INDIAPHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

INDIA – LOCATION

Kashmir in the north to Kanniyakumari in thesouth and Arunachal Pradesh in the east toGujarat in the west

12 nautical miles (about 21.9 km) from the coast.

Statute mile = 63,360 inchesNautical mile = 72,960 inches1 Statute mile = about 1.6 km (1.584 km)1 Nautical mile = about 1.8 km (1.852 km)

southern boundary- 6°45' N latitude in the Bay of Bengal

select the standard meridian in multiples of 7°30' of longitude=82°30' Ethe USA has seven time zones

variation of nearly 30 degrees-time difference of nearly twohours between the easternmost and thewesternmost parts of our country.

3.28 million sq. km2.4 per cent of the world’s landseventh largest country in the world

Indian subcontinent. It includes thecountries — Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan,Bangladesh and India

INDIA AND ITS NEIGHBOURS

Sri Lanka and Maldives are the two islandcountries located in the Indian Ocean,

Sri Lanka is separated fromIndia by the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Strait.

Gulf and a Strait

 A strait is a narrow, navigable channel of water that connects two larger navigable bodies of water. 

A gulf, usually referring to a large bay that is an arm of an ocean or sea. 

A fjord is a long, narrow bay with steep sides, created in a valley, carved in a glacial period by a glacier moving from the top region of the mountains to the sea. 

A bay is an area of water bordered by land on three sides

CH-2

PHYSIOGRAPHY

CH-2 STRUCTURE & PHYSIOGRAPHY

India can be divided into threegeological divisions

(i) The Penisular Block(ii) The Himalayas and other PeninuslarMountains(iii) Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain.

THE PENINSULAR BLOCK

northern boundary= Kachchh along the western flank of the Aravali Range

roughly parallel to the Yamuna and the Ganga

as far as the Rajmahal Hills and the Gangadelta

extensions= Karbi Anglong andthe Meghalaya Plateau in the northeast andRajasthan in the west

The northeastern parts areseparated by the Malda fault in West Bengalfrom the Chotanagpur plateau

Peninsula=gneisses and granites,.

Since the Cambrian period, the Peninsula hasbeen standing like a rigid block with theexception of some of its western coast whichis submerged beneath the sea and some otherparts changed due to tectonic activity withoutaffecting the original basement

Indo-Australian Plate, it has been subjectedto various vertical movements and blockfaulting=The rift valleys of the Narmada, theTapi and the Mahanadi and the Satpura blockmountains

The Peninsula mostly consists of relict and residual mountains like the Aravali hills, the Nallamala hills, the Javadi hills, the Veliconda hills,the Palkonda range and the Mahendragiri hills

The deltas formed by the Mahanadi, the Krishna,

the Kaveri and the Godavari

THE HIMALAYAS AND OTHERPENINSULAR MOUNTAINS

subjected to the interplay of exogenic andendogenic forces, resulting in the development offaults, folds and thrust plains

youthful stage. Variouslandforms like gorges, V-shaped valleys, rapids,waterfalls, etc. are indicative of this stage.

INDO-GANGA-BRAHMAPUTRA PLAIN

Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra

Originally, it was a geo-synclinal depressionwhich attained its maximum development during the third phase of the Himalayanmountain formation approximately about 64million years ago

depth of alluvial deposits=1,000-2,000 m.

PHYSIOGRAPHY

‘Physiography’ of an area is the outcome ofstructure, process and the stage of development.

physiographic divisions:

(1) The Northern and North-easternMountains(2) The Northern Plain(3) The Peninsular Plateau(4) The Indian Desert(5) The Coastal Plains(6) The Islands

The North and Northeastern Mountains

Himalayas=parallel mountain ranges

Greater Himalayan range

1. Great Himalayas2. the Trans-Himalayan range, 3. the Middle Himalayas and 4. the Shiwalik.

general orientation=from northwest tothe southeast direction in the northwestern partof India.

