichhastendedtoprevailin

theAustraliaandelsewhere.

Theantithesisofthenation-buildingapproach,thestandardapproachischaracterisedby,among

otherthings,governmentsororganisationsotherthantheIndigenouscommunitiessettingthe

communitydevelopmentagenda,68whichwasacommoncomplaintfromresearchparticipants.In

short,theresultofthestandardapproachisdisillusionmentanddependencewherecommunity

leadersandadministratorsspendtheirvaluabletimeinthe‘urgentsearchformorefederaland

otherresources’,69leavinglittletimeforstrategicplanningbasedoncommunityaspirationsand

goals.Theseobservationsparallelthedisenchantmentexpressedbyresearchparticipantswith

overpoweringexternalcontrol,particularlyininthetownswithhighcrimerates;describedas

67CornellandKalt,TwoApproaches,aboven56,19.68Ibid8.69Ibid9.

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communitiesrunby‘remotecontrol’.70Indeed,thedescriptionbyresidentsoflifeinthesetowns

suggeststhatthereislessa‘developmentagenda’,thanreactiveresponsetocrisis.

70Theexpression‘remotecontrolcommunities’isacolloquialisminruralNewSouthWales.InpolicydiscoursethefirstuseofthetermcanbetracedtoDrewery,L.(2009)RemoteControlCommunities:FinalReport,CentralDarlingShire,March2009,9.

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IV Indigenousself-determinationandgovernmentpolicyNumerousgovernmentreportsandstudieshaveemphasisedtheneedforanurgentnew

approachtoIndigenouspolicydevelopment.71Theunambiguousmessagesfromtheresearch

describedabovearethatself-determinationisacriticalprerequisiteforIndigenoussocioeconomic

andcommunitywellbeing,andthatIndigenousgovernanceisthefundamentaldriverofself-

determination.Therefore,Indigenousnationbuildingtomaybetheurgentsolutionthatissought,

andmayprovideamechanismtoachievethe‘bottomup’solutionsdevisedwithIndigenous

peopleandIndigenouscommunitiesthatarerepeatedlystressedinreportsandstudiesas

necessaryforsocioeconomicandcommunitywell-being.Theevidencesuggeststhat,inorderto

fullyparticipateindevelopinglocallyrelevantpolicyandprograms,Indigenouspeoplesneedtobe

abletoorganisesoastodeterminecollectivepolicypositionsandstrategyonvariousissues.

Indigenouscommunities’effortstodevelopeffectiveandculturallylegitimatecommunity

governancedoesnotoccurinisolationandgovernmentpolicy,programsandpracticeshavethe

capacitytoeitherfacilitateorundermineeffectiveIndigenousgovernanceandtheachievementof

communityornationaspirations.Infact,ANU’sIndigenousCommunityGovernanceProject

claimedthatatleasthalftheso-called‘Indigenousgovernanceproblem’resultsfromgovernments’

ownpoliticalandbureaucraticincapacityandinparticularingovernments’inabilitytoformulate

andimplementenablingpolicyandintegratedfinancialframeworks.72HuntandSmitharguethat

the‘entrenchedfailureofthegovernanceofgovernments…constitutesthemajorimpedimentto

Indigenouspeopledevelopingandsustainingeffectivegovernancearrangements.73

Rapidlychangingnationalpolicyandfundingenvironmentsandpoorcoordinationand

collaborationbetweengovernmentdepartmentswithinandacrossjurisdictionsplaceapotentially

unsustainableburdenonIndigenousorganisations.74Onespecificareainwhichgovernments

undermineIndigenousgovernanceisthroughcurrentfundingmodelsandreportingrequirements.71SteeringCommitteefortheReviewofGovernmentServiceProvision(SCRGSP),OvercomingIndigenousDisadvantage:KeyIndicators2016(CommonwealthofAustralia,2016);AustralianGovernment.2010.StrategicReviewofIndigenousExpenditure:ReporttotheAustralianGovernment.CthofAustralia;Altman,Jon,NicholasBiddleandBoydHunter.2008.‘TheChallengeof'ClosingtheGaps'inIndigenousSocioeconomicOutcomes.’CAEPRTopicalIssueNo8/2008,CollegeofArts&SocialSciences.Canberra:AustralianNationalUniversity.72HuntandSmith,ICGPPreliminaryFindings,aboven52,48;HuntandSmith,ICGPYearTwoFindings,aboven52,29.73SmithandHunt‘UnderstandingandengagingwithIndigenousgovernance’,aboven52,31.74HuntandSmith,ICGPPreliminaryFindings,aboven52,48.

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Theneedforpooled,streamlinedfundingtoIndigenouscommunitieshasbeenrecommendedin

countlessgovernmentreviewsandinquiriesbutdripfeedfundingonaprogram-by-programbasis

continues.75Uncoordinatedandoverlystringentcompliancerequirementsdisablebetter

governancewhenorganisationsspendsignificantamountsoflimitedstafftimeonfinancial

accountabilityandreportingrequirements,whichdetractfromtheirothergovernancework.76

Indigenousorganisationsneedconsiderablemanagementandfinancialskilltoconsolidatefunds

fromdisparateprogramsthathavechangingguidelinesanduncertainimplementation

procedures,77balancingfundedcorefunctionsandunfundedconstituencyexpectations,further

complicatedbycostshiftingpracticesofgovernments.78

Day-to-daycomplianceissuescandominateleavingimportantstrategicgovernanceandfunctional

responsibilitiesneglected.Yettheevidencedemonstratesthatitisthoseorganisationsthatignore

orareunabletogiveattentiontogovernancedevelopmentwhichexperience‘greaterinternal

conflict,dominatingleadership,pooroutcomes,difficultyindeliveringservices,andproblemswith

internalandexternalaccountability.’79This,inturn,underminesanorganisation’sinternal

legitimacyandaccountability,adverselyimpactingonitsoveralleffectivenessandcreatesa

negativefeedbackloopoperatingbetweentheseinternalandexternaldimensionsof

effectiveness.80

TheclearmessageisthateffectiveIndigenouscommunitygovernancerequireseffective

governmentgovernance.81

Governmentpolicyisrelevantintworegards:

1. Governmentpolicy,programsandpracticestofacilitateIndigenouscommunityinputintosocialservicespolicy;and

2. Governmentpolicy,programsandpracticestofacilitateIndigenouscommunitygovernance.

75CornellandKalt,TwoApproaches,aboven56,14-15.76Ibid.77HuntandSmith,ICGPYearTwoFindings,aboven52,42.78Ibid6.79Ibid17.80Ibid61.81JanetHunt,‘Betweenarockandahardplace:self-determination,mainstreamingandIndigenouscommunitygovernance’inJanetHuntetal(eds)ContestedGovernance:Culture,powerandinstitutionsinIndigenousAustralia(ANUPress,2008)27,41-42.

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A. Self-determinationandpolicydevelopment:Transparencyandaccountability

ThereisstrongevidencelinkingIndigenousself-determinationtoimprovedoutcomesfor

Indigenouscommunities.ThereareclearreasonswhyIndigenousinvolvementinpolicy-making,

programdesignandservicedeliveryprovideimprovedoutcomes:

• Indigenouspeopleunderstandtheissuesofconcernandpriorityintheirlocalareasandregions;

• InvolvementofIndigenouspeopleinpolicy,servicesandprogramsensures‘buy-in’fromthelocalcommunityandensuresculturallyappropriatesolutions;

• InclusionofIndigenouspeopleinpolicydevelopment,servicedeliveryandprogramsbuildscommunitycapacityandsocialcapital;

• InvolvementofIndigenouspeopleismorelikelytocreateculturallysensitivespacesandimprovetheculturalcompetencyofnon-IndigenousstaffimprovingIndigenousengagement;

• Indigenouspeopleareabletousetheirnetworksinformallytoengagepeopleinprogramsandserviceswhomaynototherwiseparticipate;and

• Indigenouspeoplecanusetheircommunitynetworkstoworkacrossagenciesincommunities.

B. GovernmentpolicydirectedatfacilitatingIndigenousself-determination

GivenIndigenouscommunities’andorganisations’continuingdependenceonatleastsomelevel

offederalfunding,mainstreamgovernmentshavearoleinIndigenousnationbuilding,especially

intransitioningfromdecision-makertoadvisorandfacilitator.82Akeyhurdleforgovernment

policymakersisthattherelevantissuesarecomplicatedandconceptuallychallenging,anddonot

lendthemselvestostraightforwardorimmediatesolutions.A‘onesizefitsall’policyapproachhas

beenrepeatedlydemonstratedtobeunworkableandunsustainableandlikelytoproducesub-

optimaloutcomes.83Bycontrast,theevidencedemonstratesthatstrengtheningIndigenous

governancecapacityreliesongovernmentsdevolvingpowerandauthority,84andfacilitating

82CornellandKalt,TwoApproaches,aboven56,27.83HuntandSmith,ICGPYearTwoFindings,aboven52,43.84HuntandSmith,ICGPPreliminaryFindings,aboven52,55.

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Indigenousdecision-makingandcontrolovertheircoreinstitutions,goalsandidentity.85Flexibility

isfundamentaltodevelopingculturallylegitimateprocessesandinstitutions.

Theresearchfindingssuggestacriticalneedfortop-levelsupportfromgovernmentandprovision

ofintegratedfundingmechanisms,backedbybureaucraticleadershipandcollaborationto

generateapositiveenablingenvironment.86CornellandKaltprescribethefollowingrolesfor

mainstreamgovernments–institutingaprogrammaticfocusoninstitutionalcapacitybuilding,

shiftingfromprogramsandprojectfundingtoblockgrants,developingnewprogramevaluation

criteria,recognisingthatsovereigntyinvolvesthefreedomtomakemistakes,tobeaccountable

andtolearn.87

RecommendationsemergingfromtheAustralianandNorthAmericanresearchinrelationtothe

roleofnon-IndigenousgovernmentsinfosteringeffectiveIndigenousgovernanceincludethat:88

• PolicyframeworksandcapacitydevelopmentstrategiesforbuildingIndigenousgovernanceshouldfosterstructuresanddecision-makingprocessesthatreflectIndigenousviewsofcontemporaryrelationshipsandculturallylegitimateformsofauthority,combinedwithapracticalmanagementandservicecapacitytodeliveroutcomes.Governmentsshouldavoidthetemptationtofocusonmainstreamvaluedcapabilitiesalone;89

• GovernmentsshouldfacilitateandprovidethetimeforIndigenousnations,communitiesandorganisationstoundertaketheirownprocessesofdevelopinggoverninginstitutionsoftheirowndesign,andavoidthetemptationtotakeovertheprocess.90IndigenousgovernancecapacityisgreatlyenhancedwhenIndigenouspeoplecreatetheirownrules,policies,guidelines,procedures,codes,anddesignthelocalmechanismstoenforcethoserulesandholdtheirownleadersaccountable;91

• Itcanbemisguidedforgovernmentstostartbyimposingcommunitygovernancestructuresormechanismsthatmaydivergefromlocallypreferredmodels,whicharefrequentlyrejectedbyIndigenouscommunitymembers.Previousexternalinterventionhasbeendemonstratedtodiminishthelegitimacyoforganisationsandleaders,andreducetheireffectivenessandundermineobjectives;92

85Ibid86HuntandSmith,ICGPPreliminaryFindings,aboven52,52.87CornellandKalt,TwoApproaches,aboven56,28.88Seeinparticular,CornellandKalt,TwoApproaches,above,n56;HuntandSmith,‘UnderstandingandengagingwithIndigenousgovernance’,above,n52;Huntetal,ContestedGovernance,aboven52;HuntandSmith,ICGPYearTwoFindings,aboven2,7,13,23,28,34-35,42-43.89HuntandSmith,ICGPPreliminaryFindings,aboven52,52.90Ibid.91HuntandSmith,ICGPYearTwoFindings,above,n52,34.92HuntandSmith,ICGPPreliminaryFindings,aboven52,18.

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• Buildingcapablegovernanceisadevelopmentalprocesswherechangeisincrementalandrequiresalong-termcommitment.93Indigenouspeopleneedtimetoassesshowwelltheirgovernanceinitiativesareworking,andthepowertoadaptorcompletelychangearrangementswhentheyarefoundtobeinsufficienttothetaskathand94;

• ContemporaryIndigenousgovernancearrangementsneedsupporttoevolvetomeetinternalandexternalchangingconditionsandchallenges;95and

• Stableandlongtermpolicyandfundingenvironments,andgoodcoordinationandcollaborationbetweengovernmentdepartmentssupporttheeffectivenessofIndigenousgoverningsystems.96

C. Transparency,accountabilityandoversightcasestudies

1. AboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderCommissionIn1990,theHawkeGovernmentestablishedapolicyof‘self-determination’.Akeyaspectofthis

wastheestablishmentoftheAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderCommission(ATSIC),anational

representativestructurethatwasattachedtoagovernmentbureaucracy.

ATSICwasgivenseveralwide-ranginglegislativefunctions.Setoutinsection7oftheAboriginal

andTorresStraitIslanderAct1989(Cth)theseincluded:

(1) TheCommissionhasthefollowingfunctions:(a) toformulateandimplementprogramsforAboriginalpersonsandTorresStrait

Islanders;(b) tomonitortheeffectivenessofprogramsforAboriginalpersonsandTorresStrait

Islanders,includingprogramsconductedbybodiesotherthantheCommission;

Althoughthesepowerswereunderutilized,97theysetupaframeworkwherebyATSIChadthe

abilitytosetthepolicyagendaandprioritiesandthenmonitortheirimplementation.

