Indian education policies in five Northwest Region states · Indian education policies. he goal of...
Transcript of Indian education policies in five Northwest Region states · Indian education policies. he goal of...
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U . S . D e p a r t m e n t o f E d u c a t i o n
I S S U E S & A N S W E R S R E L 2 0 0 9 – N o . 0 8 1
At Northwest Regional
Educational Laboratory
Indian education policies in five Northwest Region states
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I S S U E S&ANSWERS R E L 2 0 0 9 – N o . 0 8 1
AtNorthwestRegional
EducationalLaboratory
Indianeducationpoliciesinfive
NorthwestRegionstates
October2009
Preparedby
RichardSmiley,Ph.D.
NorthwestRegionalEducationalLaboratory
SusanSather,Ph.D.
NorthwestRegionalEducationalLaboratory
U . S . D e p a r t m e n t o f E d u c a t i o n
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EducationalLaboratory
Issues&AnswersisanongoingseriesofreportsfromshorttermFastResponseProjectsconductedbytheregionaleducationallaboratoriesoncurrenteducationissuesofimportanceatlocal,state,andregionallevels.FastResponseProjecttopics
changetoreflectnewissues,asidentifiedthroughlaboutreachandrequestsforassistancefrompolicymakersandeducatorsatstateandlocallevelsandfromcommunities,businesses,parents,families,andyouth.AllIssues&Answersreports
meetInstituteofEducationSciencesstandardsforscientificallyvalidresearch.
October2009
ThisreportwaspreparedfortheInstituteofEducationSciences(IES)underContractED06CO0016byRegionalEducationalLaboratory(REL)NorthwestadministeredbyNorthwestRegionalEducationalLaboratory.Sevenotherregional
educationallaboratories—Central,Midwest,NortheastandIslands,Pacific,Southeast,Southwest,andWest—alsoparticipatedinthestudy.ThecontentofthepublicationdoesnotnecessarilyreflecttheviewsorpoliciesofIESortheU.S.DepartmentofEducationnordoesmentionoftradenames,commercialproducts,ororganizationsimplyendorsementbytheU.S.
Government.
Thisreportisinthepublicdomain.Whilepermissiontoreprintthispublicationisnotnecessary,itshouldbecitedas:
Smiley,R.,andSather,S.(2009).Indian education policies in five Northwest Region states(Issues&AnswersReport,REL2009–
No.081).Washington,DC:U.S.DepartmentofEducation,InstituteofEducationSciences,NationalCenterforEducationEvaluationandRegionalAssistance,RegionalEducationalLaboratoryNorthwest.Retrievedfromwww.ies.ed.gov/ncee/edlabs.
Thisreportisavailableontheregionaleducationallaboratorywebsiteatwww.ies.ed.gov/ncee/edlabs.
www.ies.ed.gov/ncee/edlabswww.ies.ed.gov/ncee/edlabs
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Summary
Indian education policies in five Northwest Region states
REL 2009–No. 081
Themostcomprehensiveefforttodate
tostudyIndianeducationpolicies,the
reportcategorizestheIndianeducation
policiesofthefiveNorthwestRegion
statesbasedon13keypoliciesidentified
intheliteratureanddescribesthelegal
methodsusedtoadoptthem.
Thisstudyexaminesstatepoliciesthatgovern
theeducationofAmericanIndianandAlaska
Native(referredtocollectivelyasNative
American)studentsinthefiveNorthwest
RegionstatesofAlaska,Idaho,Montana,
Oregon,andWashington.Thisinvestigationis
themostcomprehensiveefforttodatetostudy
Indianeducationpolicies.Thestudyfocuses
onthreedimensionsofIndianeducation
policies:
• IdentificationofkeyIndianeducation
policiesintheliterature.
• AdoptionofkeyIndianeducationpolicies
bythefiveNorthwestRegionstates.
• Specificmechanismsstateshaveemployed
toadoptIndianeducationpolicies.
ThegoalofthestudyistoprovidestatepolicymakersandorganizationsrepresentingNative
Americanswithacomprehensivesummary
andanalysisofstatelevelpolicyinitiatives.
Thestudyidentifies13keypoliciesfromthe
literatureonIndianeducationovertheperiod
1991–2008.Eachstate’sIndianeducationpolicieswerecompiledandcomparedwiththe13
keypoliciestodeterminewhetheranypolicies
werecommontoallfiveNorthwestRegion
statesandtoidentifytheapproachesthat
stateshavetakentoadoptIndianeducation
policies.Thestudyalsoexaminesthefrequencyofpolicyadoptionmechanisms,such
asstatutes,regulations,andexecutiveorders.
Inthedatacollectionphasetheresearchers
conductedInternetandlibrarysearchesforIndianeducation–relatedliteratureoverthepast
18yearsandsearchedstateeducationagency
andlegislativewebsitestoidentifyIndianeducationstatutes,regulations,andotherpolicy
adoptionmechanisms.Thesearcheswere
followedbyinterviewswithkeyinformantsin
eachstateeducationagency.Tworesearchers
independentlyanalyzedstatepoliciestodeterminewhetherastateeitherhadaparticular
keypolicyordidnot.
Sixofthekeypolicieshadbeenadoptedbyall
fivestates:adoptingacademicstandardsto
teachstudentsaboutthehistoryandcultureof
America’sindigenouspeoples,includingNative
Americancultureandhistoryaspartofthe
academiccurriculum,involvingNativeAmericansonadvisoryboards,promotingNative
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ii Summary
Americanlanguagesthroughcertificationof
teacherswhospeakNativeAmericanlanguages,
allowingstudentstolearntheirnativelanguageasapartoftheireducationprogram,and
providingscholarshipsortuitionassistancefor
collegeboundNativeAmericanstudents.
ThestudyfoundthatthefivestateshaddifferentapproachestoadoptingIndianeducation
policies.Oftheninepolicymechanismsstates
usedtoadoptIndianeducationpolicy,state
statuteswerethemostcommon,followedby
regulations.Useofthestateconstitution,officialpublications,andadministrativeactions
bystateofficialsweretheleastusedmechanismsforadoptingIndianeducationpolicies.
Thestudyrevealedthatstatepolicymakersin
searchofwaystoaddresstheeducationneeds
ofNativeAmericanchildrenhaveavarietyof
choicesinbothpolicyapproachesandadoptionmechanisms.
October2009
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iii Table of conTenTS
Table of coNTeNTs
Whythisstudy? 1
Researchquestionsandstudyapproach 2Thirteenkeypolicies 3
Ninemechanismsforpolicyadoption 4
Stateadoptionofthe13keypolicies 5
Commonpolicies 5
Policymechanisms 5
Conclusion 6
Limitationsofthestudy 6
AppendixA Datacollectionandanalysis 7
AppendixB Keyinformantinterviewsandinterviewprotocol 13
AppendixC Policies,citations,andadoptionmechanismsbystate 15
AppendixD DescriptionsofIndianeducationpoliciesbykeypolicyandstate 20
References 27
Boxes
1 Keytermsusedinthereport 2
2 Datacollectionandanalysis 3
B1 Interviewprotocol 14
Tables
1 PresenceofkeyIndianeducationpoliciesinthefiveNorthwestRegionstates,2008 4
2 KeyIndianeducationpoliciesandtheirfrequenciesinthefiveNorthwestRegionstates,2008 5
3 FrequenciesofmechanismsforadoptingIndianeducationpoliciesinthefiveNorthwestRegion
states,2008 6
A1 Summaryofresearchquestions,datasources,anddataanalysistechniques 8
A2 SourcesofkeyIndianeducationpoliciesinthefiveNorthwestRegionstates,1995–2008 11
C1 Alaska:keyIndianeducationpolicies,citations,andmechanismtypes,2008 15
C2 Idaho:keyIndianeducationpolicies,citations,andmechanismtypes,2008 16
C3 Montana:keyIndianeducationpolicies,citations,andmechanismtypes,2008 17
C4 Oregon:keyIndianeducationpolicies,citations,andmechanismtypes,2008 18
C5 Washington:keyIndianeducationpolicies,citations,andmechanismtypes,2008 19
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iv Table of conTenTS
D1 Tribeshavegovernmenttogovernmentstatus 20
D2 TribesandstateagenciesareauthorizedtoenterintocontractsforIndianeducation 20
D3 StateeducationagencyhasastatefundedIndianeducationcoordinator 21
D4 AcademicstandardsaddressNativeAmericancultureandhistory 21
D5 StatehasapolicytoreducetheachievementgapbetweenNativeAmericanandotherstudents 22
D6 StatehastargetedfundingofIndianeducationprograms 22
D7 NativeAmericanstudentsmaylearntheirnativelanguageaspartoftheeducationprogram 23
D8 NativeAmericancultureandhistoryarepartoftheschoolcurriculum 23
D9 NativeAmericancommunityisinvolvedonadvisoryboards 24
D10 TeachercertificationispromotedforspeakersofNativeAmericanlanguages 24
D11 AllteachersarerequiredtohavetraininginNativeAmericancultureandhistory 25
D12 CollegescholarshiportuitionassistanceprogramsareprovidedforNativeAmericanstudents 25
D13 Tribalcollegeshavebeenestablished 26
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1 Why ThiS STudy?