eastwest direction=. Himalayas in the Darjiling and Sikkim regions

southwest to the northwest direction= IN ARUNACHAL PRADESH

north-south direction=Nagaland, Manipurand Mizoram

length=2,500 km east to west160-400 km from north to south

There are large-scale regional variationswithin the Himalayas

sub-divisions:(i) Kashmir or Northwestern Himalayas(ii) Himachal and Uttaranchal Himalayas(iii) Darjiling and Sikkim Himalayas(iv) Arunachal Himalayas

(v) Eastern Hills and Mountains

Kashmir or Northwestern Himalayas

Karakoram, Ladakh, Zaskar and Pir Panjal

northeastern part=cold desertwhich lies between the GreaterHimalayas and the Karakoram ranges

Great Himalayas-valley of Kashmir & Dal Lake-Pir Panjal range

glaciers of South Asia = Baltoro and Siachen

famous for Karewa formations

Karewas Karewas are the thick deposits of glacial clay and other materials embedded with moraines.

useful for the cultivation of Zafran, a local variety of saffron.

passes=

1. Zoji La on the Great Himalayas,2. Banihal on the Pir Panjal,3. Photu La on the Zaskar and 4. Khardung La on the Ladakh range.

fresh water lakes

1. Dal and 2. Wular

salt water lakes

1. Pangong Tso and2. Tso Moriri

drained by the river Indus, and its tributaries such as the Jhelum and the Chenab.

scenic beauty and picturesque landscape.

Vaishno Devi, Amarnath Cave, Charar -e-Sharif,

Srinagar, capital city of the state of Jammuand Kashmir is located on the banks of Jhelumriver.

Jhelum in the valley of Kashmir is still in its youth stage and yet formsmeanders – a typical feature associated with themature stage in the evolution of fluvial land form

In Kashmir Valley, the meanders in Jhelumriver are caused by the local base levelprovided by the erstwhile larger lake of whichthe present Dal Lake is a small part

The southernmost part of this region consistsof longitudinal valleys known as ‘duns’. Jammudun and Pathankot dun

The Himachal and Uttarakhand Himalayas

between the Ravi in the west and the Kali (a tributary of Ghaghara) in the east

drained by two major river systems of India, i.e. the Indus and the Ganga.

Tributaries of the:-

Indus=Ravi, the Beas and the SatlujGanga=Yamuna and the Ghaghara.

northernmost part=extension of the Ladakh colddesert, which lies in the Spiti subdivision ofdistrict Lahul and Spiti.

all three ranges

1. the Great Himalayan range,2. the Lesser Himalayas- locally known asDhaoladhar in Himachal Pradesh and Nagtibha in Uttarakhand3. Shiwalik range from the North to the South

altitude between 1,000-2,000

important hill stations such as Dharamshala,Mussoorie, Shimla, Kaosani and thecantonment towns and health resorts such asShimla, Mussoorie, Kasauli, Almora,Lansdowne and Ranikhet,

two distinguishing features1. ‘Shiwalik’ and 2. ‘Dun formations

Chandigarh-Kalka dun, Nalagarh dun, DehraDun(largest), Harike dun and the Kota dun.

inhabited by the Bhotia’s.- nomadic groups whomigrate to ‘Bugyals’ (the summer glasslandsin the higher reaches) during summer monthsand return to the valleys during winters

‘Valley of flowers’ is also situated

Gangotri, Yamunotri, Kedarnath, Badrinathand Hemkund Sahib

The region is also known to have fivefamous Prayags (river confluences)

The Darjiling and Sikkim Himalayas

flanked by Nepal Himalayas -west and Bhutan Himalayas - east

fast-flowing rivers such as Tista,

high mountain peaks like Kanchenjunga(Kanchengiri), and deep valleys

higher reaches - Lepcha tribes

southern part, particularly the Darjiling Himalayas, has a mixed population of Nepalis, Bengalis and tribals from Central India

tea plantations1. moderate slope,2. thick soil cover with high organic

content, 3. well distributed rainfall

throughout the year and4. mild winters

absence of the Shiwalik formations.