TheHowardGovernmentabolishedtheagencyin2005.Asaresultofitsabolition,aspecious

argumentdevelopedinthediscoursearoundIndigenousdisadvantagethatassertedthat‘self-

determinationhasfailed’.Thisclaimemergedinthewakeofthedisestablishmentofthenational

representativestructureintheAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderCommission(ATSIC).The

93Ibid52.94Ibid21.95Ibid.96Ibid48.97ThiswasaconclusionintheReportoftheReviewoftheAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderCommission,IntheHandsoftheRegions:AnewATSIC,November2003.http://old.antarqld.org.au/pdf/ATSIC_review_report.pdf

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politicalrhetoricimpliedthattherewasagovernmentpolicycalled‘self-determination’andone

ofitskeyinitiativeshadbeentheestablishmentofATSIC,andsinceATSICwasafailure,self-

determinationwasafailure.

However,itisnotclearthatATSICwas‘afailure’andhadseveralpolicysuccesses.Intheareaof

programdelivery,ATSICestablishedtheCommunityDevelopmentEmploymentProgram(CDEP)–

theonlyemploymentprogramtohavesuccessfullyaddresseddevelopingcommunitycapacityin

areaswheretherearenojobs.98

Similarly,theCommunityHousingInfrastructureProgram(CHIP)wasassessedbytheAustralian

NationalAuditOfficeaseffectiveindeliveringmajorhousingandinfrastructureprojectsto

IndigenousCommunities.99ThesepolicysuccesseswithinATSICwouldhighlightthepositive

outcomeswhenIndigenouspeopleareengagedwiththedesignofpoliciesgoingintotheir

communities.

Theproblemwiththeassertionthat‘self-determinationfailedbecauseATSICfailed’isthatit

assumesthattheestablishmentofagovernmentbureaucracy,albeitwithanelectedarm,toassist

withgovernmentpolicyandtheadministrationofgovernmentmoney,isanembodimentofself-

determination.Manywouldarguethatthisisnotaformofself-determinationbutratherthe

integrationofarepresentativebodyintothebureaucracy.Inmanyinstances,theconceptwas

equatedwith‘self-management’ratherthan‘self-determination’.

However,therhetoricthat‘self-determinationhadfailed’becamepopularandwasadoptedby

bothsidesofthepoliticalspectrum.Alongsidethismantraemergedthesymbioticpropositionthat

IndigenousAustraliansarenotcapableoflookingaftertheirownaffairsandrequireintervention

andpoliciesaimedatbehaviouralchange.Thisisnotonlyacontentiousproposition,italsoruns

countertothelargeamountofevidencethatshowsthatIndigenousinvolvementinIndigenous

98ForasummaryofthesuccessofCDEPseeJonAltman,‘Neo-PaternalismandtheDestructionofCDEP’(TopicalIssueNo14/2007,CAEPR,ANU,2007)<http://caepr.anu.edu.au/Publications/topical/2007TI14.php>.HenotesthatCDEPhasemployed36,000Indigenouspeopleandhadover200Indigenousorganisationsasparticipants.99AustralianNationalAuditOffice,NationalAboriginalHealthStrategy—DeliveryofHousingandInfrastructuretoAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderCommunities(1999).<https://www.anao.gov.au/sites/g/files/net616/f/anao_report_1998-99_39.pdf>.

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policymaking,designofprogramsandservicedeliveryisthemosteffectivewaytoachieve

positiveoutcomesandtoimprovesocio-economicindicators.

2. VictorianCharterofHumanRightsTheCharterofHumanRightsandResponsibilitiesAct2006protectsbasicrightsandfreedomsof

allpeopleinVictorian.Theseincludetherightsto:recognitionandequalitybeforethelaw,life,

protectionfromtortureandcruel,inhumanordegradingtreatment,freedomfromforcedwork,

freedomofmovement,privacyandreputation,freedomofthought,conscience,religionand

belief,freedomofexpression,peacefulassemblyandfreedomofassociation,protectionof

familiesandchildren,takingpartinpubliclife,propertyrights,libertyandsecurityofperson,

humanetreatmentwhendeprivedofliberty,afairhearing,nottobetriedandpunishedmore

thanonce.

Someconsiderationwasgiventotheinclusionofarighttoself-determinationbutindecidingthat

itwouldnotbeincludedintheCharterwhenitwasenactedin2006.However,itwasreconsidered

aspartofthefirstmajorreviewoftheCharterin2010throughaconsultationprocesswiththe

VictorianIndigenouscommunity.100Ithasnot,however,beenincludedintheCharterprotections

todate.Thosecommunityconsultationshighlightedthat‘therighttoself-determinationwas

consideredrelevantandimportantasitisafundamentalprinciplethatprovidestheopportunity

forthefurtheracknowledgmentofthestatusofIndigenouspeopleandtheuniquerightsand

statustheyhold.’Theyalsoconcludedthat‘anydefinitionofself-determinationforIndigenous

peopleinVictoriamustallowforindividualperspectivesinitsapplication.’Theconsultation

generallysupportedtheinclusionoftherighttoself-determinationintheCharter.101

WhiletheCharterdoesnotspecificallyincludetherighttoself-determination,itdoescontain

protectionsofsomerightsthatareinherentcomponentsofself-determination.Forexample,the

100LarissaBehrendtandAlisonVivian,Indigenousself-determinationandtheCharterofHumanRightsandResponsibilities:Aframeworkfordiscussion-Mar2010.VictorianEqualOpportunityandHumanRightsCommission.http://www.humanrightscommission.vic.gov.au/our-resources-and-publications/charter-reports/item/170-indigenous-self-determination-and-the-charter-of-human-rights-and-responsibilities-a-framework-for-discussion-mar-2010.http://www.humanrightscommission.vic.gov.au/our-resources-and-publications/charter-reports/item/159-talking-rights-consulting-with-victorias-indigenous-community-about-self-determination-and-the-charter-mar-2011101http://www.humanrightscommission.vic.gov.au/our-resources-and-publications/charter-reports/item/159-talking-rights-consulting-with-victorias-indigenous-community-about-self-determination-and-the-charter-mar-2011

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Charterprotectsculturalrightsatsection19,whichistheonlyrecognitionofdistinctrightsof

Aboriginalpeople:

Peoplecanhavedifferentfamily,religiousorculturalbackgrounds.Theycanenjoytheirculture,declareandpracticetheirreligionandusetheirlanguages.Aboriginalpersonsholddistinctculturalrights.

PolicymakingundertheCharterTheVictorianGovernment,publicservants,localcouncilsandotherpublicauthoritiesmustact

consistentlywiththeCharterandobservehumanrightsintheirday-to-dayoperations.Human

rightsmustbetakenintoaccountwhenmakinglaws,settingpoliciesandprovidingservices.Public

authoritiesmustconsiderhumanrightswhentheydeliverservices,makedecisions,develop

policiesandcreatelaws.Section38oftheCharterrequirespublicauthoritiestoactcompatibly

withhumanrightsbyprovidingthatitisunlawfulto:

• actinawaythatisincompatiblewithahumanright• tofailtogiveproperconsiderationtoarelevanthumanrightwhenmakingadecision.

TheCharteraffectstheoperationofthelegislature,theexecutive(includingpublicauthorities),

andthecourts:

• AstatementofcompatibilitywiththeChartermustbetabledwithallBillsontheirintroductiontoparliamentthattellsparliamentwhethertheymeetthestandardssetbytheCharter.

• Alllegislation(includingsubordinatelegislation)mustbeassessedforcompatibilitywithhumanrightsbytheScrutinyofActsandRegulationsCommittee.

• Publicauthoritiesmustactinaccordancewithhumanrightsandgiveproperconsiderationtohumanrightsindecisionmaking.

• Courtsandtribunalsmustinterpretandapplylegislationconsistentlywithhumanrightsandmayhaveregardtointernational,regionalandcomparativedomestichumanrightslaw.

• TheSupremeCourthasthepowertodeclarethatalawisinconsistentwithhumanrightsbutdoesnothavethepowertostrikeitdown.

OversightundertheCharterRightsprotectedundertheCharterarenotabsoluteandcanbeoverriddenbylegislationbutthe

intentiontodosomustbeclearlystatedandastatementofcompatibilitywiththeChartermust

accompanyallbillspresentedtotheVictorianParliament.

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TheCharterdoesnotprovidenewavenuesforlegalactionforabreachoftheCharter.Instead,

theCharterprimarilyestablishesmechanismstoscrutiniselawsfortheircompatibilitywithhuman

rightsattheplanningandpolicystage.Itisimportanttounderstandthatlawsthatarenot

compatiblewithhumanrightsarenonethelessvalidandmustbecompliedwith–lawscannotbe

struckdownbecausetheydonotcomplywithhumanrights.However,wherepeoplehavean

existingcasebeforeacourtortribunal,theycanraisehumanrightsarguments.102

Ifparliamenthasmadelawsthatarecompatiblewithhumanrights,thenpublicauthoritiesmust

makedecisionsandmustactinawaythatcomplieswithhumanrights.Ifpublicauthoritiesdonot

complywithhumanrights,thentheiractionsmaybeunlawfulandanaffectedpersoncouldbring

anactionincourttostoptheunlawfulbehaviour.103

3. WaitangiTribunalTeTiritioWaitangi(theTreatyofWaitangi)isthestartingpointforexaminingrelationsbetween

MāoriandPakehainAotearoaNewZealand.ItwassignedbyrepresentativesoftheBritishCrown

andMāorichiefsin1840butinterpretationofthetreatyhasalwaysbeenhighlycontested

becausetheMāoriandEnglishtextscannotbereconciled.TheMāorididnotanddonotaccept

thattheycededabsolutesovereigntytotheBritish.Instead,theyinterprettheTreatyasproviding

for‘parallelpathsofpowerunderasinglenationstate’andcontinuedtoexercisetheirownlaws

aftersigning.

ThelegalstatusoftheTreatyisalsocontestedandcourtshaveheldthatitonlyhaslegalforceto

theextentthatitisincorporatedintolaw.However,theprinciplesoftheTreatythatareapplied

bytheTribunaltogovernmentaction,andthatareincreasinglyincorporatedintolegislation,

providesomemeasureofaccountabilityandimpactongovernmentpolicyandpractice.

Almostfromthebeginning,MāoricomplainedaboutTreatybreachesbutitwasnotuntil1975

thattheWaitangiTribunalwasestablished.TheTribunalinquiresintoclaimsbyMāorithatthe

Crown’slegislationoractionsareorwereinconsistentwiththeTreaty’sprinciples.TheTribunal

102BehrendtandVivian,above,n100,7.103Ibid.

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inquiresintoandmakesrecommendationsonclaimssubmittedtotheTribunal;andexaminesand

reportsonproposedlegislationreferredtoitbytheHouseofRepresentativesoraminister.

TheWaitangiTribunalisapermanentcommissionofinquiryestablishedin1975bytheTreatyof

WaitangiAct1975.TheTribunal’smandateistoinquireintoandreportonclaimsbyMāorithat

theCrown’slegislationoractionsareorwereinconsistentwiththeprinciplesoftheTreatyof

Waitangi.104Generally,theTribunalhasauthorityonlytomakerecommendationswhichdonot

bindtheCrown,theclaimants,oranyothersparticipatinginitsinquiriesandcannotdecidepoints

oflaw.105.However,forthepurposesoftheAct,theTribunalhasexclusiveauthoritytodetermine

themeaningandeffectoftheTreatyasitisembodiedinboththeMāoriandtheEnglishtexts.106

TheTribunalcomprisesupto16members,whoareappointedbytheGovernor-Generalonthe

recommendationoftheMinisterofMāoriAffairs,fortheirrangeofskillsandexpertiseinthe

matterslikelytocomebeforethem.107ApproximatelyhalfthemembersareMāoriandhalfare

Pakeha.Members,mostlyparttime,constituteapool,fromwhichbetweenthreeandsevenare

drawnforanyoneinquiry.108Ithasflexiblepanelselectiontoadapttoclaimscircumstances.For

instance,dependingonthenatureoftheclaim,acommunitymemberwithtraditionalknowledge

orahistoricalresearchermayformpartofthepanelbutthemajorityofmembershavelaw

backgrounds.109ThechairpersoniseitherajudgeoraretiredjudgeoftheHighCourtorthechief

judgeoftheMāoriLandCourt,andthedeputychairpersonisajudgeoftheMāoriLandCourt.

JudgesoftheMāoriLandCourt,evenifnotmembersoftheTribunal,andmembersofthe

TribunalwhoarebarristersandsolicitorsoftheHighCourtwithsevenyearsstanding,maypreside

ataninquiry.110

TheTribunalisboundbyrulesofnaturaljusticeandsubjecttoHighCourtreviewbut,being

inquisitorial,isnotlimitedtotheevidenceandtheargumentsoftheparties.TheTribunalmay

104MorrisTeWhitiLove,‘TheWaitangiTribunal’sRoleintheDisputeResolutionofIndigenous(Māori)TreatyClaims’inCatherineBell&DavidKahane(eds)InterculturalDisputeResolutioninAboriginalContexts(Canada:UBCPress,2004)128,131.105http://www.waitangi-tribunal.govt.nz/about/established.asp106http://www.waitangi-tribunal.govt.nz/about/established.asp107TeWhitiLove,aboven104,135108Ibid.109http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/wige/trd/nezeal_e.html110TeWhitiLove,aboven104,135

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receivematerialthatwouldbeinadmissibleincourtsandcanconductitsownresearch.111Itcan

commissionfurtherevidence,makefurtherinquiriesorcommissionanopinionontheevidence.112

Crossexaminationispermittedbutnotencouragedforeldersgivingtraditionalevidence.113The

TribunaldeterminesitsownspecialprocedureandmayadoptMāoriprotocolsandhearingsare

generallyheardonmarae.

TheclaimprocesscommenceswithextensivehistoricalresearchundertakenbytheTribunalitself,

theCrownandtheclaimants.Oncetheissuesareresearched,theclaimisreadyforhearing.