The most comprehensive effort to date to study Indian education policies, the report categorizes the Indian education policies of the five Northwest Region states based on 13 key policies identified in the literature and describes the legal methods used to adopt them.
Why ThIs sTudy?
Thisstudyisintendedtoprovidepolicymakers
inallstateswithacomprehensivelistofIndian
educationpoliciesinthefiveNorthwestRegion
states(Alaska,Idaho,Montana,Oregon,and
Washington)andthelegalmechanismsused
toadoptthem(seebox1foradefinitionofkey
termsusedinthisreport).Thestudycategorizes
theIndianeducationpoliciesoftheNorthwest
Regionstatesusingananalyticframeworkbased
onareviewoftheliteratureonIndianeducation
policies.
Thisstudyismotivatedprimarilybytheneedto
closetheachievementgapbetweenNativeAmericanandotherstudents.Forexample,theNational
IndianEducationStudy,sponsoredbytheNational
CenterforEducationStatistics,found
thatreading
achievementamongNativeAmericanstudentsin
grades4and8onthe2005NationalAssessment
ofEducationalProgress(NAEP)wassignificantly
lowerthanthatofotherstudents(Rampey,Lutkus,andWeiner2006).Mathachievementresults
forNativeAmericanstudentswereslightlybetter
butwerestillsignificantlybelowthoseofother
students.Afollowupstudyreportingonperformanceonthe2007NAEPfoundnosignificant
reductionsintheachievementgapsbetween2005
and2007inreadingandmathingrades4and8
(Moranetal.2008).
Stateshavegoodreasonsforaddressingthese
achievementgaps.Persistentachievementgaps
meanthatnotenoughisbeingdonetoprovide
equaleducationopportunityforallstudents.Additionally,theNoChildLeftBehindAct(NCLB)
of2001requiresstatestoimposesanctionson
schoolswhosestudentsdonotshowadequate
yearlyprogress.Becausestatesmustreporttest
dataseparatelyforgroupsofminoritystudents,
includingNativeAmericans,thedisparityin
achievementbecomesapparentandtheneedfor
policyinnovationmoreurgent.
StatesmayalsoadoptIndianeducationpolicies
inresponsetorecommendationsbyorganizationsrepresentingNativeAmericansforimprovingeducationforNativeAmericanchildren.
Thesegroupsadvocateforpoliciesthatpreserve
NativeAmericanheritageandpromotethe
academicwelfareofNativeAmericanstudents.
TheNationalCaucusofNativeAmericanState
Legislators,forexample,isinvestigatingthe
achievementgapandplanstopresentpolicy
recommendationsforstatelegislaturesbasedon
itsfindings.
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2 indian educaTion policieS in five norThWeST region STaTeS
Native american students
are the largest minority
group of K 12 students
in alaska and Montana
and constitute about
3 percent of the student
population in Idaho,
oregon, and Washington
box 1
Keytermsusedinthereport
Governmenttogovernment status. Recognizinggovernmenttogovernmentstatusmeansacknowledging
thesovereigntyandrighttoselfdeterminationofNativeAmerican
tribesandestablishesalegalrelationshipbetweentheU.S.government
andtribalgovernments(Bush2004).
Thispolicyisthecornerstoneofthe
rightoftribestoteachtheirchildren
abouttheircultureandtospeaktheirnativelanguage.
Indian education. Theconventional
useofthetermincludesschoolingin
federal,mission,andpublicschools
aswellasculturallybasededucation
inAmericanIndianandAlaskaNative(herereferredtoasNativeAmerican;seebelow)communities.Indian
educationalsoreferstoculturally
basededucationofNativeAmerican
childrenbytheirparents,relatives,
andcommunities—traditionallyand
sometimestodayinanativelanguage
(LomawaimaandMcCarty2006).
ThisstudyusesthetermIndian educationbroadlytoincludeanyteachingpractice,procedure,curriculum,
orteachingguidehavingtodowith
educatingthechildrenofNative
Americans.
Native American. Thisstudyuses
thetermNative American toinclude
AmericanIndiansandAlaskaNatives(authors’workingdefinition).
Public policy. Asystemof“courses
ofaction,regulatorymeasures,laws,
andfundingprioritiesconcerninga
giventopicpromulgatedbyagovernmentalentityoritsrepresentatives”
(Kilpatrickn.d.).
Policy mechanisms. Policymechanismsrefertothelegalmethods
usedtoadoptapolicy.Mechanisms
includestatutesenactedbyastate
legislature,regulationsadoptedbya
stateagency,executiveorders,state
plans,memoranda,statecurricula,or
otherlegalmethods(authors’workingdefinition).
Statepolicymakerscanlearnfromtheexperienceof
otherstateswithlargenumbersofNativeAmerican
studentshowtoimprovetheeducationofNative
Americanstudents.EachofthefiveNorthwest
RegionstatesenrollssignificantnumbersofNative
Americanstudents.NativeAmericanstudents
arethelargestminoritygroupofK–12students
inAlaska(11percent)andMontana(25percent),
andtheyconstituteabout3percentofthestudent
populationinIdaho,Oregon,andWashington(U.S.
DepartmentofEducation2006).Together,thefive
statesarehometo16percentofNativeAmerican
studentsintheUnitedStates(SableandNoel2008).
ReseaRch quesTIoNs aNd sTudy appRoach
Thisstudyismorecomprehensive
thanpreviousstudies.Itincludes
allidentifiedpoliciesandthe
mechanismsusedtoadoptthemin
thefiveNorthwestRegionstates.
Thestudydoesnot,however,addresshow,ortowhatextent,the
policieshavebeenimplementedor
whethertheyareeffective.
Threeresearchquestionsguidedthestudy:
• Whatstatepoliciesgoverntheeducationof
NativeAmericanstudentsinthefiveNorthwestRegionstates?
• WhatIndianeducationpoliciesarecommon
toallfiveNorthwestRegionstates?
• Whatpolicymechanismsareusedtoadopt
IndianeducationpoliciesinthefiveNorthwestRegionstates?
Athreephasedescriptivestudywasconductedto
answerthesequestions(seebox2andappendixA
fordetails).Inthefirstphase—datacollection—
Internetandlibrarysearcheswereconductedto
identifyscholarlyarticlesonNativeAmericaneducationandstateIndianeducationpolicies,along
withinterviewswithkeyinformantsineachofthe
fiveNorthwestRegionstateeducationagencies.In
thesecondphaseanalyticframeworksweredevelopedforidentifyingkeypoliciesandthemechanismsforadoptingthepoliciesintheNorthwest
Regionstates.Inthethirdphasestatepolicieswere
analyzedforcontentandadoptionmechanisms.
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3 reSearch queSTionS and STudy approach
box 2
Datacollectionandanalysis
Data collection. AnInternetand
librarysearchidentifiedscholarly
articlesonIndianeducationpolicy,
andasecondInternetsearchofstate
educationagencyandlegislative
websitesidentifiedIndianeducationpoliciesinthefiveNorthwest
Regionstates.Interviewswerethen
conductedwithkeyinformantsin
thefivestateeducationagencies
toverifyandaugmentstatepolicy
information.
TheInternetsearchwasintendedto
provideabaselineagainstwhichto
comparestatepolicies.Keywords
wereusedtoguidethesearchfor
Indianeducationpoliciesofthefive
NorthwestRegionstates,toensure
thatthepoliciesidentifiedincluded
theentirerangeoflegalmethodsthat
thestatesusedtoadoptpolicies.Policy
documentsweredownloaded,printed,
andtabulatedbystate.Toensurethat
thelistwasaccurateandtoreduce
thenumberofpoliciesthatmightbe
overlooked,anotherresearcherlocated
eachpolicyontheInternetandverifieditsexistence.Inadditiontothis
internalcheck,interviewswithkeyinformantsservedasanexternalcheck
onthecompletenessoftheInternet
searches.Respondentsreceivedcopies
ofthetabulatedstatepoliciesandwere
askedtonoteanyerrorsoromissions.
Respondentsidentifiedseveraladditionalpoliciesduringtheinterviews.
Theyalsoreviewedthelistofpolicies
severalmonthslater,justbeforethe
dataanalysis.
Analytic frameworks. Twoframeworksweredevelopedforanalyzing
statepolicies.Thefirstframework
providedasetofkeypoliciesidentifiedfromtheliteraturesearchagainst
whichtocomparestatepolicies.The
secondframeworkwasusedtodefine
thepolicymechanismsthatstates
usedinadoptingIndianeducation
policiesandtocalculatefrequencies
forthemechanismsidentified.
Indevelopingtheframework for analyzing existing state policies, 30
studieswereidentifiedthatincluded
discussionsofIndianeducationpolicies.Thesewerethenwinnoweddown
to11articlesthatdealtwithstatelevel
policiesandwerepublishedduring
1991–2008(seereferencelist),when
majorfederalschoolaccountability
mandateswereenacted.TobeconsideredakeyIndianeducationpolicy,the
policiesdiscussedinthesearticleshad
topertaintoK–12educationandto
specifyaparticularpolicyapproach,
notjusthighlightanareaofconcern.
Thirteenkeypolicieswereidentified.