‘duar formations’- imp 4 development of tea gardens

scenic beauty and rich flora and fauna,particularly various types of orchids.

The Arunachal Himalayas

west=east of the Bhutan Himalayas

east=Diphu pass

mountain peaks=Kangtu and Namcha Barwa

fast-flowing rivers from the northto the south, forming deep gorges.Bhramaputra flows through a deep gorge aftercrossing Namcha Barwa

rivers= perennial=highest hydro-electricpower potential

1. Kameng, 2. the Subansiri, 3. the Dihang, 4. the Dibang and5. the Lohit.

numerous ethnic tribal community

west to east are 1. the Monpa, 2. Daffla, 3. Abor,4. Mishmi, 5. Nishi and 6. the Nagas.

practise Jhumming

rich in biodiversity-preserved by the indigenouscommunities

A: Due to rugged topography, theinter-valley transportation linkages arenominal.R: most of the interactions arecarried through the duar region along theArunachal-Assam border.

The Eastern Hills and Mountains

They are known by different local names.

north: Patkai Bum, Naga hills, the Manipur hills

south: Mizo or Lushai hills

low hills, inhabited by numeroustribal groups practising Jhum cultivation.

BARAK RIVER: important river in Manipur and Mizoram.

‘Loktak’ lake: 1. Manipur 2. surrounded by mountains from all sides

Mizoram which is also known as the ‘Molassis basin’ which is made up of soft unconsolidated deposits

Nagaland= rivers in Nagaland form the tributary of the Brahmaputra.

Mizoram and Manipur=two rivers of Mizoram andManipur are the tributaries of the Barak river,which in turn is the tributary of Meghna

eastern part of Manipur: tributaries of Chindwin, which in turn is a tributary of the Irrawady of Myanmar

The Northern Plains

formed by thealluvial deposits brought by the rivers – theIndus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra

3,200 km-east to the west150-300 km.-average width1,000-2,000 m-maximum depth

north to the south

1. the Bhabar,

2. the Tarai and3. the alluvial plains.a) Khadar and theb) Bhangar.

Bhabar

8-10 km parallel to the Shiwalik foothills atthe break-up of the slopea: the streams and rivers coming from themountains deposit heavy materials of rocksand boulders, and at times, disappear in thiszone

Tarai

10-20 km where most of the streams and rivers re-emerge without having any properly demarcatedchannel, thereby, creating marshy andswampy conditions known as the Tarai.

luxurious growth of natural vegetationand houses a varied wild life.

alluvial deposits

mature stage of fluvial erosional and depositionallandforms such as sand bars, meanders, oxbowlakes and braided channels

Brahmaputra plains: riverine islands and sand bars

subjected to periodic floods andshifting river courses forming braided streams.

mouths of these mighty rivers also formsome of the largest deltas of the world, forexample, the famous Sunderbans delta

featureless plain with ageneral elevation of 50-150 m above the meansea level

water divide between the Indus and theGanga river systems: delhi n haryana

Brahmaputra river: northeast tothe southwest direction then almost 90° southward turn at Dhubri before it enters into Bangladesh

fertile alluvial soil cover whichsupports a variety of crops like wheat, rice,sugarcane and jute, and hence, supports alarge population.

The Peninsular Plateau

height of 150 m above the riverplains up to an elevation of 600-900 m

irregular triangle

northwest: Delhi ridgeeast: the Rajmahal hillswest: Gir rangesouth: Cardamom hills

extension-northeast, in the form ofShillong and Karbi-Anglong plateau.

series of patland plateaus such as the Hazaribaghplateau, the Palamu plateau, the Ranchiplateau, the Malwa plateau, the Coimbatore plateau and the Karnataka plateau,

oldest and the most stablelandmass of India.

general elevation=west to the east, which isalso proved by the pattern of the flow of rivers

physiographic featurestors, block mountains, riftvalleys, spurs, bare rocky structures, series ofhummocky hills and wall-like quartzite dykesoffering natural sites for water storage.

has undergone recurrent phases of upliftment andsubmergence accompanied by crustal faultingand fractures. (The Bhima fault needs specialmention, because of its recurrent seismicactivities).