SubmissionsfromtheCrownandclaimants,andotherinterestedpartiesaregivenandresearchers

speaktothemainthemesoftheirreports.114TheTribunalhasalimitedpowertosummons

witnesses,requiretheproductionofdocuments,andmaintainorderatitshearings.115Atthe

completionofthehearing,theTribunalmayissueaninterimreportandrecommendthatthe

partiesreachagreementbynegotiation.TheTribunalcanalsoassistnegotiationsbyconducting

furtherhearingsonrecommendations.TheTribunalmaymakeafinalreportincludingdetailed

recommendationsonremedies.116

111http://www.waitangi-tribunal.govt.nz/about/established.asp112TeWhitiLove,aboven104,140113Ibid.114Ibid.115http://www.waitangi-tribunal.govt.nz/about/established.asp116MorrisTeWhitiLove,‘TheWaitangiTribunal’sRoleintheDisputeResolutionofIndigenous(Māori)TreatyClaims’inCatherineBell&DavidKahane(eds)InterculturalDisputeResolutioninAboriginalContexts(Canada,UBCPress:2004)128,140

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V Self-determinationandIndigenousjusticemechanismsContemporaryAustraliaisalegallypluralisticnation,withmultiplelegalsystemsandoverlapping

jurisdictions.AboriginalAustraliaismadeupofover250nations,eachwithitsuniqueculture,

language,history,lawsandcustoms.Aboriginallegalsystemscontinuetooperateinmany

locationsacrossAustralia,co-existingsimultaneouslywiththeAustralianmainstreamlegal

system.117Aboriginallawandlegalsystemsareoftendescribedascustomarylaw,orloreto

distinguishthatlorefromAustralianmainstreamlaw.

TheAustralianLawReformCommissionfoundthat‘Aboriginalcustomarylawgovernsallaspects

ofAboriginallife,establishingaperson’srightsandresponsibilitiestoothersaswellastotheland

andnaturalresources’.118Whileinsomecasesknowledgeoflocallawsandcustomshasbeen

weakenedorlostduetoforcedremovalfromcountryandfamily,theoperationoflocallegal

systemsisanintegralpartofeverydaylifeinIndigenous.119Indigenouspeoples’collectiverightto

self-determinationandself-governmenthasitsgenesisintheunextinguishedIndigenous

sovereigntytoAboriginalnationsor‘Country’.IntheWesternAustralianLawReformCommission

reportAboriginalCustomaryLaws,aresearchparticipantoffersavividdescriptionofthisreality:

Aboriginallawisthetable,thesolidstructureunderneath.Whitefellalawislikethetablecloththatcoversthetable,soyoucan’tseeit,butthetableisstillthere.120

Australiaisaregionofjurisdictionalmultiplicity—notonlyintermsoftheoverlappingjurisdictions

withintheAustralianlegalsystem(includinglocal,state,territorial,federalandinternational

jurisdiction),butalsoasbetweentheAustralianandAboriginallegalsystems.Notwithstandingthis

multiplicity,theAustralianmainstreamandAboriginallegalsystemsoperatewithlittleorno

recognitionofoneanother.Aboriginalpeopledescribedecidingonadailybasisaboutwhichlaws

toapplyindifferentcontexts.Attimes,thisinvolvescarefulevaluationofwhichsystems’laws

havethegreatestrelevancetothesituationathand.

117AustralianLawReformCommissio,TheRecognitionofAboriginalCustomaryLaw(1986,AustralianGovernmentPublishingService);AustralianLawReformCommission,FinalReport:Multi-culturalismandthelaw(1991,No.57,AustralianGovernmentPublishingService);WesternAustralianLawReformCommission,AboriginalCustomaryLaws(2005,WALRC).118WesternAustralianLawReformCommission,aboven114,[6].119Ibid.120Ibid.

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…it has us operating within a system where we operate one way at work butbehaveinatotallydifferentwaywhenwegothome.SothechoicealwaysbecameforustooperateaccordingtoawesternmodelunderaWestminsterlegalsystemthatlocksyouintothatordoIbehaveculturally?…Wealwayshavehadtomakethatchoice.Nooneelseinthecountryhastomakethatchoicebutus.Aboriginalpeoplehavetodothateveryday.

FormerCEO,WilcanniaLandCouncil

I knowall about your lifestyle, I knoweverything about yourworld.…Over herenow–inourworld,youstilldon’tknowatall,andthat’s-notthatwewantyoutoknow it all, you need to understand that and that’swhat’s not happening at themoment.Butthere’sthatinvisiblelinethatwemoveacross-youknow,wecross.

FormerAboriginalCulturalHeritageOfficer,NSWDepartmentofEnvironment,ClimateChangeandWate

TherehasbeenlimitedformalrecognitionofIndigenoussovereigntybyAustraliangovernments.

Anexampleoflimitedrecognitionisnativetitlelegislation,wherebytheAustraliangovernment

recognises,incertaininstanceswhereaclaimissuccessfullyproved,certainproprietaryrights

(namely,rightsto‘nativetitle’)whichincludestherighttofish,huntandpracticecustomarylaws.

A. ConceptionsofIndigenousjustice:Restorativeandreparativejustice

Humansaresocialcreaturesandwedeveloprules,waysofdoingthingsandsystemsinorderto

achievethingstogetherinagroupthatwecannotachieveindividually.Asgroupswearehighly

interdependent.Cornell,CurtisandJorgensenexplain:121

Wesufferandfailinisolation;wethriveingroups.Itisonlyinnetworksofrelationships—fromsmallfamiliestolargesocieties—thathumanbeingsareabletosurviveforverylong.Wemeetourneedsbydevelopingrelationshipsoftrade,cooperation,association,intimacy,andsoforth.Throughsuchrelationships,weprovideourselveswiththenecessitiesoflifeandmanagetodothethingswewishtodo.

Formillenniabeforeinvasion,Indigenouscollectives(nations,communities,peoples,societies,or

clans;howeverthegroupchoosestodescribeitself)122acrosstheworlddevelopedgoverningand

121StephenCornell,CatherineCurtis,MiriamJorgensen,‘TheConceptofGovernanceanditsImplicationsforFirstNations’(JointOccasionalPapersonNativeAffairsNo.2004-02,HarvardProjectonAmericanIndianEconomicDevelopment,2004)2.122Becauseinternationallawusestheterm‘peoples’todescribethecollectivesthathavetherighttoself-determination,wewillusethetermpeopleinthisliteraturereview.However,weareawarethatdifferentgroupswillhaveapreferencetodescribethemselvesindifferentways.

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justicesystemstoguideinteractionsbetweenindividuals,families,groupswithintheircommunity

andwithotherpeoplestoensurethewell-beingofthecollective.Despitetheverylargenumber

ofIndigenouspeoplesacrosstheglobeandthevastdistancesbetweenthem,thereare

remarkablesimilaritiesintheprinciplesthatunderpinmanyIndigenouspeoples’‘justicesystems’

ordisputeresolutionmechanismsorsystemsforproblemsolving.123Forexample,Indigenous

peopleinAustralia,AotearoaNewZealand,CanadaandtheUnitedStatesdescribeinsimilarterms

thepurposeoftheirjusticesystemstorestoreharmonyandre-establishbalanceforallindividuals

affectedbythe‘crime’(victimandperpetrator)andforthecommunity.124

Whiletheindividualisexpectedtoacceptresponsibilityforthewrongdoing,unlikewestern

conceptsofjustice,wrongdoingcannotbeisolatedtothatindividual.Handetaldescribean

Indigenousworldviewwherethecentralityofrelationships–acommunityofrelatedness–isself-

evident.125Therefore,withinanIndigenousjusticeparadigm,theunderlyingphilosophyisthat

‘crime’orwrongdoingharmsthecommunityitselfanditmustalsobehealed.Somejustice

systemsalsoseethecauseofthewrongdoingasbeingacommunityresponsibility.126Ratherthan

placeemphasisonthespecificeventsofthewrong,therestorativeprocessinsteadidentifieshow

theharmonyofthegroupisdisruptedandhowitmightberestored.127Forexample,theNavajo

peacemakercourtandTsuuT’inaFirstNationsCourtdonotattachblametothepersonfocuson

mendingtheact.128

Theterm‘peacemakercourt’isappropriatefortheserestorativeprocessesofmendingpersonal

andcommunalrelationships.129Itisaholisticprocessthatengagesthephysical,emotional,mental,

andspiritualaspectsofselfandinvestigateswhatmustoccurtorestorethevictimtowell-being

123Thefollowingdescriptionisingeneralterms.Werealisethatwecannotcapturethesophisticationandintricaciesofthesesystemsandsimplyattempttocapturecommonfeatures.124CarolAHand,JudithHankesandToniHouse,‘Restorativejustice:theindigenousjusticesystem’(2012)15(4)ContemporaryJusticeReview449,452.125Ibid453.126MeaganBerlin,‘RestorativejusticepracticesforAboriginaloffenders:Developinganexpectation-leddefinitionforreform’(2016)21Appeal3,5-6.127Hand,HankesandHouse,aboven124,452.128MarianneONielsen,‘NavajoNationCourts,PeacemakingandRestorativeJusticeIssues’(1999)44JournalofLegalPluralism105,111;NormaLarge,‘HealingJustice’SocialIssue(May/June2001)21,21-23.<http://www.albertaviews.ab.ca/issues/2001/mayjun01/mayjun01social1.pdf>129AdaPecosMelton,‘IndigenousJusticeSystemsandTribalSociety’(1995)79(3)Judicature:JournaloftheAmericanJudicatureSociety<http://www.tribal-institute.org/articles/melton1.htm>.

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butalsohowtheoffendermightmakeamendstorestoretheirdignityandthetrustofthe

community.130Forexample,theNavajobelievethatreintegratingtheoffenderintothe

communityismoreimportantthanpunishment.131Animportantgoalisfortheoffenderto

developgreaterself-understandingsothattheywillnotrepeatthewrongdoing.132

Toachievehealing,Indigenousjusticesystemsbringtogetherallthepeoplewhohaveaninterest

inthematterwhowillbeneededtorestorebalanceandharmony.The‘circle’isoftenusedto

describepeacemakingasbothmetaphororpracticewhereinterestedpartiessitandfaceeach

other.Thecircleisappropriatefortheserestorativeprocessesbecauseitcanbeunderstoodas

describingtherelationshipsandbetweenthepartiesandgroupswhoareaffected,andalso

describesacommunity.AccordingtoMelton,thecentrerepresentstheunderlyingissuesthat

needtoberesolvedforpeaceandharmony.133

Giventhecentralityofrestoration,repair,healing,balanceandharmonytoIndigenousconcepts

ofjustice,itisnotsurprisingthatmanyofourexamplesofIndigenousself-determinationwithin

thejusticesystemareexamplesofpeacemakerorrestorativeprocesses.OfthefourCANZUS

nationstates,itisonlyintheUnitedStateswhereIndigenouspeopleshavethelegalcapacityto

createandoperatetheirownjusticesystems.Bycontrast,inAustralia,CanadaandAotearoaNew

Zealandcriminaljurisdictionisexercisedbythenationstateandself-determination(totheextent

thatitcanbeachieved)isachievedthroughmodificationtothejusticesystemsofthestate.

B. Casestudies:IndigenousJusticeMechanisms

1. Preventionandearlyintervention

Casestudy1: TheMen’sShed,MountDruitt,SydneyNSWTheMen’sShedisadrop-incentreand‘wrap-around-service’basedinBankstown,NSW,witha

focusonAboriginalandTorresStraitIslandermenwhohavebeeninprisonandonmen’ssuicide

prevention.SituatedattheHolyFamilyCatholicChurchandheadedbylocalresidentRickWelsh,

130Ibid.131Hand,HankesandHouse,aboven124,453.132Ibid.133PecosMelton,above,n129.

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theMen’sShedprovidesa‘onestopshop’:aculturallysafespaceforAboriginalandTorresStrait

Islandermenwhoareatriskofseriousstress,suicideorhomelessnessandwho,foranumberof

complexreasons,fallthroughthecracksofthemainstreamserviceproviders,includinghealth,

counselling,legalandsocialservices.

TheShedhasbecomeanessentiallinkbetweenat-riskmenandtheservicestheycouldaccessbut

don’tknowhowto,orarenotcomfortableattemptingtoaccess.Afundamentaltenetoftheir

approachisthattheyprovideaplacewhereAboriginalmentalktoAboriginalmen.TheMen’s

Shedprovideslinkupservicessuchas:in-houseassistanceincompletingCentrelinkforms,in-

houseaccesstolawyers,CentrelinkOfficers,paroleofficersandhealthcare.Inadditionto

enablingaccesstoservices,theMen’sShedalsoprovidesasafespaceformentoring,care-taking

andbuildingrelationships.SomemenattendtheMen’sShedbecausetheyarehomelessand

wantameal,butothersmightdropinbecausetheyneedachatandtheytrustthemenatthe

Shed.TheShedisopenfivedaysaweekandprovidesafreeweeklylunchonWednesdays.

Inbroadterms,theMen’sShedprovidessupporttomenandtheirfamiliesandisaplaceof

encouragementandhopeformanywhoaretryingtoimprovetheirlifesituations.Inthewordsof

RickWelsh:

Ourmainthing,whatwearelookingat,isasuicidepreventionpointtoaddressthestuffthatcomesalong.Youmighthavesomeonewithalegalproblembutwhenyousitdownandtalktothemthey’llgenerallytellyouotherstuff–‘Ohwell,I’vebeendrinking’,‘I’vebeendepressed’–it’sgenerallyallthosethingsthat’swrappedaroundthem…It’saboutpeoplegettingtoastateofdespairwheretheyfeelnovalue,maybenotintheirchildren’slives,they’rehomeless,there’snowhereforthemtoreallygosotheygettoastateofdespair.

WhytheMen’sShedworks:AlthoughtheMen’sShedhasnotbeensubjecttoanyformalevaluation,theMen’sShedisvery

popularandwellknown/establishedinstitution,withupto500visitingoveratypicalyear.When

askedwhatmadetheinitiative‘work’,thesteeringcommitteeemphasisedthefollowing

principlesunderlyingtheMen’sShedapproach:

• participation:TheMen’sSheddidnotstartwithalistof‘programs’,anyprogramsorinitiativeshavegrownorganicallyoutoftheneedsofmenfrequentingtheMen’sShed.Forexample,mainstreamtobaccocessationprogramsmightpleasetheDepartmentofHealth,

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butinthewordsofastaffmember:‘unlesstheyareledbymenwhohaveactuallygivenupsmoking,[they]tendtobeawastoftime.’