Indevelopingtheframework for identifying policy mechanisms, the
tabulatedstatepoliciesweregrouped
bythemethodusedtoadopteach
policy.Ninegroupsormechanisms
wereidentifiedthatcapturedthe
rangeofpolicyadoptionmechanisms.Oncethemechanismswere
defined,eachtabulatedpolicywas
placedintooneoftheninegroups
(seeappendixC).
Data analysis. Dataanalysisinvolvedfivesteps.Thedatafrom
thekeyinformantinterviewswere
organizedforusebytheresearcherswhenquestionsaroseabout
howIndianeducationoperatedina
particularstate.Next,tworesearchersindependentlycomparedthe
tabulatedstatepolicieswiththekey
policiesidentifiedintheliterature
anddeterminedwhetherastatehad
apolicythataddressedaparticular
keypolicyorwhetheritdidnot(dichotomousclassification).Interrater
reliabilityforthiscodingwas100
percent.Researchersthendeterminedwhichpolicieswerecommon
toallfivestates.Shortdescriptions
werewrittenforeachstatepolicy
andtabulated(appendixD).Finally,
thepolicymechanismsstatesused
toadoptIndianeducationpolicy
wereclassifiedandfrequencies
calculated.
Thirteen key policies
Thefollowingarethe13keypoliciesidentifiedin
theliteraturereview:
• Tribeshavegovernmenttogovernmentstatus.
• Tribesandstateagenciesareauthorizedto
enterintocontractsforIndianeducation.
• Stateeducationagencyhasastatefunded
Indianeducationcoordinator.
• AcademicstandardsaddressNativeAmerican
cultureandhistory.
• Statehasapolicytoreducetheachievementgap
betweenNativeAmericanandotherstudents.
• StatehastargetedfundingofIndianeducation
programs.
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4 indian educaTion policieS in five norThWeST region STaTeS
• NativeAmericanstudentsmaylearntheirnativelanguageaspartoftheeducationprogram.
• NativeAmericancultureandhistoryarepart
ofschoolcurriculum.
• NativeAmericancommunityisinvolvedon
advisoryboards.
• Teachercertificationispromotedforspeakers
ofNativeAmericanlanguages.
• Allteachersarerequiredtohavetrainingin
NativeAmericancultureandhistory.
• Collegescholarshiportuitionassistance
programsareprovidedforNativeAmerican
students.
• Tribalcollegeshavebeenestablished.
Nine mechanisms for policy adoption
Ninegroupsormechanismswereidentifiedthat
capturetherangeofpolicyadoptionmechanisms
intheNorthwestRegionstates(seeappendixC,
tablesC1–C5):
• Statuteorcode.
• Regulationorrule.
• Stateplan,initiative,guideline,orprogram.
• Stateboardofeducationapproval.
• Executiveorderorproclamation.
• Administrativeactionbystateofficial.
• Statecurriculumorstudentacademic
standards.
• Stateconstitution.
• Officialpublication.
ExaminationofthefiveNorthwestRegionstates’
useofthe13keypoliciesshowedthatstatesadopteddifferentcombinationsofthe13keypolicies
andthatsixofthekeypolicieswerecommontoall
fivestates.
Table 1
presence of key Indian education policies in the five Northwest Region states, 2008
Key policy alaska idaho montana oregon Washington
Tribes have governmenttogovernment status ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Tribes and state agencies are authorized to enter into contracts for indian education ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
State education agency has a statefunded indian education coordinator ✔ ✔
academic standards address native american culture and history ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
State has a policy to reduce the achievement gap between native american and other students ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
State has targeted funding of indian education programs ✔
native american students may learn their native language as part of the education program ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
native american culture and history are part of school curriculum ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
native american community is involved on advisory boards ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Teacher certification is promoted for speakers of native american languages ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
all teachers are required to have training in native american culture and history ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
college scholarship or tuition assistance programs are provided for native american students ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Tribal colleges have been establisheda ✔ ✔ ✔
a. Tribal colleges are established by federal law, most recently in the Equity in Educational Land-Grant Status Act of 1994. Tribal colleges are included to keep the study consistent with the Zinth (2006) study and because a state may use tribal colleges to implement or further its Indian education policies.
Source: Authors’ analysis of data tabulated in appendix C, tables C1–C5.
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sTaTe adopTIoN of The 13 Key polIcIes
ForeachstatetheresearcherstabulatedtheIndianeducationpoliciesthataddressedthe13key
policiesdevelopedfromthebackgroundliterature(seebox2andappendixA).Keyinformantswere
giventwoopportunitiestoreviewthesetabulated
policiesfortheirstateandtoofferadditionsor
corrections.Informantsforthreeofthefivestates
inthestudyaddedseveraladditionalpolicies.
Then,thetwostudyauthorsindependentlydeterminedwhetherastatehadordidnothaveeachof
the13keypolicies.Interrateragreementwas100
percent.
Table1summarizesthefindingsforthefivestates.
coMMoN polIcIes
Apolicywasdefinedascommonifithadbeen
enactedinallfivestates.Sixpolicieswereidentifiedinallfivestates,fourpoliciesinfourstates,
onepolicyinthreestates,onepolicyintwostates,andanotherinonestate(table2).
policy mechaniSmS 5
Table 2
Key Indian education policies and their frequencies in the five Northwest Region states, 2008
Key policy number of states
academic standards address native american culture and history 5
native american students may learn their native language as part of the education program 5
native american culture and history are part of school curriculum 5
native american community is involved on advisory boards 5
Teacher certification is promoted for speakers of native american languages 5
college scholarship or tuition assistance programs are provided for native american students 5
Tribes have governmenttogovernment status 4
Tribes and state agencies are authorized to enter into contracts for indian education 4
State has a policy to reduce the achievement gap between native american and other students 4
all teachers are required to have training in native american culture and history 4
Tribal colleges have been established 3
State education agency has a statefunded indian education coordinator 2
State has targeted funding of indian education programs 1
Source: Authors’ analysis of data tabulated in appendix C, tables C1–C5.
Policiesthatinvolvestate
fundingwereadoptedless
frequentlythanothers.
OnlyIdahoandMontana
fundastateIndianeducationcoordinatorpositioninthestateeducation
agency,andonlyMontanahasapolicytargeting
fundingofeducationprogramsforNativeAmericanstudents.
states adopted different
combinations of the 13
key policies, and six of
the key policies were
common to all five states
polIcy MechaNIsMs
Table3showsthenumberoftimesthatthenine
policyadoptionmechanismswereemployedby
thefivestates.
Lawspassedbystatelegislatures(statutesor
codes)wereusedslightlymoreoftenthanallother
policymechanismstogether.Regulationswerethe
secondmostfrequentlyusedmechanism.Thestate
constitution,officialpublications,andadministrativeactionsweretheleastfrequentlyusedmechanismsforadoptingIndianeducationpolicy.
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Table 3
frequencies of mechanisms for adopting Indian education policies in the five Northwest Region states, 2008
mechanism frequency
Statute or code 38
regulation or rule 13
State plan, initiative, guideline, or program 8
State board of education approval 6
executive order or proclamation 4
State curriculum or student academic standards 3
administrative action by state official 1
State constitution 1
official publication 1
Total 75
Source: Authors’ analysis of data tabulated in appendix C, tables C1–C5.
6 indian educaTion policieS in five norThWeST region STaTeS
coNclusIoN
Thestudyisthemostcomprehensiveyetonthis
subjectandshowsthatstatepolicymakershavea
varietyofchoicesindecidingwhatIndianeducationpoliciestoadoptandhowtodoso.Whilethestatesadopteddifferentcombinationsofthe13kepolicies,6policieshavebeenputintopracticein
allfivestates:
• AcademicstandardsaddressNativeAmericacultureandhistory.
• NativeAmericancultureandhistoryarepartofschoolcurriculum.
• NativeAmericancommunityisinvolvedon
advisoryboards.
y
n
• Teachercertificationispromotedforspeakers
ofNativeAmericanlanguages.
• NativeAmericanstudentsmaylearntheirnativelanguageaspartoftheeducationprogram.
• Collegescholarshiportuitionassistance
programsareprovidedforNativeAmerican
students.
Thepresenceofsomanycommonpoliciesshows
theirperceivedvalueinthefivestates.Thestates
usedavarietyofmechanismsforadoptingIndian
educationpolicies,rangingfromincludingIndian
educationinthestateconstitutiontousingadministrativeactionsbystateofficials.
lIMITaTIoNs of The sTudy
ThepurposeofthestudywastoidentifyIndianeducationpoliciesinthefiveNorthwestRegionstates,
comparethemtokeypoliciesgleanedfromprevious
research,andassessthemechanismsusedbythe
statestoadoptthepolicies.Thestudydidnotassess
themeritofanyofthepolicies,howsuccessfully
theywereimplemented,orwhateffecttheyhadon
NativeAmericanstudents’academicachievement.
Additionally,itislikelythatsomepolicieswere
overlooked.Consideringthatabouthalfthepolicy
mechanismsidentifiedwerestatestatutes,itis
possiblethatpoliciesadoptedthroughmechanisms
otherthanstatutesmaybeunderrepresented.Some
policydocumentswereeasiertolocatethanothers,
andsixpoliciesidentifiedforthestudywerenot
obtainedfromtheInternetsearchbutcametolight
onlyduringthekeyinformantinterviews.Future
researchwillbeneededtoaddresstheselimitations.