NW part = ravines and georges

prominent relief features, the Peninsular plateau can be divided into three broad groups:

(i) The Deccan Plateau(ii) The Central Highlands(iii) The Northeastern Plateau.

The Deccan Plateau

north: Satpura, Maikal range and Mahadeo hillseast: Eastern Ghatswest: Western Ghats

Western Ghats=1. Sahyadri in Maharashtra, 2. Nilgiri hills in Karnataka and Tamil

Nadu and 3. Anaimalai hills and Cardamom

hills in Kerala.

Western Ghats are comparatively higher in elevation and more continuous than the Eastern Ghats

height increasing from north to south.‘Anaimudi’ (2,695 m)- Anaimalai hills of the Western Ghats Dodabetta(2,637 m) - Nilgiri hills.

Eastern Ghats comprising thediscontinuous and low hills are highly erodedby the rivers such as the Mahanadi, theGodavari, the Krishna, the Kaveri,

Javadi hills, the Palconda range, the Nallamala hills, the Mahendragiri hills

The Eastern and the Western Ghats meet each other at the Nilgiri hills.

The Central Highlands

west=Aravali range

Satpura range=formed by a seriesof scarped plateaus on the south= northernmst boundry of deccan plateau

crescent-shaped sand dunes called barchans.

region has undergone metamorphicprocesses

general elevation 700-1,000 m above

Most of thetributaries of the river Yamuna have their originin the Vindhyan and Kaimur ranges

Banas - tributary of Chambal that originates from the Aravalli in the west

An eastern extension=Rajmahal hills

The Northeastern Plateau

an extension of the main Peninsularplateau.

the Meghalaya and Karbi Anglongplateau stand detached from the mainPeninsular Block

The Meghalaya plateau is further sub-divided into three: named after the tribal groups inhabiting thisregion (i) The Garo Hills; (ii) The Khasi Hills; (iii) The Jaintia Hills

Meghalaya plateauis also rich in mineral resources like coal, ironore, sillimanite, limestone and uranium

max rainfall from sw monsoon-Cherrapunji displays a bare rocky surfacedevoid of any permanent vegetation cover.

The Indian Desert

dotted with longitudinal dunesand barchans

rainfal = 150 mm

A :Mesozoic era, this region was underthe seaR: wood fossils park at Aakaland marine deposits around Brahmsar

land features present here are mushroom rocks, shifting dunes and oasis (mostly in its southern part).

two parts:

the northern part is sloping towards Sindh and the southern towards the Rann of Kachchh

The Luni riverflowing in the southern part of the desert is ofsome significance.

The lakes and the playas have brackishwater which is the main source of obtaining salt.

The Coastal Plains

(i) the western coastal plains; (ii) the eastern coastal plains

western coast may be divided intofollowing divisions –

1. the Kachchh and Kathiawar coast in Gujarat,

2. Konkan coast in Maharashtra, 3. Goan coast and Malabar coast in

Karnataka and Kerala

The western coastal plains are narrow in themiddle and get broader towards north andsouth.

The Malabar coast:distinguishing features in the form of ‘Kayals’ (backwaters), which are used for fishing, inland navigation and also due to its special attraction for tourists. Every year the famous Nehru Trophy Vallamkali(boat race) is held in Punnamada Kayal inKerala.