• suicideprevention:TheMen’sShedapproachisbasedonanunderstandingofthestigmatisingeffectsofmentalhealthcare.TheShedworkers‘walkwith’menandtheirfamiliesthroughseriouschallenges,whichcanleadondownwardspirallypathsofdespairandevensuicide.

• integratedapproach:Ageneralcriticismofserviceprovidersisthe‘siloapproachtotheirwork.Incontrast,theMen’sShedseekstoprovidea‘onestopshop’andisbasedonaninterconnectedunderstandingofthesocialandculturaldeterminantsofhealthandwellbeing.

• welcomingapproach:theMen’sShedadoptsanapproachthatisinclusiveandwelcomingofallmenandfamilies.WhilethemajorityofthemencomingthroughtheservicehavebeenfromtheMountDruittAboriginalcommunity,allarewelcomeandhavebeenwelcomed.

• culturalandspiritualleadership:theMen’sShedadopttheWorldHealthOrganisation’sbroaddefinitionofhealthasbeing‘Notjusttheabsenceofdisease,butthetotalphysical,emotionalandspiritualwellbeingofindividualsandcommunities’.

• belonging:BelongingisanimportantsocialdeterminantofAboriginalmen’shealth.TheMen’sShedapproachisbasedonanunderstandingthatwhatkeepsAboriginalmensafeincludes,‘asenseofbeingpartofawebofrelationships,ofkinship,ofbeingpartofa“mob”’.Anunderstandingof‘belonging’issometimeslackingfrommainstreamapproachestomentalhealth,butispartofwhatmakestheMen’sShedunique,popularandvaluedbyitsregulars.

• gender:Aboriginalwomenspeakofthe‘rightness’oftheMenShedasofferingaplacefor“men’sbusiness”.Thisviewinnowaycondonesviolenceagainstwomenbutisanapproachthatseessolutionsasinvolvingmen.

• humility,resilienceandcontinuousadaptation/learning:ThestaffattheMen’sShedadmitthatalthoughtheworktheydoisnot“rocketscience”,theyemphasisedthat“wearestilllearning”.InNovember2016theMen’sShedlostsomeofitsfundingbutthroughasocialmediacampaignandpublicevents,managedtoreinstatesomeofthefunding.

Governance:Theservice,whichhasbeenoperatedsince2004,isgovernedbyasteeringcommitteeconsisting

ofElders,prominentAboriginalandcommunitymembers,invitedguestsandShedregularsand

partnerswith28organisations.

TheMen’sShedreceivesfindingfromtheCommonwealthDepartmentofHealthandAgeingvia

theNationalStrategyforPreventionofSuicideInitiativeandin-kindassistancefromtheUniversity

ofWesternSydney.TheMen’sShedoperateswiththeassistanceofvolunteersaswellasin-kind

assistancefromtheUniversityofWesternSydneyandtheHolyFamilyChurch.

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Casestudy2: GamaradaMen’sHealing,RedfernGamaradaHealingisagrass-rootsAboriginalwellbeingprograminRedfernNSWthatsupports

clientstodealwithhealinginthebroadsenseoftheterm;dealingwithviolentbehaviour

(personalorfamilial,institutionalandstructural),identityandculture,substanceabuseissues,and

strengtheningrelationshipswithpartnersandchildren.

GamaradaHealingcommencedinanadhocwayfrom2007onwards,originallyinvolvinglocal

Aboriginalleadersworkinginavoluntarycapacity.Theprogramdevelopedinresponseto

increasedrecognitionoftheneedforhealingandlifeskillsprogramsforAboriginalmenandthe

linksbetweenpoormentalhealthandinteractionwiththecriminaljusticesystemincluding

disproportionatelyhighlevelsofincarceration.Itisbasedonapeersupportandself-healingand

lifeskillsdevelopmentmodelwithastrongunderpinningofculturalrenewalandspiritualgrowth.

Initsearlydevelopmenttheprogramhadbecomewellrecognisedforitspositiveimpactson

Aboriginalmaleparticipants.

GamaradaHealingiscurrentlyledbyKenZulmovski,adescendantoftheKabiKabinationwith

traininginpsychology.Hedescribestheprogramasessentiallybeingabout:‘respectforself,

promotingcultureandtakingresponsibilitiesforouractions.’The10weekstructuredprogram

consistsofparticipationincommunityevents,leadershipandintensivementoring.Theprogram

currentlyplacesanemphasisontimemanagementandpersonalorganisationskills

Gamaradateachesparticipantspracticalskillssuchasstressmanagement,relaxation,breathing

andvisualisationexercises.Theconceptofawarenessisexploredindetailinconnectionto

Indigenousspiritualconceptssuchas‘dadirri’(deeplisteningandquietstillness).Anger

managementandemotionalcontrolareaddressedusing‘non-reaction’techniques.Theprogram

encouragesparticipantstoapplytheseskillsinordertogaingreatercontrolandharmonywithin

theirlivesandrelationships.

Participantsaregivenresponsibilityforthesmoothrunningoftheprogram,forexamplestarting

andfinishingontime,managingthebreaks,arrivingearlytoassistinsettinguptheroom,

preparingresources,lookingaftertheelders,andmanagingadministration.Thisincludes

completingattendanceandconsentforms;preparingforguestspeakers;andseekingpermission

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fromotherparticipantstodelegatenecessarytasksrequiredforthesession.Thesecoreelements

alongwithasetofgrouprulesdevelopedduringweekoneandreinforcedateachsessioncreatea

foundationofsafetyandrespectforhealingandtheemergenceofleadership.

Casestudy3: MarangukaJusticeReinvestment,BourkeNSWMarangukaisawholeofcommunitystrategycurrentlybeingtrialledinBourke,onthewestern

plainsinNSW.‘Maranguka’means‘caringforothersandofferinghelp’inthelocalNgemba

language.Marangukaisacommunity-ledcollectiveimpactapproachtojusticereinvestment—

whichinvolvestakingmoneyoutofcorrectionsandincarcerationstrategiesandreinvestingitin

communitydevelopmentstrategies.Itisaco-ordinatedstrategytosupportvulnerablefamilies

andyoungpeoplethroughcommunity-ledteamsworkinginpartnershipwithexistingservice

providers,inorderto‘together...buildanewaccountabilityframeworkwhichwouldn’tletour

kidsslipthrough’.Theoverarchinggoaloftheprojectistodecreasetherateofcontactof

Aboriginalyoungpeoplewiththecriminaljusticesystem,adultincarcerationandyouthdetention

inBourke.

Theprojectiscurrentlyinthesecondstageofathree-phasejusticereinvestmentstrategy.The

firststagefocusedonbuildingtrustbetweentheAboriginalcommunityandserviceproviders,

identifyingcommunitypriorities,andidentifyingcircuitbreakers.Regularmeetingshavebeenheld

withBourkecommunitymembers,localserviceprovidersandgovernmentrepresentatives.The

communityhasidentifiedandarecurrentlyintheprocessofimplementing—inpartnershipwith

localserviceproviders—anumberofcross-sectorinitiativesor‘circuitbreakers’toachievethe

goalorreducingoffendingandmakingthecommunitysafer.Thecommunityhascurrently

identifiedthree‘circuitbreakers’—strategiesorfocusareasidentifiedbycommunitymembersas

priorityareaswhichwillinturnenablepositivecyclesofchangeinbehaviourpatternsand

opportunities—aroundtheissuesofbreachesofbail,outstandingwarrantsandtheneedfora

learnerdriverprogram.

Thesecondstageinvolvesdatacollectiononlocalcrime,including:offending,diversion,bail,

sentencing,punishmentandre-offendingrates.Datawillalsobecollectedonbroadersocio-

economicfactorsonlocalcommunityoutcomes,including:earlylife,education,employment,

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housing,healthcare,childsafetyandhealthoutcomesincludingmentalhealthanddrugsand

alcohol.ThedatahasbeenhandedovertothecommunitymembersviatheBourkeTribalCouncil

forthethirdandfinalstageofthestrategy.

Thefinalimplementationstagewillinvolveusingeconomicmodellingtodemonstratethesavings

associatedwiththestrategiestobeidentifiedbythecommunityandlocalserviceprovidersto

reduceoffendingamongchildrenandyoungpeople.

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2. Policing

Casestudy4: TribalWarrior’sCleanSlateWithoutPrejudice,RedfernTribalWarriorisanot-for-profitcommunityorganisationthatoperatesarangeofinitiatives

includingmentoringprograms,trainingprogramsandotherculturalactivitiesinRedfern,

Sydney.134OneofitsinitiativesisShanePhillips’s‘CleanSlateWithoutPrejudice’(‘CSWP’)

whichstartedin2009asapartnershipbetweenNSWPoliceandtheTribalWarriorAssociation.

CleanSlateWithoutPrejudiceiscentredaroundaboxingprogrambasedattheNationalCentre

forIndigenousExcellencewhichaimstoprovideanopportunityforIndigenousyoungpeople

andlocalpoliceofficerstoexerciseandsocialiseinaninformalsetting.CWSPworkswiththe

bothyoungmenandwomen,andwascommenteduponasbeingapositivepartnership

involvingAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeopleinRedfernandpolice.

Theprogramisa‘grassrootscommunity,holisticexercise,assistanceandreferralprogram’

focusedonyoungpeople.Participantsundertakeboxingtrainingthreemorningsperweekand

areofferedassistancewithaccommodation,employmentandtraining.135Policeofficersand

Aboriginalleaderstrainwiththeyoungpeople.Youngpeoplearereferredbyschools,social

services,courtsorthepolice.Participationintheprogramcanformpartofasuspended

sentenceandyoungpeoplesentencedtoprisoncannowparticipate.Whilenotabletobe

verifiedasattributabletotheprogram,ithasbeenreportedthatbetween2008and2014

robberiesintheareadroppedby73percent,assaultsonpolicedroppedby57percentand

break-and-entersnearlyhalved.136Initially,theCleanSlateprogramwasonlyofferedtoboys,

howeverfemaleAboriginalmentorshavenowbeenemployed,toencouragegreater

participationbyyoungwomen.

Casestudy5: NightpatrolsNightpatrolsarelocallyruninitiativeswithformalagendasthatfocusonkeepingyoungpeople

safeandonpreventingcontactbetweenAboriginalyoungpeopleandthestatepolice.Patrols

134ShanePhillips,TribalWarrior(2016):https://tribalwarrior.org/135Ibid.136DanBox,‘CleanSlateWithoutPrejudiceaBoldBoxingExperiment’(2016)TheAustralian:http://www.theaustralian.com.au/life/weekend-australian-magazine/clean-slate-without-prejudice-tribal-warrior-redfern-and-a-bold-boxing-experiment/news-story/28d94564e0924918ebb5efcaa6188ee2

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operateinadiverserangeofurban,rural,andremotesettingsacrosssomeAustralian

jurisdictions.137Blaggestimatedthatapproximately130suchpatrolsoperateinAustralia;with

aroundtwo-thirdsofthesebeinglocatedinruralandremotepartsofWAandNT.Thecore

featuresofpatrolworkincludeindependencefromstatepolice,aconsensualbasisfor

operations,andaconnectiontothelocalIndigenouscommunity.138Indigenousnightpatrols

aredistinctivefromformalreformeffortsthatseektoalterthestatepolice,inthatakeypartof

theiragendaistominimiseAboriginalpeople’scontactwiththecriminaljusticesystem.

Importantly,patrolsfunctionindependentlyofthestatepoliceand,atleastintheory,are

connectedinsomewaytothelocalAboriginalcommunitywithinwhichtheyoperate.In

practice,theyoperatewithvaryinglevelsofcommunityinputorinvolvementfromthe

Aboriginalcommunity.Asthisimplies,patrolsdonotfallneatlyineitherthegovernmentalor

autonomousreformefforts,andoccupywhatscholarshavetermedthirdorhybridspaces.139

Despitevariationanddiversityamonginitiatives,broadunitycanbeseenatthelevelofkey

functions,whichinNSWincludesprovidingtransport,maximisingsafety,thementoringof

Indigenousyoungpeople,preventingharmfulbehaviour,andmaximisingthesafetyofyoung

peoplewho‘fallthroughthecracks’ofthesystem.140Researchsuggeststhattheeveryday

activitiesofpatrolsextendbeyondWesternconceptsofpolicing,crimeprevention,andsocial

work;andthattheyprovideanencompassingculturalserviceforIndigenousyouth.141Itis

perhapsforthisreasonthat—withfewexceptions142—thecontributionofIndigenouspatrols

haslargelyescapedtheattentionofcriminologists.

Casestudy6: Cross-culturaltraining,educationandcompetencyCross-culturaladvisoryunitsexistineverypoliceforceinAustralia,overseeingtheeducation

andtrainingofpoliceofficersincross-culturalissuesincludingcommunication.143Therationale

137HarryBlagg,AnOverviewofNightPatrolServicesinAustralia.Canberra:DepartmentofJusticeandAttorneyGeneral,(2003,AboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderCommission&NationalCrimePrevention)138AmandaPorter,‘IndigenousPatrols,Counter-PolicingandSafety’TheoreticalCriminology(2014).139ChrisCunneen,Conflict,PoliticsandCrime(2001,AllenandUnwin);HarryBlagg,Crime,AboriginalityandtheDecolonisationofJustice(2008,Hawkin’sPress).140AmandaPorter,aboven138.141Ibid.142ChrisCunneen,aboven139;HarryBlagg,aboven137;HarryBlagg,aboven139.143JanetChan,ChangingPoliceCulture:PolicinginaMulticulturalSociety(1997,CambridgeUniversityPress).