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7 appendix a. daTa collecTion and analySiS
appeNdIx a daTa collecTIoN aNd aNalysIs
Thiswasadescriptivestudyconductedinthree
phases.Phaseonewasdatacollectionusing
Internetandlibrarysearchestoidentifyscholarly
articlesonIndianeducationandstateIndian
educationpolicies.Interviewswereconducted
withkeyinformantsineachofthefivestateeducationagencies.Phasetwowasdevelopmentofthe
analyticframeworktoidentifykeypoliciesand
mechanismsforadoptingpoliciesintheNorthwestRegionstates.Phasethreewasanalysisofthe
statepolicies.
Data collection
Threedatacollectionstrategieswereused.First,
anInternetandlibrarysearchidentifiedscholarly
articlesonIndianeducation.AsecondInternet
searchofstateeducationagenciesandlegislative
websitesidentifiedIndianeducationpoliciesin
thefiveNorthwestRegionstatesbetweenFebruary
andApril2008.Thefinaldatacollectionactivitywasinterviewingkeyinformantsinthefive
stateeducationagenciestoverifyandaddtostate
policyinformation.Datacollectionfromthekey
informantsandthefollowupexternalcheckofthe
tabulatedpoliciesoccurredbetweenMarchand
September2008.Detailsoftheinterviewsandthe
interviewprotocolarepresentedinappendixB.
Todevelopabaselineagainstwhichtocompare
statepolicies,anInternetsearchlocatedarticles
focusedonIndianeducationpolicy.Thesearch
identifiedarticlespublishedduring1991–2008in
scholarlyjournalsorbynationalorganizations
withaninterestinIndianeducationpolicy.The
articlesweredownloadedandprinted.Additional
hardcopiesofmaterialswerelocatedthrough
searchesoftheNorthwestRegionalEducational
Laboratorylibraryandinterlibraryloansystem.
CollectingtheIndianeducationpoliciesofthe
fiveNorthwestRegionstatesinvolvedanInternet
searchofstateeducationagencyandstatelegislaturewebsitestoidentifypubliclyavailablestate
statutes,regulations,andrulespertainingtothe
educationofNativeAmericanstudents.Thesedata
camefromstatelegislatures,stateboardsofeducation,stateeducationagencies,andotherstate
agenciesinvolvedinIndianeducation.
Thefollowingthreestepsdescribethesearch
method.
First,asetofsearchtermsderivedfromtheIndian
educationpoliciesandproceduresliteraturewas
usedtolocateinformationaboutstatepolicies.The
broadtermswerepairedorlinkedinsearchesof
therelevantwebsitestoensurecompletediscovery
ofpertinentinformation.Theinitiallistofterms
wasIndianeducation,Indianeducationpolicy,
AlaskaNatives,AmericanIndians,NativeAmericans,indigenouspeoples,FirstNations,TitleVII,
JohnsonO’Malley,tribal,reservation(s),sovereignty,andbilingual/bicultural.
Second,whenreviewsoftheidentifiedpolicies
revealedstatespecificterminology,additional
searcheswereconductedusingthosestatespecific
termstoidentifyotherpossiblestatepolicies.
Third,iftheinformationfromthesearchreferencedastateplan,suchasaspecialgrant,initiative,orprofessionaldevelopmentopportunity
relatedtoIndianeducation,afurthersearchwas
conductedtoseewhetheradditionalpolicyinformationwasavailable.
Theresearchquestionsandthedatasourcesand
dataanalysistechniquesusedtoaddressthemare
summarizedintableA1.
State web sites. Thefollowingarethestateweb
siteswherethesearchesoccurred.
Alaska
• Alaskastatelegislature(http://w3.legis.state.
ak.us/index.php).
• AlaskaDepartmentofEducationandEarly
Development(www.eed.state.ak.us/).
http:www.eed.state.ak.ushttp://w3.legis.state
-
Table a1
summary of research questions, data sources, and data analysis techniques
research question data source data analysis
What state policies govern the education of native american students in the five northwest region states?
literature collected through an internet search of indian education–related web sites and articles collected from the northwest regional educational laboratory library
identify a set of “key policies” •
indian education policies collected from the web sites of state legislatures and education agencies
Tabulate policies by state •
conduct internal and external checks •of policies to ensure completeness
briefly summarize each policy and •tabulate
Structured interviews with an informant in each of the five states and followup reviews
Tabulate interview data and analyze •to supplement internet data collection and inform the study
verify tabulated policies are •complete (key informant review)
What indian education policies are common to all five northwest region states?
indian education policies collected from the five states
code state policies against the 13 key •policies to identify common policies across the five states
classify each state policy by the •mechanism the states used to adopt it
What policy mechanisms are used to adopt indian education policy in the five northwest region states?
indian education policies collected from the five states
define a set of policy mechanisms •
classify state policies by policy •mechanisms
compute frequencies of policy •mechanisms
Structured interviews with five key informants and followup reviews
review interview data to clarify •policy mechanisms
Source: Authors’ analysis.
8 indian educaTion policieS in five norThWeST region STaTeS
• AlaskaStandards(www.eed.state.ak.us/
standards/).
• AlaskaStandardsforCulturallyResponsive
Schools(www.ankn.uaf.edu/
publications/#standards).
Idaho
• Idahostatelegislature(www.legislature.idaho.
gov/).
• IdahoStateDepartmentofEducation(www.
sde.idaho.gov/).
• Idahocontentstandards(www.sde.state.id.us/
ContentStandards/default.asp).
• BylawsofIdahoIndianEducationCommittee
(www.sde.idaho.gov/site/native_american/
by_laws.htm).
Montana
• Montanastatelegislature(http://leg.mt.gov/
css/default.asp).
• MontanaOfficeofPublicInstruction(www.
opi.state.mt.us/).
• Montanacontentstandards(http://opi.mt.gov/
accred/cStandards.html).
• MontanaIndianEducationforAll(http://opi.
mt.gov/indianed2/).
http://opihttp:http://opi.mt.govhttp:opi.state.mt.ushttp:http://leg.mt.govwww.sde.idaho.gov/site/native_americanhttp:www.sde.state.id.ushttp:sde.idaho.govwww.legislature.idahohttp:www.ankn.uaf.eduhttp:www.eed.state.ak.us
-
9 appendix a. daTa collecTion and analySiS
Oregon
• Oregonstatelegislature(www.leg.state.or.us/).
• Oregonbillsandlaws(www.leg.state.or.us/
bills_laws/).
• OregonDepartmentofEducation(www.ode.
state.or.us/).
• Oregoncontentstandards(www.ode.state.
or.us/search/results/?id=53).
• OregonIndianEducationResourceGuide
(www.ode.state.or.us/opportunities/grants/
nclb/title_vii/ai_anguide.aspx).
Washington
• Washingtonstatelegislature(www.leg.wa.gov/
legislature).
• WashingtonOfficeofSuperintendentofPublic
Instruction(www.k12.wa.us/).
• Washingtoncontentstandards
(www.washingtonpavilion.org/
communitylearningcenter/ContentStandards.
cfm).
• Proposedstandardsforculturallyresponsive
schools:IndianeducationplanforWashingtonstate(www.wce.wwu.edu/Resources/CEP/
METT/2006/Indian%20Education%20
Strategic%20Plan.pdf).
Data verification. ToensurethattheIndianeducationpoliciesidentifiedincludedtheentirerange
oflegalmethodsthatstatesusetoadoptpolicies,
keywordsguidedthesearch.OncestateIndian
educationpolicieswerelocated,documentswere
downloaded,printed,andtabulatedbystate.Asan
internalchecktoensurethatthelistwasaccurate
andtoreducethenumberofoverlookedpolicies,asecondresearcherthenlocatedeachofthe
tabulatedpoliciesontheInternetandverifiedits
existence.
Interviewswereconductedwithakeyinformant
ineachstateeducationagencytocollectadditional
informationandtoinformtheresearchstaffofthe
particularsofIndianeducationineachstate.The
interviewsalsoservedasanexternalcheckonthe
completenessoftheInternetsearches.Beforetheonsitevisiteachkeyinformantreceivedacopyofthe
tabulatedpoliciesforthestateandaskedtoreviewit.
Duringtheonsitevisitkeyinformantswereasked
whethertheybelievedthatallrelevantpolicieshad
beenidentified.Respondentsidentifiedseveraladditionalpolicies,andthesewereaddedtothetabulated
lists.Severalmonthslater,priortothedataanalysis,thetabulatedstatepolicieswereagainshownto
respondentsasafinalcheckoncompleteness.
Analytic frameworks
Twoframeworksweredevelopedtoanalyzethe
statepolicydata.Thefirstframeworkprovideda
meansforcomparingstateIndianeducationpoliciesagainstasetofkeypoliciesidentifiedfromthe
literaturereview.Thesecondframeworkprovided
ameansfordefiningthepolicymechanismsthat
statesusedtoadoptIndianeducationpolicyand
forcalculatingthefrequenciesofthevarious
mechanisms.