As compared to the western coastal plain,the eastern coastal plain is broader and is an

example of an emergent coast.

well developed deltas=by the riversflowing eastward in to the Bay of Bengal=deltas of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri.

emergent nature= it has less number of ports and harbours---->The continental shelfextends up to 500 km into the sea, whichmakes it difficult for the development of goodports and harbours

The Islands

two major island groups1. in the Bay of Bengal and the other2. in the Arabian Sea

The Bay of Bengal island groups

1. 572 islands/islets2. between 6°N-14°N and 92°E -94°E3. two principal groups of islets

include a) the Ritchie’s archipelago and b) the Labrynth island.

the Andaman in the north and the Nicobar in thesouth. They are separated by a water bodywhich is called the Ten degree channel.

these islands are an elevatedportion of submarine mountains

Barren island, the only active volcano in Indiais also situated in the Nicobar islands.

1. Saddle peak (North Andaman – 738 m),

2. Mount Diavolo (Middle Andaman – 515 m),

3. Mount Koyob (South Andaman – 460 m) and

4. Mount Thuiller (Great Nicobar – 642 m).

The islands of the Arabian sea

1. Lakshadweep and 2. Minicoy.

between 8°N-12°N and 71°E -74°E longitude

The entire island group is built of coral deposits.

11/36= inhabited

Minicoy is the largest island with an area of 453 sq. km.

The entire group of islands is broadly divided by the Eleventh degree channel, north of which is the Amini Island and to the south of the Canannore Island.

The Islands of this archipelago havestorm beaches consisting of unconsolidatedpebbles, shingles, cobbles and boulders on theeastern seaboard

DRAINAGE SYSTEM

The flow of water through well-definedchannels is known as ‘drainage’ and thenetwork of such channels is called a‘drainage system

dendritic= tree

‘radial’=rivers originate from a hill and flow in all directions. Amarkantak range

‘trellis’= primary tributaries of rivers flow parallel to each other and secondary tributariesjoin them at right angles

‘centripetal’= When the rivers discharge their waters from all directions in a lake or depression, thepattern

‘catchment area’.= A river drains the water collected from a specific area

drainage basin=An area drained by a river and its tributaries

watershed= The boundary line separating one drainage basin from the other

The catchments of large rivers are called river basins while those of small rivulets and rills are often referred to as watersheds.

River basins and watersheds are markedby unity.

Indian drainage system may be divided onvarious bases

basis of discharge of water (orientations to the sea)

(i) the Arabian Sea drainage; and (ii) the Bay ofBengal drainage. They are separated from eachother through the Delhi ridge, the Aravalis andthe Sahyadris

77 per cent of the drainagearea consisting of the Ganga, the Brahmaputra,the Mahanadi, the Krishna, etc. is orientedtowards the Bay of Bengal

23 per centcomprising the Indus, the Narmada, the Tapi,the Mahi and the Periyar systems dischargetheir waters in the Arabian Sea.

basis of the size of the watershed

(i) Major river basins with more than 20,000 sq. km of catchment area.It includes 14 drainage basins such as theGanga, the Brahmaputra, the Krishna, theTapi, the Narmada, the Mahi, the Pennar, theSabarmati, the Barak, etc

(ii) Medium river basins with catchment areabetween 2,000-20,000 sq. km incorporating44 river basins such as the Kalindi, the Periyar,the Meghna, etc.

(iii) Minor river basins with catchment area of less than 2,000 sq. km include fairly good number of rivers flowing in the area of low rainfall.

The Narmada and Tapi - Arabian Sea.

basis of the mode of origin, natureand characteristics, the Indian drainage

1. Himalayan drainage and 2. the Peninsular drainage

DRAINAGE SYSTEMS OF INDIA

includes1. the Ganga, 2. the Indus and 3. the Brahmaputra river basins

A: rivers of this system are perennial.R: fed both by melting of snow and precipitation

These rivers pass through the giant gorges carved out by the erosional activity carried on simultaneously with the uplift of the Himalayas.