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isthateducatingpoliceofficersaboutAboriginalcultureandculturalcompetencywould

effectivelyredresstheignoranceunderlyingracistattitudesanddiscriminatorypractices.

Limitationsofculturalcompetencyhavebeenthree-fold.Psychologicalresearchemphasises

thedeeplyembeddedandpersistentnatureofracialprejudices,race-crimeassociations,and

unconsciousbias.144Ataninterpersonallevel,despitethebestintentionsoftrainingand

educationprograms,eradicatingracialstereotypesisanarduoustask.145Atasystemiclevel,

cross-culturaltrainingassumesthatignoranceliesattheheartoftheproblemandisunlikelyto

touchbiasesthatariseatboththeoperationalandinstitutionallevelsofthestatepolice.For

example,anemphasisontrainingignorespolicies(eg,zerotolerancepolicingtowardscertain

behaviours)andspecificcriminallaws(eg,paperlessarrestlawsintheNT)thatpoliceofficers

enforce.

Casestudy7: BourkeCommunityAssistancePatrolTheBourkeCommunityAssistancePatrol(knownlocallyas‘theCAP’)wasanAboriginalinitiative

whichmonitoredthepresenceofyoungpeopleonthestreetsatnight,sometimesreturningthem

totheirhomes,atothertimeshelpingyoungpeopleworkoutalternativesafeplacestogo.Patrol

operationstypicallyconsistedofonedriver,onepersoninthepassengerseat,andtwoothers

patrollingonfoot.AllpatrolworkerswereofAboriginaldescent.Communicationoccurred

betweenthebusandon-footpatrollersviaa2-wayradio.Patrolworkersworeauniformofa

poloshirtwiththeCAPlogo(anechidna,ananimalofculturalsignificanceforNgembapeople),

whichwasdesignedbyoneofthepatrolworkers.Theworkloadwasseasonallyadjusted,with

patroloperationsfinishingearlierinwintermonths.

TheCAPwasoperatedbyAboriginalmembersofthecommunity.Thepatrolcomplementedthe

dutiesandactivitiesofNewSouthWalesPolice,seekingtoreducetheextenttowhichpeoplemay

becomeexposedtoorinvolvedinanti-socialorcriminalactivitiesandtransportingpeople

potentiallyatrisktoasafeenvironment,aswellasreducingthelikelihoodofnegativecontacts

betweenmembersoftheIndigenouscommunityandpolice.

144JenniferEberhardtetal.,‘SeeingBlack:Race,crimeandvisualprocessing’JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology(2004)87(6):876–893.145RWortleyandRHomel,‘PolicePrejudiceasaFunctionofTrainingandOutgroupContact:Alongitudinalinvestigation’LawandHumanBehaviour(2000)19.

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ThegenesisoftheBourkeCAPlayoverseveralmeetingsoftheBourkeAboriginalCommunity

WorkingParty(‘BACWP’),anunincorporatedcommunityorganisation.Afteraseriesofmeetings

wheretheBACWPdiscussedtheformthisinitiativeshouldtake,thefirstformalmeetingofthe

CommunityAssistancePatrolwasheldon16December2003todiscussspecificlogisticsofthe

patrolsoperation,inparticulartheroster,uniforms,thevan,firstaidkits,tea/amenitiesandsoon.

Theinitialobjectivesweretwofold:tolookoutforyoungpeopleonthestreetslateatnight,and

toprovidemeaningfulemploymentopportunitiesforlocalIndigenouspeople.Asrecordedinone

oftheminutes,‘theprogramaimstogivethetraineesanopportunitytogainfurther

opportunities,includingdrivers’licensesforcarandbusandsecuritylicensing’.TheCAP

commencedoperationsinDecember2002withelevenparticipantswhohadpassedtherelevant

checksandinitiallyworkedinavolunteercapacity.Meetingminutesfromthisperiodindicate

therewasconsiderableambiguityastotheroleandresponsibilitiesofthepatrol.

Duringtheinitialphaseofoperationsthepatrolvehiclewasstoredatthepoliceofficeand

workerswereescortedbypoliceofficerstotheirhomesattheendofeachshift.Thiswaspartlyto

securethevehicleandpartlyasarelationshipbuildingexercisebetweenthelocalpoliceandthe

patrolworkers(thelatteroftenlivedoutoftownandhadnovehiclesoftheirown).Interviews

andarchivaldocumentsindicatetherelationshipbetweenthepoliceandthestatepolicehad

mixedsuccess.Forexample,oneconflictarosewhenapoliceofferaskedapatrolworkertoget

intotherearofthepolicevehicle(thepaddywagon).Otherexamplesincludeapolicevehicle

beinghailedwithstonesonreturnfromdroppingoneofthedriversoffatAliceEdwardsVillage.

In2004,thepatrolvehicleceasedtobeparkedatthepoliceoffice,andbegantobeparkedatthe

CDEPcomplexnearthenewoffice.Suchinstancesofconflictreflectedthenatureofrelations

betweenthepoliceandtheAboriginalcommunityinBourkemoregenerally.

InMarch2004employmentforworkersshiftedfromapurelyvoluntarybasistoreceivingawage

componentaspartoftheCommunityDevelopmentEmploymentProgram(‘CDEP’).Inaddition

someindividualscontinuedtooffertheirsupportinavolunteercapacity.Duringthistimethe

patrolfunctionedfrom6pm–midnightTuesdaysandWednesdaysandfrom5pm–midnight

ThursdaytoSaturdaynights.Atthistimethereweresevenpatrollersemployedonthe

programmeandeightvolunteers.Allvolunteersandworkersrequiredpolicechecksandfirstaid

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qualifications.RequiredtrainingconsistedofashortcourseofferedatthelocalTAFEcomprising

firstaidtraining,RoadsandTrafficAuthoritytraining,workshopsdealingwithdomesticviolence

situations,andgenerallawandjusticeissues.

Intotal,theCAPpatrolranintermittentlyfromDecember2003untilsometimein2007.TheCAP

temporarilyceasedinthemonthsof(May2004,June2005,October2005)duetodisruptionsin

fundingandmanagementissues.Reportsfromthistimerefertoalackofenthusiasmfrom

participantsduetotheuncertaintyofthepatrolservice.TheCDEPinitiativewasabolishedin2007

undertheHowardgovernment,whichseverelyimpactedthepatrol’sworkforce.

WhytheCAPworked:ThereissubstantialevidencethattheCAPwaswidelyperceivedashavingabeneficialimpactin

thelocalcommunity.Thisisevidencedthrougharchivaldocumentation(suchasminutes,letters

ofsupport,statistics)andwasborneoutininterviewswithBourkeresidents.Forexample,ata

communitymeetingheldin2004,SergeantWilliamsisrecordedascommentingthattheprogram

‘hastobeindependentofpolice,astheprogramdoessomethingtotallydifferenttopolicingroles’

andthattheCAP‘enhancestherelationshipbetweenthepoliceandtheIndigenouscommunity

throughtheirco-operativeroles’.SimilarlyinminutesfromameetingoftheBACWP,(then)

ChairpersonPhillipSullivanstatedthat:

Patrollershavebecomegreatrolemodelsandoutofthisprocessayouthforumhasbeenestablished. Patrollers have a heightened profile in the community and are displayingleadershipqualities.BourkeCAPisanexampleofthewholeofBourkecommunityworkingtogether.IftheissueswithBourkeCAParenotresolvedithasfailedtotheCOAGprocessandtheBourkecommunity.(PhillipSullivan,Bourkeresident)

ThisissimilarlyreflectedinthelettersofsupportcollectedovertheyearsfromtheLocalArea

Command,BourkeShireCouncil,theBourkeChamberofCommerce.TheDarlingRiverLocalArea

Commander,R.T.Mason,reportedthatsincetheinceptionoftheCAP‘nearlyallthecategoriesof

crimehavebeenreducedwithintheBourkearea’.

Governance:Intheearlyyearsworkerswerevolunteersandfunding(forpetrolandotherexpenses)was

throughtheBourkeShireandMurdiPaakiRegionalEnterpriseCorporationLtd.Thegovernance

arrangementsofthepatrolwereformalisedwhenin2005theBourkeAboriginalCommunity

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WorkingParty(‘ACWP’)signedtwoSharedResponsibilityAgreementswiththeCommonwealth

andNewSouthWalesGovernments.Atthispoint,fundingfromtheCommonwealthGovernment

allowedforthefundingofaCommunityCo-ordinatorwhoactedasaliaisonbetweencommunity-

widemeetingsandtheCAPmanagementstaff.

TheactivitiesofCAPworkersandvolunteerswereoverseenbytheCAPCo-ordinatorwho

organisedarosterandcompiledstatistics,bi-annualreportsandwroteapplicationsforfunding.

TherewasalsoaSteeringCommittee,whichoversawmoregeneralmanagerialandgovernance

issues.Thisconsistedofrepresentativesofthelocalpolice,TAFE,theDepartmentofCommunity

Services,theAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderCommission,DepartmentofJusticeand

Attorney-GeneralandmembersoftheBourkeShireCouncil.

TheCommonwealthGovernmentprovidedatotalof$47,000infunding(consistingof$20,000

fromtheCommonwealthAttorney-General’sDepartmentand$27,000fromtheDepartmentof

Families,CommunitiesServicesandIndigenousAffairs)tostaffCDEPworkersatawardwages.

TheNewSouthWalesGovernmentprovidedaccreditedtrainingforPatrolstaff(viathelocalTAFE)

andprovided$20,000funding(viatheNSWDepartmentofJusticeandAttorney-General).The

BourkeShireCouncilcontributedtotheoperatingcosts.

3. Indigenouscourtsystems

Casestudy8: TsuuT’inaFirstNationCourtThefederalgovernmenthasexclusivejurisdictionovertheAboriginalpeoplesofCanadaand

provinciallawonlyappliestoAboriginalpeoplewithlawsofgeneralapplication.146TheIndianAct

administerswhetherFirstNations(alsocalledIndianbands)peoplehave‘status’asIndian;the

formandjurisdictionoflocalFirstNationsgovernments;andthemanagementofreservelandand

communalmoniesbutdoesnotapplytotheMétisorInuit.

146Unders91(4)oftheBritishNorthAmericaAct1867(ConstitutionAct1867)theParliamentofCanadahasexclusiveauthoritytolegislatefor“allmatters”pertainingto“IndiansandLandsreservedfortheIndians”.s88oftheIndianActprovidesthatonlyprovinciallawsofgeneralapplicationapplytoAboriginalpeopleinCanada.

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FirstNationsaregenerallygovernedbybandcouncilsthatarechairedbyanelectedchief(called

ChiefandCouncil).SomeFirstNationsalsohavehereditarychiefsandtherecanbedifficult

relationshipsbetweenelectedandhereditarychiefs.Inaddition,severalbandsmayjointogether

toformaTribalCouncil.TheIndianActgiveslittlejurisdictiontoFirstNationsgovernmentsmainly

intheareaofmunicipalorlocalgovernmentresponsibilities.Bandcouncilsmaymakeby-lawsand

appontjusticesofthepeacetoenforcethem.AboriginalpeopleinCanadaaresubjecttothe

CriminalCodeandYouthCriminalJusticeAct.

TheTsuuT’inaFirstNationCourt(TTFNC)wasthefirstAboriginalcourtinCanada,commencingin

2000.147ItwasaninitiativeoftheChiefandCounciloftheTsuuT’inaNationwithsupportfromthe

AlbertaprovincialcourttoaddressoverrepresentationofFirstNationspeopleinthecriminal

justicesystemandcorrectionssystems.TheTsuuT’inaNationconsideredtheoptionbutdecided

nottocreateaseparatecourtinrecognitionthattheTsuuT’inaliveinbothcultures.148TheTTFNC

hasthejurisdictionofaprovincialcourt,limitedtooffencescommittedontheTsuuT’ina

reserve.149Alladultandyouthprovincialoffences(excepthomicideandsexualassault),and

breachesofFirstNationby-lawsareeligible.ItincorporatesbothCanadianlawandTsuuT’inalaw

byintroducingtraditionalpeacemakingmethodsalongsidenormalprovincialcourtprocesses.

UntilhewasappointedtotheFederalCourtofCanada,theTTFNC’sfistjudgewasProvincialCourt

Judge,JusticeTonyMandamin150whoisAnishnabefromtheWikwemikongFirstNationof

ManitoulinIsland.Hewasrequiredtoliveonthereserve,sothathewouldhavethenecessary

culturalawarenessoftheTsuuT’ina.Whilethereisastrongpreferencethatthejudge,prosecutor,

courtclerks,probationofficerandpeacemakercoordinatorbeAboriginalpeople,theappointment

ofthejudgeisaprovincialresponsibilityandthatdiscretioncannotbefettered.151Similarly,while

147ShellyJohnson,‘DevelopingFirstNationsCourtsinCanada:EldersasfoundationaltoIndigenoustherapeuticjurisprudence’(2014)3(2)JournalofIndigenousSocialDevelopment1,6.148CatherineBell,‘IndigenousDisputeResolutionSystemswithinNon-IndigenousFrameworks’inCatherineBell&DavidKahane(eds)InterculturalDisputeResolutioninAboriginalContexts(Canada,UBCPress:2004)241,251149DaleDewhurst,‘ParallelJusticeSystems’inCatherineBell&DavidKahane(eds)InterculturalDisputeResolutioninAboriginalContexts(Canada,UBCPress:2004)213,216150ForJusticeMandamin’saccountoftheTsuuT’inaFNCseeJudgeL.S.MandaminwithElleryStarlightandMonicaOne-Spot,‘PeacemakingandtheTsuuT’inaCourt’inWandaD.McCaslin(ed)JusticeasHealing:IndigenousWays(LivingJusticePress,2005)349.151Dewhurst,aboven148,216.Notethatthefirstjudgetopresideoverthecourt,JusticeMandaminpresidedovertwoFirstNationcourtsandintheCalgarycriminaldivision.