Identifying key policies.Asearchoftherecent
literatureonIndianeducationpolicieswasused
todevelopaframeworkforanalyzingstatepolicies.ThesearchoftheInternetandmaterialsin
theNorthwestRegionalEducationalLaboratory
libraryandinterlibraryloansystemledtotheweb
sitesofthefollowingorganizations,fromwhich
articlesweredownloaded:
• OfficeofIndianEducation,U.S.Department
ofEducation(www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/
oese/oie/index.html).
• CenterforIndianEducation,MaryLouFulton
CollegeofEducation,ArizonaStateUniversity
(http://coe.asu.edu/cie/).
• NationalCaucusofNativeAmericanState
Legislators(EducationCommittee),National
http://coe.asu.edu/ciewww.ed.gov/about/offices/listwww.wce.wwu.edu/Resources/CEPhttp:www.washingtonpavilion.orghttp:www.k12.wa.ushttp:www.leg.wa.govwww.ode.state.or.us/opportunities/grantswww.ode.statehttp:state.or.ushttp:www.leg.state.or.ushttp:www.leg.state.or.us
-
10 indian educaTion policieS in five norThWeST region STaTeS
ConferenceofStateLegislators(www.ncsl.org/
programs/statetribe/nativecaucus.htm).
• EducationCommissionoftheStates(www.
ecs.org/ecsmain.asp?page=/html/IssuesK12.
asp).
• AmericanIndianEducationFoundation(www.nrcprograms.org/site/
PageServer?pagename=aief_index).
• NationalIndianEducationAssociation(www.
niea.org/).
• AmericanIndianHigherEducationConsortium(www.aihec.org/).
• AmericanEducationResearchAssociation,
IndigenousPeoplesoftheAmericas(www.
coe.missouri.edu/~ipa/).
• TheCouncilofChiefStateSchoolOfficers,
StrengtheningPartnershipsforAmerican
Indian,AlaskaNative,andNativeHawaiianEducation(www.ccsso.org/projects/
Native_American_Student_Education/).
• JournalofAmericanIndianEducation,
publishedbytheCenterforIndianEducation,AmericanIndianEducation,Northern
ArizonaUniversity(http://jaie.asu.edu/).
• AmericanIndianEducation(http://jan.ucc.
nau.edu/~jar/AIE/index.html).
• IndianEducationattheNorthwestRegional
EducationalLaboratory(www.nwrel.org/indianed/index.php).
Thesearchidentified30studiesthatdiscussedIndianeducationpolicies.Twoselectioncriteriawere
thenusedtodevelopalistofarticlesthatwouldbe
thesourceforkeypolicies:
• ArticlesmustdiscussIndianeducationpoliciesatthestatelevel(asopposedtothelocal
level).
• Articlesmusthavebeenpublishedduring
1991–2008,theperiodwhenmajorfederal
schoolaccountabilitymandates,includingthe
NoChildLeftBehindAct,wereenacted.
Applyingthesecriteriaresultedintheselectionof
11studies(seereferencelistfordetails).
Policiesmentionedinthe11studieshadtomeet
threecriteriatobeconsideredakeypolicy:
• PertaintoIndianeducation.
• ConcerntheK–12educationsystem.
• Specifyapolicyapproach,notmerelyhighlightanareaofconcern.
Forexample,areportfromtheNationalCaucusof
NativeAmericanStateLegislators(2008)pointed
outnumerousriskfactorsaffectingtheacademic
performanceofNativeAmericanstudents.Thereportrecommended,amongotherthings,thatstates
“promotetribalcertificationforteachingNative
language,culture,andoraltraditions”(p.28).That
policywasthusaddedtothelistofkeypolicies.
Thereviewidentified13keypolicies.TableA2
presentskeypoliciesandtheirsources.
Identifying policy mechanisms. Aframeworkfor
classifyingpolicieswaspreparedtodeterminethe
rangeandfrequencyofthelegalmeansusedby
statestoadoptIndianeducationpolicies.Thetabulatedpoliciesweregroupedbythemethodused
toadopteachpolicy.Ninegroupsormechanisms
wereestablishedthatcapturedtherangeofpolicies.
Inmostcasesthetermsusedtodescribethe
mechanismswereobviouslyassociatedwith
policy.“Statutes”and“codes”arelawspassedby
astatelegislature.“Regulations”arerulesdevised
bystateeducationagenciesandstateboardsof
educationtoimplementstatutes.
Inothercasesthedocumentcontainingthepolicy
wastitled“stateplan,”“initiative,”“executive
www.nwrel.org/indihttp://jan.ucchttp:http://jaie.asu.eduwww.ccsso.org/projectshttp:www.aihec.orghttp:niea.orgwww.nrcprograms.org/sitehttp:www.ncsl.org
-
Table a2
sources of key Indian education policies in the five Northwest Region states, 1995–2008
Source
uf
s o
an S
tate
08
)
ndu
cati
on
e 05)
95)
ton
(200
5)
on o
n 3) t o
f )
Key policy
)be
aulie
u (2
000
brad
y (1
995)
June
au (2
001)
mcc
oy (2
003)
nat
iona
l cau
cn
ativ
e a
mer
icle
gisl
atur
es (
20
nat
iona
l ind
iaa
ssoc
iati
on (2
0
St. g
erm
aine
(19
Truj
illo
and
als
u.S
. com
mis
sic
ivil
righ
ts (2
00
u.S
. dep
artm
ened
ucat
ion
(200
6
Zint
h (2
006)
Tribes have governmenttogovernment status ✔
Tribes and state agencies are authorized to enter into contracts for indian education ✔
State education agency has a statefunded indian education coordinator ✔
academic standards address native american culture and history ✔
State has a policy to reduce the achievement gap between native american and other students ✔ ✔
State has targeted funding of indian education programs ✔
native american students may learn their native language as part of the education program ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
native american culture and history are part of school curriculum ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
native american community is involved on advisory boards ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Teacher certification is promoted for speakers of native american languages ✔ ✔
all teachers are required to have training in native american culture and history ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
college scholarship or tuition assistance programs are provided for native american students ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Tribal colleges have been established ✔
Source: Authors’ analysis based on cited sources.
11 appendix a. daTa collecTion and analySiS
order,”or“proclamation.”Thesetermsdescribingthemechanismswereacceptedverbatim.
“Officialpublication”seemedtobestdescribea
documentpublishedbyastateeducationagency.
Likewise“statecurriculum”or“studentacademic
standards”seemedtoproperlydescribeastatedevelopedcurriculumorcurriculumguideandthe
state’sstudentcontentandperformancestandards.
Inthecaseof“administrativeactionbystateofficial,”thekeyinformantforthestateused“administrativeaction”todescribethemechanism.Each
policytabulatedinappendixCwasclassifiedon
thebasisofoneoftheninemechanisms.
Theninemechanismsidentifiedarepresentedin
themainreportintable3.
-
12 indian educaTion policieS in five norThWeST region STaTeS
Data analysis
Dataanalysisinvolvedfivesteps.First,thedataobtainedinkeyinformantinterviewsweretabulated.
Second,identifiedstatepolicieswerecompared
withthekeypoliciesidentifiedintheliterature.
Third,acountofthestatesthathadadoptedeach
policywasmadetodeterminewhichpolicieswere
commontoallfivestates,andshortdescriptions
werewrittenforeachpolicy.Finally,thepolicy
mechanismsstatesusedtoadopttheeducationpolicywereclassifiedandfrequencieswerecalculated.
Datafromtheinterviewsoffivekeystateinformantswereorganizedbyinterviewquestion,to
allowforaquickreviewoftheresponsestoeach
question.Researchersreviewedtheseresponses
whenquestionsaroseabouthowIndianeducation
policiesoperatedinaparticularstate.
Thetabulatedstatepolicieswerecomparedwith
thekeypoliciesdevelopedfortheanalyticframework(seetable1).Thetworesearchersmade
independentdichotomousclassificationsfor
eachstatepolicy:astateeitherhadapolicythat
addressedaparticularkeypolicyoritdidnot.
Incaseswhereastatehadapolicy,butadopting
itwaslefttothediscretionoflocalagencies,the
statewasgivencreditforthepolicy.Stateswere
alsogivencreditforpoliciesthatweresimply
statementsofintentorgoals.Interraterreliability
forcodingthestatepoliciestothekeypolicies
was100percent.Theresearchersthencounted
thenumberofpoliciesthatwerecommontoall
fivestates.Ashortdescriptionofeachstatepolicy
tabulatedinappendixCwasthenprepared(see
appendixD).Thefinaldataanalysisconsistedof
determininghowfrequentlyeachpolicymechanismwasused.
-
13 appendix b. Key informanT inTervieWS and inTervieW proTocol
appeNdIx b Key INfoRMaNT INTeRvIeWs aNd INTeRvIeW pRoTocol
Facetofaceinterviewswereconductedwitha
keyinformantineachstateeducationagencyto
confirmthattheinformationfromtheliterature
andgovernmentwebsitesearcheswascomplete
andthatprojectstaffunderstoodthebackground,
context,andadoptionmechanismsofthestate
educationagencyIndianeducationpolicies.