Besides deep gorges, these rivers also form V-shaped valleys, rapids and waterfalls in their mountainous

While entering the plains, they formdepositional features like flat valleys, ox-bowlakes, flood plains, braided channels, anddeltas near the river mouth

EVOLUTION OF THE HIMALAYAN DRAINAGE

geologists believe that a mighty river calledShiwalik or Indo-Brahma traversed the entirelongitudinal extent of the Himalaya from Assamto Punjab and onwards to Sind, and finallydischarged into the Gulf of Sind near lowerPunjab during the Miocene period some 5-24million years ago

in due course of time Indo– Brahma river was dismembered into three maindrainage systems: (i) the Indus and its fivetributaries in the western part;

(ii) the Ganga and its Himalayan tributaries in the central part; and (iii) the stretch of the Brahmaputrain Assam and its Himalayan tributaries in theeastern part.

The dismemberment wasprobably due to the Pleistocene upheaval inthe western Himalayas, including the uplift ofthe Potwar Plateau (Delhi Ridge), which actedas the water divide between the Indus andGanga drainage systems

Likewise, the downthrustingof the Malda gap area between theRajmahal hills and the Meghalaya plateauduring the mid-pleistocene period, diverted theGanga and the Brahmaputra systems to flowtowards the Bay of Bengal.

THE RIVER SYSTEMS OF THEHIMALAYAN DRAINAGE

The Indus System

largest river basins of the worldalso known as the Sindhuwesternmost of the Himalayan rivers in IndiaIt originates from a glacier near Bokhar Chu Tibetan region at an altitude of 4,164 m inthe Kailash Mountain rangeSingi Khamban; or Lion’s mouth in TibetLadakh and Zaskar ranges, itpasses through Ladakh and Baltistanforming a spectacular gorge near Gilgit in Jammu and Kashmir.It enters into Pakistan near Chillar

in the Dardistan regionThe Indus receives a number of Himalayantributaries such as the Shyok, the Gilgit, the Zaskar, the Hunza, the Nubra, the Shigar, the Gasting and the Dras.

It finally emerges out ofthe hills near Attock where it receives the Kabulriver on its right bankjoining the right bank of the Indusare the Khurram the Tochi, the Gomal, theViboa and the Sangar They all originate in theSulaiman ranges..

The river flows southwardand receives ‘Panjnad’ a little above Mithankot.

The Panjnad is the name given to the five riversof Punjab, namely the Satluj, the Beas, the Ravi,the Chenab and the Jhelum.

It finally discharges into the Arabian Sea, east of Karachi

The Indus flows in India only through the Leh district in Jammu and Kashmir.

The Jhelum

rises from a spring at Verinag situatedat the foot of the Pir Panjal in the south-easternpart of the valley of Kashmir.

It flows throughSrinagar and the Wular lake before enteringPakistan through a deep narrow gorge

It joins the Chenab near Jhang in Pakistan

The Chenab

largest tributary of theIndus.

It is formed by two streams, theChandra and the Bhaga, which join atTandi near Keylong in Himachal Pradesh.Hence, it is also known as Chandrabhaga.The Ravi

It rises west of the Rohtang pass inthe Kullu hills of Himachal Pradesh

flows through the Chamba valley of the state

Before entering Pakistan and joining the Chenab near Sarai Sidhu, it drains the area lying betweenthe southeastern part of the Pir Panjal and theDhauladhar ranges.

join chenab near Sarai Sidhu

The Beas

originating from the Beas Kund nearthe Rohtang Pass

The river flows through the Kullu valley and

forms gorges at Kati and Largi in the Dhaoladhar range.

enters the Punjab plains where it meets the

Satluj near Harike

The Satluj

originates in the Rakas lake nearMansarovar in Tibet

where it is known as Langchen Khambab

flows almost parallel to the Indus for about 400km before entering India, and comes out of agorge at Rupar

It passes through the Shipki La on the Himalayan ranges and enters the Punjab plains

It is an antecedent river.

it feeds the canal system of the Bhakra Nangal project

The Ganga System

It rises in the Gangotriglacier near Gaumukh (3,900 m) in the Uttarkashi district of Uttarakhand- known as the Bhagirathi

At Devprayag, the Bhagirathi meetsthe Alaknanda; hereafter, it is known as theGanga

The Alaknanda = Satopanth glacier above Badrinath

Alaknanda consists of the Dhauli and theVishnu Ganga which meet at Joshimath orVishnu Prayag.

tributaries of Alaknanda such as the Pindar - Karna Prayag

Mandakini or Kali Ganga - Rudra Prayag.