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theprosecutortakesAboriginalvaluesintoconsiderationinevaluatingwhatchargestolay,what

chargestoproceedwithandwhethertodropchargesattheendofasuccessfulpeacemaker

process,theyareatalltimesundertheauthorityofthechiefCrownprosecutorofAlberta.152

Notallcasesarereferredforpeacemaking.Theprosecutorandpeacemakercoordinatorreview

casestodeterminethosethatmaybesuitable.Itisoptionalandtheoffenderorvictimmay

choosetohavethematterheardintheadversarialsystem.153Iftheoffendertakesresponsibility

fortheiractions,andthevictimispreparedtoparticipate,thecasecanbereferred.154Where

thereisdisputeastosuitability,thejudge’sdecisionisfinal.155Whereamatterisnotreferredto

peacemaking,theprovincialcourt’sadversarialprocessisfollowed.

Thecourtdaystartswithatraditionalsmudgingceremonyandthephysicalstructureofthecourt

roomdiffersmarkedlyfromconventionalcourts;insteadpartiessitinacircleandno-oneis

elevated.156Thosecasesselectedforpeacemakingareadjournedandapeacemakerisappointed

whoisconsidered‘fair’bybothsides.Peacemakersarehighlyregardedinthecommunityas

knowledgeableintraditionalwaysandcustomsandreceivetraininginthefacilitationof

conventionalparticipatorydisputeresolutionprocesses.157Overtime,astheimportanceof

participationtotheentirecommunityhasbecomeclearer,manyhavevolunteeredtheirtimeand

activerecruitmenthasnotbeenneeded.158

PeacemakingcantaketwohoursortwodaysthroughcirclesincludingElderpeacemakers,the

offender,victim/s,familymembersandsometimesadditionalpersonnel(counsellors,addiction

specialistsetc).159Peacemakersusearangeoftechniquesthatmayinvolvetraditionalcircles,

sweatlodgesandspiritualhealingtechniques.160Ifresolutionisreachedandtheoffendercommits

tocompletetheagreedactions,thematterreturnstocourt.Iftheprosecutorissatisfiedwiththe

152Ibid,216-217153Large,above,n128,21-23.154LynetteParker,‘TsuuT’inaPeacemakingJusticeinCanada’(2004)RestorativeJusticeOnline,ArticleNo4733.155Large,above,n128,21-23.156Ibid.157Bell,above,n147,256158Large,above,n128,21-23.159Parker,aboven153160Dewhurst,aboven148,217.

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agreement,sheorhewithdrawsthecharges.161Ifnotsatisfied,theagreementisusedasan

elementinsentencingbythejudge.162Oncetheoffendercompletestheagreement,theyreturnto

courtforacelebration.Iftheoffenderdoesnotcompletetheagreement,theyreturntothe

adversarialcourtwithoutprejudice.163

Whydoestheprogramwork?ThestrengthoftheTsuuT’inaFirstNationsCourtisthatperpetratorsofoffencesareheld

accountabletotheirvictims,theirfamiliesandthecommunityandarerequiredtotake

responsibilityfortheiractionsbeforetheircommunity.Membersoftheircommunity,whoare

knowledgeableinthewaysandvaluesofthecommunity,facilitatetheprocess.Incontrasttothe

adversarialelementoftheTsuuT’inaFNCasaprovincialcourt,Aboriginalvaluesprovidethevery

foundationforthepeacemakerprocess.Thepeacemaker’sfocusisnotonpunishmentbuton

healingandmendingbreachesbyworkingwithelders,theaccused,victims,thecommunityandall

othersconsideredtobeconnectedtotheproblembehaviour.164‘Restoringhealthyrelationships

groundedinspiritualityisofparamountimportance’.165Thequestis,notonlytoresolveproblems,

butalsoto‘investigateanddiscovertherootcausesofbehaviourwhichhavetranslatedinto

criminalactivityordisharmonyinthecommunityoramongfamilies.’166

Peacemakersarenotneutralmediatorsbutareactivelyinvolvedinpromotingandteaching

Aboriginalvalues.167Theyprovidetraditionalandnon-traditionaldisputeresolutionandmake

recommendationsforsentencingthatcanbehighlycreative.168Thepeacemakerdoesnotattach

blameandconcentratesontheactionanditsconsequenceswiththeprimarygoalofrestoringthe

healthofthecommunityandre-establishingspiritualharmony.169

TheroleofthepeacemakersisbroaderthanthatoftheTsuuT’inaFNC.TheOfficeofthe

PeacemakerislocatedontheTsuuT’inareservationandpeoplecanbereferredthroughthe

161Parker,aboven153.162Ibid.163Ibid.164Dewhurst,aboven148,217.165Ibid.166Bell,above,n147,255-256167Dewhurst,aboven148,217.168Ibid.169Large,above,n128,21-23.

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policebeforeachargeislaid,bytheprosecutors’officeafterachargeislaidbytheCrown,orafter

convictionthroughasentencingcircle.

GovernanceAsnotedabove,theTsuuT’inaFNCappearstobeagenuinehybridofCanadianlawandcertain

aspectsofTsuuT’inalaw.Itisaprovincialcourtthatoperatesundertherulesandlegislationof

theCanadianprovincialsystembutincorporatesatraditionalapproachtodealingwithcrimethat

expungesthechargesintheCanadiansystem.Asnotedabove,thejudgeappointedbyprovince

butisanAboriginalperson,asistheprosecutorwhoisemployedbytheCrownprosecutor’soffice.

Thecourtworkers,probationofficerandpeacemakercoordinatorareprovidedbytheTsuu

T’ina/StoneyCorrectionsSociety.170TheTTSCorrectionsSocietyisajointeffortbytheTsuuT’ina

FirstNationandtheStoneyFirstNationtoprovidecounsellingandrehabilitationservicesto

offenderswithintheircommunities.TheTTSCorrectionsSocietyprovidesreferralprogramsfor

victimsofcrimeandtragedy,volunteertraining,communitybasedprogramsforoffendersand

programsofferingsupporttocommunitiesforcrimepreventionactivities.TheOfficeofthe

PeacemakerismaintainedonthereservationbytheTTSChiefandCouncil.

Casestudy9: TulalipHealingtoWellnessCourtNativeAmericantribesintheUnitedStatesholdauniquepositioninregardstotheirrelationship

withtheState.Fromtheoutset,therelationshipwasoneofnationtonation,wheretribes

enteredintotreatieswiththeBritishcolonisers,firstinrelationtotradeandmilitaryallegiance,

andlaterinrelationtocessionofcertainlandswithguaranteedrightsinreturn.Althoughthese

treatiesareenforceablelegaldocuments(unliketheTreatyofWaitangiforinstance),theywere

largelyignoredandtherightscontainedwithinthemwhittledaway.Nonetheless,thecontinued

sovereigntyoftribalgovernmentswasfirstrecognisedbythecourtsinthemid-1800s,althoughin

amodifiedform.Tribeshaveretainedpowersoflawmakingandself-governmentas“domestic

dependentnations”andcontinuetoberuledbytheirownlawswhilebeingsubjecttofederal

governmentjurisdiction.Civilandcriminaljurisdictionoftribesiscomplexandjurisdictionvaries

accordingtowherethematteraroseoroffenceoccurred,whetherthepartiesaremembersofthe

170Johnson,aboven146,6.

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tribe,areIndianornon-Indianand,ifacriminalmatter,whetherthecrimeisconsideredtobea

seriouscrime.Ifserious,thefederalgovernmenthasjurisdiction.

TheTulalipTribesisaconfederationofsixCoastSalishTribesandassociatedbandsthatwereco-

signatoriestothe1855TreatyofPointElliott.TheirtraditionalCountrycoveredalargeareaof

westernWashingtonStatebuttodaytheTulalipcommunityislocatedona22,000acre

reservationnorthofSeattle.TheTribehasabout4,300enrolledmemberswithapproximatelyhalf

livingonthereservation,wherethemajorityofresidentsarenon-Indian.

WashingtonisaPL-280Statewhichmeansthattribescanrequestthatthestateassumescriminal

jurisdictionforthetribe.From1958Washingtonexercisedcriminaljurisdictiononthereservation

butdidnotprovidesufficientresourcingandlawenforcement.171Criminaljusticewasatbest

inadequateand,atworst,non-existent.Itwasadifficultplacetolivewithharshconditionsand

where‘seriouscrimessuchasmurder,rapeandaggravatedassaultsoftenwentuninvestigated

andperpetratorswerenotprosecutedorpunished.’172

In1996,thetribedecidedthatitwastimetobuilditsowncriminaljusticesystembecausethe

federalgovernmenthadfailedtofulfilitsresponsibilityandstatecriminalresponsibilitywas

ineffective.Thetribesoughttohavestateauthorityremovedandtookoncontroloflaw

enforcementforIndigenousandnon-Indigenouspeopleonthereservationandlaterestablished

itscourt,throughtheNorthwestIntertribalCourtsystem.173Initiallythecourtwasmodelledon

mainstreamAmericancourtsanddidnotseemtobeachievingthecommunity’saims.AsTulalip

prosecutor,BrianKilgoreexplains,‘Whenallyouhaveisahammer,everythingisanail.’174

Insteadthetribeswantedtocreateajusticesystemthatcontributedtothehealthandwellbeing

ofthecommunity.IntegraltothisaimistheHealing-to-Wellness(Drug)Courtthatwascreatedin

171EvidencetotheUnitedStatesSenateCommitteeonIndianAffairsOversightHearingonTribalCourts&theAdministrationofJusticeinIndianCountry,24July2008(TheHonTheresaM.Pouley,TulalipTribalCourtJudge;President,NorthwestTribalCourtJudgesAssociation)<https://static1.squarespace.com/static/572d09c54c2f85ddda868946/t/57ac89ce15d5db281ea95a84/1470925262424/Tribal+Courts+%26+the+Administration+of+Justice+in+Indian+Country.pdf>172Pouley,aboven170.173Ibid.174NikiCleary,‘RestorativejusticereturningtoTulalipcourthouse’TulalipNews(online)<http://www.tulalipnews.com/wp/2016/03/30/restorative-justice-returning-to-tulalip-courthouse/>.

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responsetodrug-relatedcrimesandprovidesanalternativetosentencing.Programparticipants

typicallyhavebeenchargedwithpossessingorpurchasingdrugs;arenon-violentoffenders;do

nothaveahistoryofdrug-traffickingarrestormorethantwopreviousnon-felonyconvictions.

ParticipantsmaybeonGPSmonitoringwithanklebracelets,haveregulardrugtests,returnto

courtregularly(initiallyweekly)toreviewtheirprogress,receivecounselling,attendeducational

and/orvocationalcoursesandjobsearchprograms.175TheymaybeaskedtoattendElders

meetings,securetheirdriver’slicenceandattendclassesonlifeskills,healthyliving,parenting,

angerandstressmanagement,orfamilyviolenceperpetratorcourses.176

Tulalipprosecutor,BrianKilgore,describedprogramsthatdonottakeaholisticapproachas

feeling‘likeagameofwhack-a-mole.’177Heexplained:

Wefixonethingthenanotherpopsup.Ifallyouofferanaddictishousing,theninacoupleofyears,youhavedrughouses.Ifyouonlyoffercounselling,thenindividualswithaddictionstomethmoveontoopiatestotreatpainbecausetheyhaverawexposednervesintheirteethfromtoothdecay.Youhavetoaddressalltheissuesatthesametimeifyouwantpeopletochange.

Conversationsareheldwiththeparticipantwithalargecircleofinterestedpeople:judge,

participant,prosecutor,defencelawyer,complianceofficer,serviceproviders,Elders,family

member,peers.MembersoftheTribes’BoardofDirectorswillattendasessionaswilllaw

enforcementofficers,arepresentativefromthegamingcommissionetc.178Asoriginally

established,theprogramwaslargelyrunonavolunteerbasisthatheapedadditional

responsibilitiesonpeoplewhowerealreadyoverburdenedandultimatelyprovedtobe

structurallyunsound.179Whentherewasstaffturnover,orwhenvolunteerswereburnedoutor

hadothercommitments,muchneededsupportwouldcometoanend.Anewversioncommenced

inJanuary2017thatisproperlyfundedandisstaffedbypaidworkers.180

Whydoesitwork175Pouley,aboven170.176HarvardProjectonAmericanIndianEconomicDevelopment,HonoringNations.2006Honoree:TulalipAlternativeSentencingProgram<http://www.hpaied.org/sites/default/files/publications/Tulalip%20Alternative%20Sentencing%20Program.pdf.>177Cleary,above,n173.178HPAIED,aboven175.179Cleary,above,n173.180Ibid.

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Thefocusoftheprogramisoncorrectingbehaviourandnotpenalisingcrime.TheTribesclaim

thattheyhavetriedtheexperimentofpunishingcrimebutthatdoesnotwork.doesn’twork.You

onlyneedtoseethenumberofrepeatoffendersinjailsandprisonsacrossthecountry.181

Casestudy10: NgāKootiRangatahi/RangatahiYouthCourtsTheconceptofNgāKootiRangatahi182(RangatahiCourts)emergedfromacommunitymeeting

hostedbytheGisborneYouthCourtinJanuary2008,whereyouthjusticeprofessionalsexpressed

theirdissatisfactionwiththecurrentsystem.183Theyweredeeplyconcernedaboutsuccessive

generationsofMāoriyouthmakingtheirwayfromYouthCourttoDistrictCourttoprison.184They

decidedtotryanentirelynewapproach.