Keyinformantswereidentifiedbycontactingthe
officeofthechiefstateschoolofficerorthestate
educationagencypublicinformationofficeridentifiedonstatewebsites.Arequestwasmadetointerviewtheprofessionalstaffpersonineacheducation
agencywhowastheIndianeducationcoordinator
orthecoordinatorforthefederalTitleVIIprogram
(Indian,NativeHawaiian,andAlaskaNativeEducation)oftheNoChildLeftBehindActof2001.
Anemailmessagewassenttoeachinformantwith
ashortdescriptionofthestudy.Inasubsequent
telephonecall,theresearchersansweredquestions
aboutthestudyandsetatentativedateforthe
facetofaceinterview.Draftsofthetabulatedpoliciesforeachstateweresentinanemailforreview
priortotheinterviews.Aninterviewprotocolwas
draftedtoguidetheinterviews(boxB1).
Fouroftheinterviewswereconductedwiththe
personoriginallyidentifiedasthekeyinformant.Onekeyinformantwasunabletobeatthe
interviewandsentasubstitute.Attwoofthesites
asecondpersonsatinontheinterview.Onewas
arepresentativeofthechiefstateschoolofficer,
andtheotherwasasupportstaffpersonwhowas
knowledgeableaboutthehistoryanddevelopment
ofIndianeducationinthestate.
Atthetimeoftheinterview,theresearcherprovidedashortoverviewofthestudyandexplained
itspurpose.Keyinformantswereassuredthat
theywouldnotbequotedinthefinalreportand
thattheywouldhaveanopportunitytoreviewthe
sectionofthereportthataddressedtheirstate.
Theinterviewsaveragedabout45minutes.This
includedtimeforprobingquestionsiftheinitial
responsewasnotclearand,inseveralcases,for
thekeyinformanttolocateadditionalinformation.Completeinformationwascollectedfromall
fivestates.
Theresearchertooknotesbyhandandtranscribed
themonthedayoftheinterview.
Eachkeyinformantwassentthefinaldraftof
thetabulatedpoliciesforthestateforreview
andcomment.Noadditionalcommentswere
received.
-
14 indian educaTion policieS in five norThWeST region STaTeS
box b1
Interviewprotocol
Introduction. Thankyouforagreeing
tomeetwithmeforthisconfidential 2interview.Iknowhowbusyyouare
sorestassuredthatIwillmakethe
bestuseofyourvaluabletime.AsI
mentionedinourprevioustelephone 3call,thestudybeingconductedisa
policyanalysisofIndianeducationin
Alaska,Idaho,Montana,Oregon,and
Washington.Inthisregard,Ihave
carefullyreviewedallofyourIndian
educationstatutesandregulations. 4Thepurposeofthisinterviewisto
gathersupplementalinformationto
ensurethatIunderstandthecontext
ofyourIndianeducationpolicies. 5Pleasebethoroughinyouranswers
andbeassuredthatyouwillnotbe
quotedinourreport.Whenmyanal 6ysisoftheinterviewdataandyour
Indianeducationpoliciesiscomplete,
Iwillwriteadraftreportandsubmit 7ittoyouforyourreview.Beforewe
begin,doyouhaveanyquestions?
1. Wasthesummarylistofstate 8statutes,regulations,andrules
previouslysenttoyoucomplete[hand respondent another summary]?Arethereothers
thatImissed,suchasnum 9beredmemorandumsfromthe
commissionerofeducationor
interpretationsofpoliciesbya
stateattorneygeneral?
. WhatareyourspecificresponsibilitiesforIndianeducationand
TitleVII?
. DescribetherelationshipbetweentheU.S.OfficeofIndian
Education,yourstateeducation
agency,andlocaldistrictsthat
educateIndianstudents.
. Givemesomeideaofthehistory
ofIndianeducationandhowit
hasevolvedinyourstate.
. WhatarethechallengesinadoptingIndianeducationinyourstate?
. Whatstrategiesisthestateusing
toaddressthosechallenges?
. Whoarethemajorstakeholders
inIndianeducationinyourstate,
andhowaretheyinvolved?
. Arethereanyfieldbasedor
practitioneradvisorygroupsinvolvedinIndianeducation,and
whatistheirrole?
. Arethereotherstateagencies
withaninvolvementinIndian
education? [If yes, probe for details.]
10. Whatstateandfederalresources
areavailabletosupporttheadoptionofIndianeducation?
11. Whattrainingorassistancedoes
theuniversitysystemprovideto
supportIndianeducation?
12. PleasedescribeanyIndianeducationsupportyourstatereceives
fromanyfederaltechnicalassistanceproviders.
13. WhatIndianeducation–related
professionaldevelopmentis
availableorrequiredforteachers,
administrators,paraprofessionals,orspecialists?
14. Describestateeducationagency
compliancemonitoringofIndian
educationprograms.
15. ArethereanyNCLBTitleVII
grantsinyourstatetothestate
educationagency,localeducationagencyorstateuniversity
system? [If yes, probe for application review, fiscal effort check, general education, professional development, research, gifted and talented, or adult.]
-
15 appendix c. policieS, ciTaTionS, and adopTion mechaniSmS by STaTe
appeNdIx c polIcIes, cITaTIoNs, aNd adopTIoN MechaNIsMs by sTaTe
TablesC1–C5presentforeachstatethe13key
policies,thecitationsusedtoestablishwhether
astatehadthatpolicy,andthetypeofadoption
mechanism.
Table c1
alaska: key Indian education policies, citations, and mechanism types, 2008
Key policy citation mechanism type
Tribes have governmenttogovernment status no policy
Tribes and state agencies are authorized to enter alaska Statute (aS) 14.08.101: regional School boards Statute into contracts for indian education authority
aS 14.14.110: cooperation with other districts Statute
State education agency has a statefunded indian no policy education coordinator
academic standards address native american 4 alaska administrative code (aac) 04.180: Student regulation culture and history cultural standards
4 aac 04.140: alaska history standards regulation
State has a policy to reduce the achievement gap State board of education and early development: State board between native american and other students vision or mission is to ensure quality standards of education
based instruction for all students approval
State has targeted funding of indian education no policy programs
native american students may learn their native aS 14.30.420: native language education Statute language as part of the education program
native american culture and history are part of the 4 aac 06.075: high school graduation requirements regulation school curriculum 4 aac 04.140: alaska history standards regulation
native american community is involved on advisory aS 14.08.115: advisory school boards in regional Statute boards educational attendance areas
Teacher certification is promoted for speakers of aS 14.20.025: limited teacher certificates Statute native american languages
all teachers are required to have training in native aS 14.20.020: requirements for issuance of Statute american culture and history certificate; fingerprints
4 aac 12.305: Teacher certificate (initial, professional, regulation master)
approved courses for aK Studies and multicultural official ed./crosscultural communication, June 1, publication 2008–may 31, 2009: Teacher certification, alaska department of education and early development
college scholarship or tuition assistance programs aS 14.43.050–aS 14.43.075: Scholarships for alaska Statute are provided for native american students natives
Tribal colleges have been established public law 103382 as amended by house report federal statute 110627: food, conservation, and energy act of 2008
a. This is a federal law.
Source: Authors’ analysis of Alaska government web site and key informant data (see appendixes A and B).
-
Table c2
Idaho: key Indian education policies, citations, and mechanism types, 2008
Key policy citation mechanism type
Tribes have governmenttogovernment status idaho code 6740014007: State Tribal relations act Statute
Tribes and state agencies are authorized to enter idaho code 674002: authority to enter into Statute into contracts for indian education agreements with tribes
idaho code 672328: Joint exercise of powers Statute
State education agency has a statefunded indian Job description: indian education coordinator, idaho administrative education coordinator department of education action
academic standards address native american idaho administrative procedures act (idapa) regulation culture and history 08.02.03: idaho content standards
State has a policy to reduce achievement gap executive order 9905: establishing the idaho executive order between native american and other students committee on indian education
State has targeted funding of indian education no policy programs
native american students may learn their native idaho code 331280: american indian languages Statute language as part of the education program teaching authorization
idapa 08.02.02.025: american indian languages regulation teaching authorization
native american culture and history are part of the idapa 08.02.03: idaho content standards regulation school curriculum
native american community is involved on advisory executive order 9905: establishing the idaho executive order boards committee on indian education
Teacher certification is promoted for speakers of idaho code 331280: american indian languages Statute native american languages teaching authorization
idapa 08.02.02.025: native american language regulation
all teachers are required to have training in native no policy american culture and history
college scholarship or tuition assistance programs idaho code 333717b: residency requirements Statute are provided for native american students grow your own Teacher Scholarship program: idaho State board
State board of education of education approval
Tribal colleges have been established no policy
Source: Authors’ analysis of Idaho government web site and key informant data (see appendixes A and B).