The Ganga enters the plains at Haridwar.

From here, it flows firstto the south, then to the south-east and east before splitting into two distributaries, namelythe Bhagirathi and the Hugli.

It is shared byUttarakhand (110 km) and Uttar Pradesh(1,450 km), Bihar (445 km) and West Bengal(520 km).

The Ganga river system is the largest in India having a number of perennial - originating in the Himalayas in the north and non-perennial rivers - the Peninsula in the south

right bank tributary- The Son

left bank tributaries- Ramganga, the Gomati, the Ghaghara, the Gandak, the Kosi and the Mahananda

The river finally discharges itself into the Bay ofBengal near the Sagar Island.

The Yamuna

the western most and thelongest tributary of the Ganga

Yamunotri glacier on the western slopesof Banderpunch range

It joins theGanga at Prayag (Allahabad).

right bank- the Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa and the Ken- which originates from thePeninsular plateau

left bank- Hindan, the Rind, the Sengar, the Varuna

The Chambal

rises near Mhow in the Malwa plateau of Madhya Pradesh

flows northwards through a gorge up wards of Kota

The Chambal is famous for its badland topography called the Chambal ravines.

The Gandak

two streams, namely Kaligandak and Trishulganga

rises in the Nepal Himalayas between the Dhaulagiri and Mount Everest

joins the Ganga at Sonpur near Patna.

The Ghaghara

originates in the glaciers of Mapchachungo

tributaries – Tila, Seti and Beri

meets the Ganga at Chhapra.

The Kosi

is an antecedent river

source to the north of Mount Everest in Tibet,where its main stream Arun rises.

Son Kosi from the West and theTamur Kosi from the east

It forms Sapt Kosiafter uniting with the river Arun.

The Ramganga

rising in the Garhwal hills near Gairsain.

it joins the Ganga near Kannauj.

The Damodar

The Barakar is its main tributary. Once known as the ‘sorrow of Bengal’,

The Sarda or Saryu river

rises in the Milam glacier in the Nepal Himalayas where it is known as the Goriganga.

Along the Indo-Nepal border, it is called Kali or Chauk, where it joins the Ghaghara.

The Mahananda

tributary of the Ganga rising in the Darjiling hills.

It joins the Ganga as its last left bank tributary in West Bengal.

The Son

is a large south bank tributary of the Ganga, originating in the Amarkantak plateau.

Arrah, west of Patna, to join the Ganga.

The Brahmaputra System

origin in theChemayungdung glacier of the Kailash rangenear the Mansarovar lake

eastward southern Tibet, where it isknown as the Tsangpo(‘the purifier.’)

right bank tributary= Rango Tangspo

carve deep gorge in the Central Himalayas near Namcha Barwa

The river emerges from the foothills underthe name of Siang or Dihang.

It enters India west of Sadiya town in Arunachal Pradesh.Flowing southwest,

it receives its main left bank tributaries, viz., Dibang or Sikang and Lohit;

thereafter, it is known as the Brahmaputra.

left bank tributaries the Burhi Dihing and Dhansari (South)

right bank tributariesSubansiri-tibet-andecdantKameng, Manas and Sankosh

Brahmaputra enters into Bangladesh nearDhubri and flows southward

A: The Brahmaputra is well-knownfor floods, channel shifting and bank erosionR: most of its tributaries are large, and bring large quantity of sediments owing to heavy rainfall in its catchment area.