InformedbytheexperienceofKooriCourts,185RangatahiCourtsareYouthCourtswiththesame

jurisdictionasotherYouthCourtsbutareheldonamarae(traditionalMāorimeetingplace)and

incorporatetereoMāori(Māorilanguage),tikangaMāori(Māoriprotocol)andmaraekawa

(ceremonialrituals)aspartoftheceremonyandprocessesofthecourt.186RangatahiCourts

monitorFamilyGroupConference(FGC)plans,whicharethecornerstoneoftheAotearoaNew

Zealandyouthjusticeprocess.FGCplansaredevelopedatfamilygroupconferenceswherethe

offender(whomusthaveadmittedtheoffence)andtheirfamilymeetswiththe‘victim’andtheir

familyalongwithmembersoftheenforcementagencytodecideuponanappropriatepenalty.187

JudgeHeemiTaumaunu,whowasthepresidingjudgeforthefirstRangatahiCourt,explainsthat

becausesomanyrangatahi(youngpeople)whoappearbeforethecourthavelosttouchwiththeir

senseofidentityasMāori,thecourtemphasisestheyoungpersonunderstanding‘whoyouare181Ibid.182Theliteralmeaningof‘rangatahi’isyouthbutitalsomeans‘newnet’inthesenseofaMāoriproverbthattheoldwornoutnetiscastasideandthenewnetgoesfishing.Thenamewaschosentoreflecttheexpectationthatyoungpeoplewillcastasideoldwornoutbehavioursandreplacethemwithnewbehaviours.SeeNZDistrictCourt,NgāKōtiRangatahiOAoteaoroa.News,storiesandeventsfromtheRangatahiCourtsandPasifikaCourts,Issue9,Hakihea(December)2016.<http://www.districtcourts.govt.nz/assets/Uploads/Nga-Koti-Rangatahi-o-Aoteaora-Dec-2016.pdf>183JudgeHeemiTaumaunu,‘RangatahiCourtsofAoteroaNewZeland–Anupdate’(November2014)MāoriLawReview<http://maorilawreview.co.nz/2014/11/rangatahi-courts-of-aotearoa-new-zealand-an-update/>.184Ibid.185NZMinistryofJustice,EvaluationoftheEarlyOutcomesofNgāKootiRangatahi,(17December2012)8.<https://www.justice.govt.nz/assets/Documents/Publications/Evaluation-of-Nga-Kooti-Rangatahi-FINAL-report-17-December-1.pdf>.186Taumaunu,aboven182.187YouthCourtofNewZealand,‘YouthJustice:Youthjusticeprinciples&processes’(updated7September2016)<https://www.youthcourt.govt.nz/youth-justice/youth-justice-principles-and-processes/>.

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andwhereyouarefrom’,drawingontraditionalMāoribeliefsaboutwhakapapa(genealogy)and

whakawhanaungatanga(makingconnectionsandrelationships.188Therefore,courtprocesses

involveapowhiri(ritualceremonyofwelcome),exchangeofkaranga(traditionalcallsofwelcome

andreply),akarakia(blessing),whaikōrero(formalspeechesofwelcomeandreply),waiata

(songs),hongi(formalpressingofnoses)tosignifythatthevisitorsarepeopleofthemareaeaof

thetimebeingandawhakawhanaungatanga(roundofintroductionstoestablishrelationships)

wherebythetangatawhenua(peopleofthemarae)andvisitorsintroducethemselves.189Morning

teaissharedtobreaktapu(astateofspiritualrestrictioncreatedbythepowhiri)andthenthe

courtproceedingscanbegin.190

Eachyoungpersonisindividuallycalledtothewharenui(meetinghouse)ofthemaraewherethey

aregreetedbykaumātuaandkuia(maleandfemalerespectedeldersofthemarae).191The

kaumātuaandkuiadonothavealegalrolebutremainforeachhearingandspeaktotheyoung

people,oftenwithwordsofencouragementandadvice.192Theyoungpersonwilldeliverhisorher

pepeha(traditionaltribalsaying)ormihi(greetinginMāorilanguage),whichformanywillbethe

firsttimethattheyspeakMāoriandthecourtproceedingmaybethefirstoccasionthattheyhave

encounteredMāoriprotocolorbeentoamarae.193Theyareassistedbyalayadvocatewhois

appointedbythecourt,whowillassistthemtopreparetheirmihi,researchtheirfamily

background,representtheirwhanau(extendedfamily),hapu(subtribe)oriwi(tribe),andwill

ensurethattheCourtisinformedaboutanyrelevantculturalmattersinvolvingthatyoung

person.194Thelayadvocatewillsupporttheyoungpersonthroughouttheentireprocessandwill

endeavourtoconnectthatyoungpersonwiththeirculturalheritage.195

OverrepresentationofMāoriyoungpeopleinthecriminaljusticesystemisacauseforserious

concern.AsatNovember2014,Māoriyoungpeoplecomprise22%ofthegeneralpopulationaged

14-16inclusivebutmakeup51%ofapprehensionsof14-16yearolds,approximately53%ofYouth

188Taumaunu,aboven182.189Ibid.190Ibid.191Ibid.192Ibid.193Ibid.194Ibid.195Ibid.

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Courtappearances,60%ofsupervisionwithresidenceordersand53%ofconvictionandtransfer

ordersmadebytheYouthCourt.196Approximately6%ofMāoriyoungpeoplewhoarewithinthe

appropriateagerange,appearinYouthCourt.197

WhyistheRangatahiCourtsystemsosuccessful?

WhilenotingthatRangatahiCourtswereintheearlystagesofdevelopment,a2012evaluationof

RangatahiCourtscommissionedbytheMinistryofJusticefoundthattheyoungpeople,their

families,themaraecommunity,youthjusticeprofessionalsandthejudiciaryreportedpositive

outcomesintermsoftheirengagement.198

Accordingtotheevaluators,theculturalrelevanceofthemaraevenueandtheinherentcultural

processeswerecriticalsuccessfactorsbecausetheyincreasedthelegitimacyofthecourtforthe

youngpeopleandtheirfamiliesandengenderedrespect.199Inthisenvironment,itwaseasierfor

youngpeopletoengageinthedifficultdiscussionsaboutaccountabilityforoffending,theFGC

planrequirements,andcompliance.200

TherolesoftheEldersandlayadvocateswerealsohighlightedfortheircontribution.Elderswere

seeminglyabletodrawoutrespectandpositivebehaviourfromtheyoungpeopleandwereable

toinspireapositivepathway.201Inaddition,justiceprofessionalsnotedthatlayadvocateswere

ableoftentodevelopmoretrustingandrespectfulrelationshipswithfamiliesthansocialworkers

canachieve.202Thejudgesalsovaluedtheresultingdepthandqualityoftheinformationthatlay

advocateswereabletoprovidetothecourt.203Thefinalfactoridentifiedintheevaluationwasthe

commitmentoftheyouthjusticeprofessionalsandthemaraecommunitytotheprocess.204

However,whiletheevaluationwaspositive,JudgeTaumaunuadvisescautioninrelyingon

RangatahiCourtsforsystemicchange.ThereasonsfortheoverrepresentationofMāoriyoung

196Ibid.197Ibid.198EvaluationofNgāKootiRangatahi(2012),aboven184,9-11.199Ibid11.200Ibid.201Ibid12.202Ibid.203Ibid.204Ibid.

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peopleinthecriminaljusticesystemarecomplexandinterrelated,rangingfrom‘poverty,lackof

educationalachievement,unemploymentandboredom,alcoholanddruguse,anddysfunctional

familydynamics.’205Otherunderlyingcausesincludelackofself-esteem,self-identityconfusion,

andstrongresentmentthatcanleadtoanger.206Therefore,whilethesuccessoftheRangatahi

Courtsystemshouldbeacknowledged,JudgeTaumaunu’sconcernisthattheseculturally

appropriateandpositiveresourcesaredirectedatthewrongendofthespectrum.Giventhe

complexityofthefactorscontributingtooffending,awide-rangingcommunityandgovernment

strategyisrequiredifthereistobechangeinoverrepresentation.JudgeTaumaunuclaimsthat

thecommunitycannotrelyonthecourtsystemfortheneededshift.207

Casestudy11 NavajoNationcourtsystemThejudicialbranchoftheNavajoNationoffersbothadversarialandpeacemakingmodelsof

justicetoresolvedisputesanddealwithwrongdoing.Thepeacemakingsystemreflectstraditional

Navajovaluesaboutandperceptionsofjustice,whiletheadversarialsystem,whichhasnow

evolvedtoapplyNavajoCommonLawexiststodealwiththosemattersthattheNavajo

peacemakingdivisioncannotresolve.TheNationoperatesfivecourts–District,Family,Small

Claims,PeacemakingandSupreme–thatdealwithupto50,000mattersannually.

Themodernadversarialsystem

ThemodernadversarialsystemwasoriginallypatternedontheAnglo-Americancourtsystemand

adoptedinresponsetoArizona’sattempttoextenditspowerovertheNavajoreservationunder

PL280.208Aspartofatwo-prongedapproachdesignedtodemonstratetogovernmentofficials

thatithadthecapacitytogovernandcould‘betrusted’togovern,theNavajoTribalCouncil

decidedtotakecontrolofpoliceandcourtfunctions.209ItreplacedtheNavajoCourtsofIndian

Offencesthathadbeenestablishedin1892toapplytheBureauofIndianAffairsregulationsbut

whichhadbeenusedbyjudgestoincorporatecustomarylawsandmethodsintothesystem.210

TheCouncilcreateda‘carboncopyofastatejusticecourt’andreplacedtheCourtofIndian205Taumaunu,aboven182.206Ibid207Ibid.208RaymondDAustin,NavajoCourtsandNavajoCommonLaw:Atraditionoftribalself-governance(UniversityofMinnesotaPress,2009)27.209Ibid.210Ibid19-25.

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Offences’LawandOrderCodewithaNavajoLawandOrderCodethatwasalmostawordfor

wordcopy.211ManyoftheselawsremainasstatutorylawintheNavajoNationCode.212

Thecourtsystemadoptedtheprinciplesofjudicialindependence,checksandbalancesand

separationofpowersandwentastepfurtherandembracedtheanti-corruptionprinciple,whichis

thebedrockofNavajofundamentallaws.213In1978,theNationCouncilestablishedaSupreme

JudicialCouncil(composedofcouncildelegatesandjudges)tohearappealsfromtheNavajo

NationCourtofAppealsbutithadashortduration.214AsAustinstates,itscreationwasanill-

conceivedideaanditpoliticisedthecourtsystemandthreatenedjudicialindependence.215Itwas

abolishedin1985,alongwiththeNavajoNationCourtofAppeals,afteronlyhearingthreecases,

whentheNationCouncilcreatedtheNavajoNationSupremeCourtandstreamlinedcourt

operations.216Topreventafurtherattempttopoliticisethecourt,theSupremeCourtisthecourt

offinalresortwithintheNation.217

Atthesametimethatuneasewasbeingexpressedaboutinappropriateinterventionincourt

jurisdiction,dissatisfactionwiththelawitselfcametotheforeground.Therewasastrongview

amongNavajojudges,CouncilmembersandmanycitizensthatanalternativetotheNavajo

Court’sadversarialapproachwasrequired.ModellingitonAnglo-Americanconceptsofjusticehad

servedapurposebutitwasnotcompatiblewithNavajoconceptsofjustice.Complaintscanbe

summarisedintofourareas:(1)certainkindsofproblemsarisinginNavajocommunitiescouldnot

beresolved;(2)Westernformsofadjudicationareexpensiveandtimeconsuming;(3)Navajo

litigantsfoundwesternlitigationtobeconfusingandfrustrating;and(4)itcontravenedNavajo

standardsofjustice.218Twomajordevelopmentsresulted:(1)JudgesbegantoapplyNavajo

CommonLawintheirdecisions;and(2)TheNavajoPeacemakerCourt(nowNavajoPeacemaking

Division)wascreated.

211RobertYazzie,‘HistoryoftheCourtsoftheNavajoNation.PreparedfortheorientationoftheJudiciaryCommitteeoftheNavajoNationFebruary112003’<http://www.navajocourts.org/history.htm>.212Austin,aboven207,30.213RobertYazzie,‘HistoryoftheCourtsoftheNavajoNation.PreparedfortheorientationoftheJudiciaryCommitteeoftheNavajoNationFebruary112003’<http://www.navajocourts.org/history.htm>.214Ibid.215Austin,aboven207,30.216Ibid.217Ibid31.218Ibid39.

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Tengeographicalregionsmakeupthejudicialdistrictswherethetrialcourts(districtandfamily

courts)arebased.219Eachjudicialdistrictalsocontainsapeacemakingdivisionandasmallclaims

division.220Navajodistrictcourtshaveoriginaljurisdictionover(1)allcrimesintheNavajoNation

CriminalCodewhencommittedonthereservation,orcommittedoffthereservationbetween

Navajos;(2)allcivilactionswherethedefendantlivesonthereservationorcausedanactionto

occurwithinNavajoterritorialjurisdiction;and(3)allmattersunderNavajostatutorylaw,Navajo

commonlawandNavajotreaties.221TheWindowRockDistrictCourtalsohasjurisdictionto

appointaspecialprosecutortoinvestigateandprosecuteethicsandcorruptioncasesagainst

NavajoNationgovernmentofficials.222

TheNavajoSupremeCourtcanhearappealsfromthefinaldecisionsofNavajotrialcourts(district

andfamilycourts)andfromdecisionsofcertainadministrativebodiesincludingtheNavajotax

commission,NavajoelectoralcommissionandNavajolabourcommission.223Itcananswer

certifiedquestionsfromNavajotrialcourtsandadministrativebodies,andfromstateandfederal

courts;hasauthorityoverpractisinglawinNavajocourts;hasauthoritytoapprovethecourtrules

forallNavajocourts;andgeneralrulesincludingrulesofevidence,rulesforcivilandcriminal

proceedings,probateprocedure,smallclaimsrulesetc.224

JudgesareappointedbythePresidentoftheNavajoNationfromashortlistpreparedbythe

NavajoJudiciaryCommitteeandareconfirmedbytheNavajoNationCouncil.225Weincludealarge

amountofdetailabouttheNavajocourtsystemasaninterestingexampleofacourtsystemthat

wouldbefamiliartowesternlawyersfromtheEnglishcommonlawcountriessuchasAustralia,

theUnitedStates,Canada,andAotearoaNewZealand.However,thecourtsapplybothNavajo

commonlawandNavajostatutorylawthatresultsinsomeproceduresandpracticesthatwould

beforeigntotheEnglishcommonlawlawyer.