16 indian educaTion policieS in five norThWeST region STaTeS
-
Table c3
Montana: key Indian education policies, citations, and mechanism types, 2008
Key policy citation mechanism type
Tribes have governmenttogovernment status montana code annotated (mca) 9011101: legislative policy
Statute
Tribes and state agencies are authorized to enter mca 9011101: legislative policy into contracts for indian education
Statute
State education agency has a statefunded indian mca 9011102: duties and assistance (of the State education coordinator coordinator of indian affairs)
Statute
academic standards address native american mca 201501: recognition of american indian culture and history cultural heritage
administrative rules of montana (arm) chapter 54: montana content standards and performance descriptors
Statute
regulation
State has a policy to reduce achievement gap mca 209330: american indian achievement gap between native american and other students payment
Statute
State has targeted funding of indian education mca 209329: indian education for all act payment Statute programs mca 209330: american indian achievement gap
payment Statute
native american students may learn their native arm 10.54: montana content standards and language as part of the education program performance descriptors—world languages
regulation
native american culture and history are part of the montana constitution: article x, education and school curriculum public lands
mca 201501: recognition of american indian cultural heritage
State constitution
Statute
native american community is involved on advisory board of public education: montana advisory boards council on indian education (see constitution and
bylaws)
State board of education approval
Teacher certification is promoted for speakers of arm 10.57.436: class 7 american indian language native american languages and culture specialist
regulation
all teachers are required to have training in native mca 201501: recognition of american indian american culture and history cultural heritage—legislative intent
mca 201502: american indian studies—definitions
mca 201503: qualifications in indian Studies— trustees and noncertified personnel
Statute
Statute
Statute
college scholarship or tuition assistance programs mca 2025421: charges for tuition—waivers are provided for native american students
Statute
Tribal colleges have been established public law 103382 as amended by house report 110627: food, conservation, and energy act of 2008
federal statute
a. This is a federal law.
Source: Authors’ analysis of Montana government web site and key informant data (see appendixes A and B).
17 appendix c. policieS, ciTaTionS, and adopTion mechaniSmS by STaTe
-
Table c4
oregon: key Indian education policies, citations, and mechanism types, 2008
Key policy citation mechanism type
Tribes have governmenttogovernment status executive order 9630 (may 1996): State/tribal executive order governmenttogovernment relations
oregon revised Statute (orS) 182.162168: Statute relationship of state agencies with indian tribes
Tribes and state agencies are authorized to enter orS 190.110: intergovernmental cooperation Statute into contracts for indian education
State education agency has a statefunded indian no policy education coordinator
academic standards address native american orS 329.045: revision of common curriculum goals, Statute culture and history performance indicators, diploma requirements,
essential learning skills, and academic content standards; instruction in academic content areas
oregon State board of education: u.S. history State board standards of education
approval
State has a policy to reduce the achievement gap no policy between native american and other students
State has targeted funding of indian education no policy programs
native american students may learn their native collaboration, oregon State board of education, and State board language as part of the education program oregon indian Tribes: native language preservation of education
partnership approval
native american culture and history are part of the oregon american indian alaska native education State plan school curriculum plan: goal 6
oregon department of education: “indians in State curriculum oregon Today”—a curriculum for grade 6–12
native american community is involved on advisory oregon american indian alaska native education State plan boards State plan: goal 3
Teacher certification is promoted for speakers of orS 342.144: american indian languages teaching Statute native american languages license
university of oregon: northwest indian language initiative institute
all teachers are required to have training in native oregon department of education: “indians in State curriculum american culture and history oregon Today”—a curriculum for grade 6–12
(chapter: guidelines for Teaching about indian culture).
college scholarship or tuition assistance programs oregon State board of education: aboriginal rights initiative are provided for native american students initiative
Tribal colleges have been established no policy
Source: Authors’ analysis of Oregon government web site and key informant data (see appendixes A and B).
18 indian educaTion policieS in five norThWeST region STaTeS
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Table c5
Washington: key Indian education policies, citations, and mechanism types, 2008
Key policy citation mechanism type
Tribes have governmenttogovernment status revised code of Washington (rcW) 28a.345.070: Statute Tribal relations, achievement gap, curriculum, reports to legislature
governor’s proclamation 2005: centennial accord proclamation between the federally recognized indian Tribes in Washington State and the State of Washington
Tribes and state agencies are authorized to enter no policy into contracts for indian education
State education agency has a statefunded indian no policy education coordinator
academic standards address native american essential academic learning requirements (ealr): State board culture and history Social studies ealr 4: history of education
approval
State has a policy to reduce the achievement gap rcW 28a.345.070: Tribal relationships, achievement Statute between native american and other students gap, curriculum, reports to the legislature
State has targeted funding of indian education no policy programs
native american students may learn their native rcW 28a.150.220: basic education act, program Statute language as part of the education program requirements, program accessibility
native american culture and history are part of the rcW 28a.320.170: curricula, tribal history and culture Statute school curriculum Washington administrative code 392410120: regulation
Washington state history and government requirements
northwest native american reading curriculum: State curriculum office of Superintendent of public instruction and evergreen State college
native american community is involved on advisory governor’s office of indian affairs: Washington guidelines boards State/Tribal governmenttogovernment
implementation guidelines
Teacher certification is promoted for speakers of rcW 28a.410.045: first peoples’ language, culture, Statute native american languages and oral tribal traditions certification program
all teachers are required to have training in native rcW 28b.10.710: Washington state or pacific Statute american culture and history northwest history in curriculum
college scholarship or tuition assistance programs rcW 28b.108: american indian endowed scholarship Statute are provided for native american students program
Tribal colleges have been established public law 103382 as amended by house report federal statute 110627: food, conservation, and energy act of 2008
a. This is a federal law.
Source: Authors’ analysis of Washington government web site and key informant data (see appendixes A and B).
19 appendix c. policieS, ciTaTionS, and adopTion mechaniSmS by STaTe
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appeNdIx d descRIpTIoNs of INdIaN educaTIoN polIcIes by Key polIcy aNd sTaTe
TablesD1–D13presenteachkeypolicyandashort
descriptionofthatpolicyineachstate.Citationsfor
thepoliciesarepresentedbystateinappendixC.
Table d1
Tribes have government-to-government status
State policy description
alaska no policy.
idaho regulations define american indian tribes and allow the state or its political subdivisions to enter into agreements with these tribes.
montana State statute sets out a policy that expects government entities and tribes to work in governmenttogovernment relationships. Tribes and state agencies may enter into compacts and agreements.
oregon a 1996 governor’s executive order formalized the governmenttogovernment relationship between oregon’s american indian tribes and the state. a state statute requires state agencies to develop and implement policies for positive governmenttogovernment relationships with tribes.
Washington a 2005 governor’s proclamation reaffirmed the governmenttogovernment relationship between the state and federally recognized tribes in the state originally declared in the 1989 centennial accord. a state statute encourages the Washington State School directors’ association to convene meetings with tribal councils to establish governmenttogovernment relationships and dialogue between tribal councils and school district boards of directors.
Source: Authors’ analysis of government web sites and key informant data (see appendixes A and B).
Table d2
Tribes and state agencies are authorized to enter into contracts for Indian education
State policy description
alaska School boards for regional education attendance areas (reaa) are authorized to contract with the alaska department of education and early development, the federal bureau of indian affairs, or any other district, agency, or reaa board to provide services, facilities, supplies, or utilities. city and borough school districts are authorized to enter into cooperative agreements with other districts, stateoperated schools, or the bureau of indian affairs to provide education or administrative services.
idaho State statutes grant joint exercise of powers to public agencies and authorize public agencies to enter into agreements with american indian tribes.
montana State statute sets out a policy for state government entities and tribes to work in governmenttogovernment relationships and to enter into compacts and agreements.
oregon agencies of state government are permitted to enter into agreements with american indian tribes or their agency.
Washington no policy.
Source: Authors’ analysis of government web sites and key informant data (see appendixes A and B).
20 indian educaTion policieS in five norThWeST region STaTeS
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Table d3
state education agency has a state-funded Indian education coordinator
State policy description
alaska no policy.
idaho an indian education coordinator position was created by administrative action of the Superintendent of public instruction. The position is funded with state resources.
montana in 2005 the montana Superintendent of public instruction established a division of indian education within the office of public instruction, with funding, to implement the indian education for all act and to increase the academic achievement of american indian students.
oregon no policy.
Washington no policy.
Source: Authors’ analysis of government web sites and key informant data (see appendixes A and B).
Table d4
academic standards address Native american culture and history
State policy description
alaska in 1998 the assembly of alaska native educators and the alaska State board of education and early development adopted the alaska Standards for culturally responsive Schools developed by the alaska native Knowledge network. also, the alaska history standards refer to alaska native culture and history.
idaho The content standards for u.S. history contain goals that require students to have knowledge of american indian peoples, past and present.
montana The legislature passed a statute noting its intent that montana recognize the unique cultural heritage of american indians and promote preservation of their cultural heritage. The content standards and performance descriptors for social studies contain specific benchmarks that focus on american indians, including montana tribes.
oregon by state statute the oregon State board of education is required to develop and revise student academic standards. Several history standards in the oregon department of education’s academic content Standards and common curriculum goals pertain to native americans.
Washington The state’s content standards, essential academic learning requirements (ealr), state that “history contains several references to learning about native americans and their way of life before and after the arrival of europeans” (ealr 4).
Source: Authors’ analysis of government web sites and key informant data (see appendixes A and B).
21 appendix d. deScripTionS of indian educaTion policieS by Key policy and STaTe
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Table d5
state has a policy to reduce the achievement gap between Native american and other students
State policy description
alaska The alaska State board of education and early development’s vision and mission statement includes the statement: “We can close the achievement gap in students with disabilities, limited english proficient students, alaska native/american indian students, and economically disadvantaged students.”
idaho by executive order the indian education committee was given the mission to help improve the quality of indian education by ensuring that american indian students achieve success in school.
montana by state statute the legislature appropriates funds to public school districts through the state’s school funding program to help close the education achievement gap between american indian students and other students.
oregon no policy.
Washington a state statute encourages the Washington State School directors’ association to convene meetings with tribal councils to identify the extent of the achievement gap and strategies to close it. The association must report the results of these activities to the education committees of the state legislature.
Source: Authors’ analysis of government web sites and key informant data (see appendixes A and B).
22 indian educaTion policieS in five norThWeST region STaTeS
Table d6
state has targeted funding of Indian education programs
State policy description
alaska no policy.
idaho no policy.
montana Through the state’s school funding program, the state legislature appropriates an indian education for all act payment to public school districts that enroll american indian students. The legislature also appropriates funds to public school districts through the state’s school funding program for the purpose of closing the education achievement gap between american indian and other students.
oregon no policy.
Washington no policy.
Source: Authors’ analysis of government web sites and key informant data (see appendixes A and B).
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Table d7
Native american students may learn their native language as part of the education program
State policy description
alaska by state statute each school board in a district with 50 percent or more enrolled alaska native students is required to establish a local native language education advisory board and a native language curriculum that includes native languages traditionally spoken in the community. This process is optional for other schools.
idaho by state statute and regulations the state has enacted a policy to preserve, protect, and promote the rights of american indian tribes to use their native languages. certification of american indian language teachers is authorized, and tribes are allowed to designate who is qualified to teach that tribe’s native language.
montana administrative rules for content standards and performance descriptors in world languages are written broadly to allow american indian students to learn their native language.
oregon The native language preservation and instruction partnership, a collaborative effort between oregon’s nine federally recognized tribes and the oregon department of education, seeks to address endangered american indian languages and promote programs on american indian culture in oregon schools.
Washington Students, including american indians, may receive instruction in one or more american indian languages if the essential academic learning requirements include a requirement for languages other than english. Second language requirements may also be satisfied with native american languages.
Source: Authors’ analysis of government web sites and key informant data (see appendixes A and B).
23 appendix d. deScripTionS of indian educaTion policieS by Key policy and STaTe
Table d8
Native american culture and history are part of the school curriculum
State policy description
alaska high school graduation requirements include a half credit in alaskan history. The alaska history standards contain performance standards that include study of the history and culture of alaska natives.
idaho The content standards for u.S. history contain goals that address american indians and their relationship to the history and culture of the united States.
montana The state constitution includes this clause: “The state recognizes the distinct and unique cultural heritage of the american indians and is committed in its educational goals to the preservation of their cultural integrity.” also, the state legislature declared by statute its intent that every montana student, whether indian or not, learn about the unique cultural heritage of american indians. The montana office of public instruction is developing a curriculum to accomplish this purpose.
oregon The oregon american indian alaska native education plan contains goals to encourage oregon schools to implement native american curriculum and instruction materials. also, a statewide middle and high school curriculum, “indians in oregon Today,” provides information to teachers and students about the american indian tribes living in oregon.
Washington by state statute school districts are encouraged to incorporate information on tribal history and culture into curricula. also, Washington requires a onesemester course for grades 7–12 that includes study of the state’s history and constitution. districts are encouraged to include in this course information on the culture, history, and government of indian tribes. additionally the state office of Superintendent of public instruction and evergreen State college have developed the northwest native american reading curriculum.
Source: Authors’ analysis of government web sites and key informant data (see appendixes A and B).
-
Table d9
Native american community is involved on advisory boards
State policy description
alaska by state statute regional educational attendance areas (reaa) are organized to ensure alaska native community involvement on school boards and advisory committees. The u.S. department of Justice must approve all school board election boundary changes in the reaas.
idaho by executive order idaho established the committee on indian education, charged with pursuing seven indian education goals in collaboration with the federally recognized tribes of the state. The committee may also assist the idaho State department of education with education issues concerning idaho indians.
montana The montana board of public education has established the montana advisory council on indian education with representation from all eight tribal councils. The council advises the board of public education and the office of public instruction on issues affecting american indian education.
oregon goal 3 of the oregon american indian alaska native education State plan encourages strong partnerships with american indian and alaska native parents, tribal leaders, and school districts.
Washington The state governor’s office of indian affairs established governmenttogovernment implementation guidelines as a means of implementing the agreements of the centennial accord. The guidelines encourage tribes to send policy officials to joint statetribal meetings. Tribes may also identify program staff to attend meetings where state representation is anticipated.
Source: Authors’ analysis of government web sites and key informant data (see appendixes A and B).
Table d10
Teacher certification is promoted for speakers of Native american languages
State policy description
alaska by state statute a speaker of an alaska native language may obtain a limited Teacher’s certificate at the request of the school board or regional educational attendance area in which the speaker will teach.
idaho State statute allows certification of teachers of american indian languages. indian tribes are allowed to determine who is qualified to teach their language. a college degree is not required for certification.
montana State regulation authorizes an american indian language and culture Specialist teaching certificate. each montana indian tribe is authorized to establish its own requirements for determining who is eligible for the certificate.
oregon State statute requires the Teacher Standards and practices commission to establish an american indian languages teaching license. each tribe is responsible for identifying, testing, and evaluating the language teachers.
Washington State statute authorizes the “first peoples’ language, culture, and oral tribal traditions teacher certification program.” Tribes may certify individuals who meet the tribe’s criteria for the teaching certificate. both the Superintendent of public instruction and the tribe must certify that a person is eligible for the certificate.
Source: Authors’ analysis of government web sites and key informant data (see appendixes A and B).
24 indian educaTion policieS in five norThWeST region STaTeS
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Table d11
all teachers are required to have training in Native american culture and history
State policy description
alaska State statute and regulations require three credits in alaska studies and three credits in multicultural education and crosscultural communication for teacher certification. The list of university classes to meet these requirements—approved by the teacher certification unit in the state education agency—contains many courses focusing specifically on alaska natives.
idaho no policy.
montana by statute the state legislature stated its intent that all school personnel should have an understanding and awareness of indian tribes and that school leaders provide the means for school personnel to gain that understanding. montana also defines “american indian studies,” with a requirement that teacher education programs and accreditation standards include such studies.
oregon by state statute the Teacher Standards and practices commission must establish an american indian languages teaching license. also, the northwest indian language institute at the university of oregon provides training in native language teaching and linguistics.
Washington State statute requires all graduates of teacher preparation programs in Washington to have either a quarter or a semester class that includes information on the culture, history, and government of the american indians of the state and region.
Source: Authors’ analysis of government web sites and key informant data (see appendixes A and B).
Table d12
college scholarship or tuition assistance programs are provided for Native american students
State policy description
alaska by state statute alaska has a program that offers forgivable loans, with preference given to alaska natives from rural areas of the state pursuing a degree in education and teaching in alaska.
idaho The grow your own Teacher Scholarship program administered by the idaho State board of education helps school districts place qualified bilingual education, english as a second language, and native american teachers in classrooms. The program provides scholarships, mentoring, and instructional support to help native american students become teachers in school districts with a significant native american student population. additionally a student of any idaho native american indian tribe whose customary tribal boundaries included portions of the state of idaho is considered an idaho state resident for purposes of fees or tuition at idaho institutions of higher education.
montana by state statute the montana university System board of regents may waive tuition and fees for all persons of at least onequarter indian blood who have been legal residents of the state for at least one year prior to enrollment.
oregon The state’s aboriginal right initiative provides resident tuition rates at all oregon university system schools for members of native american tribes whose descendants were displaced from their aboriginal oregon homeland.
Washington by state statute Washington has established and administers an endowed scholarship program for american indian students as an incentive to pursue higher education.
Source: Authors’ analysis of government web sites and key informant data (see appendixes A and B).
25 appendix d. deScripTionS of indian educaTion policieS by Key policy and STaTe
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Table d13
Tribal colleges have been established
State policy description
alaska The federal equity in educational landgrant Status act of 1994, modified by the food, conservation, and energy act of 2008, contains a list of federally recognized tribal colleges. The modification added ilisagvik college in barrow.
idaho no policy.
montana The federal equity in educational landgrant Status act of 1994, modified by the food, conservation, and the energy act of 2008, contains a list of federally recognized tribal colleges. montana has one tribal college on each of its seven indian reservations: blackfeet community college, dull Knife memorial college, fort belknap college, fort peck community college, little big horn college, Salish Kootenai college, and Stone child college.
oregon no policy.
Washington The federal equity in educational landgrant Status act of 1994, modified by the food, conservation, and energy act of 2008, contains a list of federally recognized tribal colleges. it includes Washington’s only tribal college, the northwest indian college in bellingham.
Note: The citations in this table are to federal, not state, laws. The presence of tribal colleges as a key policy is retained to keep the current study consistent with the Zinth (2006) study. Also, states may use tribal colleges as a means to implement Indian education policy.
Source: Authors’ analysis of government web sites and key informant data (see appendixes A and B).
26 indian educaTion policieS in five norThWeST region STaTeS
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27 referenceS
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