219Ibid32.220Ibid.221Ibid33-34.222Ibid32.223Ibid.224Ibid.225Ibid32-33.

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TheNavajocourtsystemhasretainedthesamestructuresince1985andishighlyregardedas

beingafairandimpartial,whichhasgivenNavajoandnon-Navajolitigantsanddefendants

confidenceinthesystem.However,inadditiontothecrucialrolethatitplaysinadjudicating

disputesandadministeringthejusticesystemthatensuresconfidenceinthegoverananceand

operationoftheNation,byitsveryexistence,italsoexpressestribalsovereignty.

NavajoPeacemakerCourts

TheNavajoPeacemakingDivision(atfirsttheNavajoPeacemakerCourt)wascreatedin1982and

isnowamajoraspectoftheNavajojusticesystem.Itisderivedfromtraditionaldisputeresolution

conceptsandhasbeendemonstratedtobemosteffectivewhenitusestraditionalproceduresand

appliesNavajocommonlaw.226

InterrelationshipandinterdependencearethelynchpinsofNavajocommunityandtraditional

conceptsofNavajojusticeinvokebalanceandharmony.Austindescribesthreeprinciplesthat

underpinNavajofundamentallawashózho–‘astatewhereeverythingisproperlysituatedand

existingandfunctioninginharmoniousrelationshipwitheverythingelse’;k’é–aperson’spositive

relationshipwitheverything’;andk’éí–aperson’spositiverelationswithrelatives.227Law–bee

haz’áanii–canbetranslatedas‘byit(norms,customsandtraditions)whichacertainstate(hózho,

k’éork’éí)exists’.228In2002,traditionalNavajonormsandvalueswereaddedtotheNavajo

NationCodeinfoursectionsasthe‘Diné(Navajo)fundamentallaws’:(1)Traditionallaw–lawsof

theGreatSpirit;(2)Customarylaw–lawsoftheHolyBeings;(3)Naturallaw–lawsofMother

EarthandFatherHeaven;and(4)Commonlaw–LawsoftheDiné(Navajo).229

Wrongdoingmightbedescribedas‘disruption’;doingwhat‘shouldnotbedone’.230Unlike

westernlaw,thefocusisonthebehaviour,nottheintent,andthetranslationof‘wrongdoer’is

roughly,‘hetookthechance’.231Disharmonyis‘bad’becauseit‘invites‘retaliation,ridicule,

ostracismagainstthedisrupters,and…itdisturbsthecommunity’.232Resolvingdisruption

226Ibid39.227Ibid40-41.228Ibid41.229Ibid42.230Nielsen,aboven128,106.231Nielsen,aboven128,107.Referencesomitted.232Ibid.

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involvedthewrongdoer,the‘victim’,family/clan,andcommunitymembers.233Thetraditional

justiceinstitutionwastheclanorkinshipstructure,andfamilyandkinwouldworkwiththe

wrongdoertochangetheirbehaviourbutwouldalsoassumeobligationssuchasmaking

reparationsandwouldendeavourtoensuretherewerenofuturedisruptions.234YazzieandZion

emphasisethatthe‘moralforceofthegroup’wasleveragedtoputthewellbeingofthe

communityabovethatoftheindividual.235ThisleadstothepejorativeNavajosayingthat‘heacts

asifhehadnorelations’.236

Navajojusticewas,andthroughthepeacemakingsystemis,moreconcernedwiththe‘wholeness

oftheperson,apeacefulcommunityandadjustingrelationshipsthanitiswithpunishing

people.237Traditionally,arespectedcommunityleaderwouldfacilitateameetingwhousedprayer,

clarificationofvalues,storesandteachingsfromtraditionalnarrativesandconsensusto‘arbitrate

disputes,mediatequarrels,resolvefamilyproblemsandtrytocorrectwrongdoers.’238Thegoal

was/istorestoresolidarityandtopreventrecurrencesothattheidealisforallpartiestoleavethe

meetingfeelingthatasolutionhadbeenreached,includingthewrongdoerwhoshouldnow

understandhimorherselfbetter.239

Today,thepeacemakingsystemisaparallelsystemtothecourtsystemdescribedabove.

Peacemakersarenotneutralmediatorsbutarerespectedmenandwomenwhoarechosenbythe

communityfortheir‘demonstratedcharacter,wisdom,andtheabilitytomakegoodplansfor

communityaction’.240Their‘training’isinNavajofundamentallaw,values,principlesand

philosophythatleadtohozho–harmony,balance,peace,completeness,happinessetc.241They

areguidesandteacherswhoassistthepartiestostatetheproblem,sayhowtheyfeelaboutitand

233Ibid107.234Ibid.235Ibid.Referencesomitted236Ibid237Ibid108.Referencesomitted.238Ibid.239Ibid108.240Ibid110.Referencesomitted241Austin,aboven207,91.

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toarriveatasolution.242Theywillexpresstheirviewsontheappropriatenessofthesolutionand

giveguidancebysharingstories,prayersanddirectiononthefundamentallaws.243

Theprocessbeingswithaprayerandendswithamealandincludestheparties,friends,family

andcommunitymemberswhoareentitledtosharetheirviews,includingthepeacemaker.244

Peacemakingappliesthetraditionalnotionof‘talkingthingsout’andconsensusdecision-making

tosolvecommunityproblemsamongallpartieswithaninterest.245Blameisnotpartofthe

processandtheinvolvementofallinterestedpartiestendstoactasarealitycheckonwhatissaid

bythepartiesabouttheeventsthatledtothedispute.246Ifthewrongdoerdoesnotfulfilthe

agreedactions,thenthedisputeisreferredtotheadversarialcourtsystem.

4. Sentencing

Casestudy12: IndigenousCircleSentencingIndigenoussentencingcourtsinvolvetheparticipationofIndigenouscommunitymembersinthe

sentencing of Indigenous offenders and other efforts aimed at improving the cultural

appropriateness of sentencing. Some Indigenous sentencing courts operate informally while

othersaregovernedthroughlegislativeframeworks,suchastheMagistrates’Court(KooriCourt)

Act2002(VIC)whichaddedsection4DtotheMagistrates’CourtAct1989(VIC)toestablishthe

Koori Court Division, and the Statutes Amendment (Intervention Programs and Sentencing

Procedures)Act2003 (SA)which led toamendments to theCriminal Law (Sentencing)Act1988

(SA) and, later, the creation of the InterventionOrders (Prevention of Abuse) Act 2009 (SA). At

present, Indigenous sentencing courts exist in various locations within several Australian

jurisdictions:SA,NSW,VIC,QLD,andWA.247

242Nielsen,aboven128,110.243Ibid.244Ibid111.245Austin,aboven207,90.246Nielsen,aboven128,111.247Autynotesthatwhilethereisuniformitysurroundingtheseinitiatives,theyarenonetheless‘insistentlyindividual.’KateAuty,‘WeTeachAllHeartstoBreak–ButCanWeMendThem?TherapeuticJurisprudenceandAboriginalSentencingCourts’(2006)Vol1–SpecialSeries,eLawJournal101,104;https://elaw.murdoch.edu.au/issues/special/we_teach.pdf(accessed4July2008)

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Bywayofexample,theNowraCircleCourt ismadeupoffourEldersfromthelocalcommunity.

They oversee the sentencing of Indigenous young peoplewho have elected to take part in the

program.Established inFebruary2002,sessionsoftheNowraCircleCourtareheld intheSouth

CoastAboriginalCulturalCentreandarepresidedoverbyamagistrate,whotravelsthereaspart

of a circuit. Generally speaking, Indigenous sentencing courts have been evaluated in positive

terms. 248 Research suggests that offenders find Indigenous courts more challenging and

confronting than mainstream courts.249Similarly, sentencing courts play a role in improving

communication and understanding between judicial officials, offenders and the Indigenous

community. 250 Other benefits include improving a sense of inclusiveness; transparency and

accountabilityinsentencingoutcomesforIndigenousoffenders;andprovidingtheopportunityfor

community input over the sentencing process. Shortcomings of Indigenous courts include their

limited reach both in terms of jurisdiction and eligibility; the relatively small proportion of

Indigenousoffenderssentencedbeforesuchcourts;and,moregenerally,questionsregardingthe

meaningfulnessofIndigenousagencyandoversightovercourtsentencingprocesses.251

5. PrisonandPost-release

Casestudy13: InSearchofYourWarriorprogramTheInSearchofYourWarrior(ISOYW)programisanAboriginalspecificprogramformale

offenderswhohaveahistoryofviolentbehaviour.Basedonitssuccessfrom1995attheStan

DanielsHealingCentreinAlberta,Canada,theCorrectionalServicesofCanada(CSC)expandedthe

programin1999toincludeAboriginalmeninfederalcorrectionsinstitutions,andcreatedtwo

newprograms,SpiritofaWarriorin2002forwomeninfederalcorrectionsinstitutions,andthe

TAPWEYouthWarriorProgramin2009foryoungoffenders.TheISOYWprogramhasbeenoffered

inminimumandmediumsecurityinstitutions,healinglodges(whichfocusonhealingandcultural

248ElenaMarchettiandKathleenDaly,‘IndigenousCourtsandJusticePracticesinAustralia”.TrendsandIssuesinCrimeandCriminalJustice(2004)277:2-6;ElenaMarchetti,‘AnAustralianIndigenous-FocusedJusticeResponsetoIntimatePartnerViolence:Offenders’PerceptionsoftheSentencingProcess’(2015)BritishJournalofCriminology55(1)88-106.doi:10.1093/bjc/azu089249ElenaMarchetti(2015),aboven247.250ElenaMarchettiandKathleenDaly(2004),aboven247.251CunneenandTauri,aboven8.

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(re)connectionwhileinmatesservetheirsentences)andatbushcamps.252Thesetting,length,

intensitylevelandvarietyofceremoniesvariesfromplacetoplacebutthefundamentalprinciples

areconstant.ThisisinpartachievedbecauseallfacilitatorsaretrainedbytheNCSA.253

TheISOYWprogramisahighintensityviolencepreventionprogramcreatedbytheNative

CounsellingServicesofAlberta(NCSA).ItisofferedtoAboriginalmenwithahistoryofviolent

offendingandahighrisktoreoffend.254A2005evaluationfoundthatprogramparticipantstended

tohavecertaincommoncharacteristics.Theseincludedthatlargeproportionshadnotcompleted

highschoolandwereunemployed;thatthemajorityhadextensivecriminalhistories:almosttwo

thirds(61%)hadpreviousyouthconvictionsandnearlyall(91%)hadpreviousadultcourt

convictions;71%hadfailedonpreviouscommunity-basedsanctionsand49%hadfailedonaprior

conditionalrelease.255

ProgramparticipantsexperienceaholistichealingapproachbasedontheMedicineWheelthat

encompassesallaspectsofself(physical,emotional,spiritual,psychological).Theyundertake75

sessionsoverasixtothirteenweekperiod(dependingontheinstitution)togaininsightintohow

violenceevolvesandistransmittedfromonegenerationtothenext256andtohelpresidents

understandtheimpactonpersonalandhistoricaltraumaontheirbehaviour.257Participants

undertakegrouptherapyaroundeightcomponents:angerawareness,violenceawareness,family

oforiginawareness,selfawareness,skilldevelopment,groupskilldevelopment,cultural

awarenessandcognitivelearning.258

AboriginalEldersareemployedtodelivertheculturalteachingsandundertakeceremony,upon

whichtheprogramisbased.259Theirroleistospirituallyengagewiththeparticipantsandguide

252ShelleyTrevethan,John-PatrickMooreandNicoleAllegri,‘The"InSearchofYourWarrior"ProgramforAboriginalOffenders:APreliminaryEvaluation’(ResearchPaperNoR-172,Novermber2005)<http://www.csc-scc.gc.ca/research/r172-eng.shtml>.2005evaluation253Ibid.254Ibid.255Ibid.256Ibid.257StanDanielsHealingCentre,<http://ncsa.ca/programs/corrections/stan-daniels-healing-centre/>258Trevethan,MooreandAllegri,above,n251.259Ibid.

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thehealingprocessthatengagesallpartsoftheself.260Itisbelievedthattheculturalteachings

leadoffendersbacktoanon-violentwayoflife.261Theconceptof‘warrior’isappropriateformen

andwomenandcapturesqualitiessuchas‘self-possession,spiritualandpsychic

awareness/alertness/attentiveness,goodnessandcaring,endurance,patience,resilienceandthe

capacitytofightforwhatmustbedefendedandpreserved’.262

Whytheprogramsucceeds

The2005evaluationfoundthatallthoseassociatedwiththeprogram–participants,Elders,

facilitatorsandCSCpersonnel–demonstratedahighlevelofsatisfactionwiththeprogram.

Participantswerelesslikelytorequireservicestargetingpersonaldistress,familyissues,substance

abuse,communityfunctioning,employment,socialinteractionsandpro-criminalattitudesand

werealsoassessedashavinggreaterpotentialforreintegration.263Interestingly,however,re-

admissionrateswerefoundtobesimilartothecomparisongroupwhohadnotattendedthe

program.264Whileatfirst,thismayappeartobeacauseforalarm,evaluationofthereoffenders

showedthattheyweremuchlesslikelytohavecommittedaviolentoffence(7%)comparedtothe

comparisongroup(57%).265

Thosewhoareengagedintheprogramobservedthattheceremoniesandspiritualcontentwere

crucialtothesuccessoftheprogram.266Alsotheholisticnatureoftheprogram,whichaddresses

social,educational,emotional,physicalandspiritualneedsoftheparticipant,wasakeyfactor.

260Ibid.261Ibid.262Ibid.263Ibid.264Ibid.265Ibid.266Ibid.


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