THE PENINSULAR DRAINAGE SYSTEM

A: the broad, largely-graded shallow valleys, and the maturity of the riversR: The Peninsular drainage system is older thanthe Himalayan one

Western Ghats=water divide between peninsular rivers

Peninsular drainage are – the Mahanadi theGodavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri.Peninsular rivers are characterised by fixedcourse, absence of meanders and non-perennialflow of water.

The Narmada and the Tapi which flow through the rift valley are, however, exceptions.

The Evolution of Peninsular DrainageSystem

Three major geological events

(i) Subsidence of the western flank of the Peninsula leading to its submergence below the sea during the early tertiary period. Generally, it has disturbed the symmetrical plan of the river on either side of the original watershed.

(ii) Upheaval of the Himalayas when thenorthern flank of the Peninsular block was subjected to subsidence and the consequent trough faulting. The Narmada and The Tapiflow in trough faults and fill the original

cracks with their detritus materials. Hence, there is a lack of alluvial and deltaic deposits in these rivers.

(iii) Slight tilting of the Peninsular block from northwest to the southeastern direction gave orientation to theentire drainage system towards the Bay of Bengal during the same period.

River Systems of the Peninsular Drainage

The Mahanadi

rises near Sihawa in Raipur district of ChhattisgarhSome navigation is carried on in the lower course of this riverdrains into bob

The Godavari

largest Peninsular river system

It is also called the Dakshin Ganga.

It rises in the Nasik district of Maharashtra and

discharges its water into the Bay of Bengal

The Penganga, the Indravati, the Pranhita, and the Manjra are its principal tributaries.

The Godavari is subjected to heavy floods in its lower reaches to the south of Polavaram, where it forms a picturesque gorge.

It is navigable only in the deltaic stretch.

The river after Rajamundri splits into several

branches forming a large delta.

The Krishna

second largest eastflowing Peninsular river which rises near Mahabaleshwar in Sahyadri

The Kaveri

rises in Brahmagiri hills of Kogadu district in Karnataka

Kabini, the Bhavani and the Amravati.

A: the river carries water throughout the yearR: Since the upper catchmentarea receives rainfall during the southwest monsoon season (summer) and the lower part during the northeast monsoon season (winter)

The Narmada

originates on the western flank of the Amarkantak plateau

Dhuandhar waterfall near Jabalpur

Sardar Sarovar Project

The Tapi

westward flowing river.

It originates from Multai in the Betul district of Madhya Pradesh

Luni

largest river system of Rajasthan, west of Aravali.

It originates near Pushkar in two branches, i.e. the Saraswati and the

Sabarmati, which join with each other at Govindgarh.

From here, the river comes out of Aravali and is known as LuniThe entire river system is ephemeral.

Smaller Rivers Flowing Towards the West

rivers flowing towards the Arabian seahave short courses

1. The Shetruniji-Dalkahwa in Amreli district.

2. The Bhadra -Aniali village in Rajkot district.

3. The Dhadhar - Ghantar village in Panchmahal district.

4. Sabarmati and Mahi are the two famous rivers of Gujarat.

5. The Vaitarna rises from the Trimbak hills in Nasik district

6. The Kalinadi - Belgaum district and falls in the Karwar Bay.

7. Bedti river- Hubli Dharwar8. The Sharavati - Shimoga district of

Karnataka9. Mandovi - GOA10. Juari-GOA11. Bharathapuzha-Annamalai hills-

longest river of Kerala-also known as Ponnani

12. The Periyar-second largest river of Kerala

13. Pamba river-Kerala-falls in the Vemobanad lake

Sabarmati 21,674Mahi 34,842Dhandhar 2,770Kalinadi 5,179Sharavati 2,029Bharathapuzha 5,397Periyar 5,243

Small Rivers Flowing towards the East

The Subarnrekha, the Baitarni, the Brahmani, the Vamsadhara, the Penner, the Palar and the Vaigai are important rivers.

pg 29- table

RIVER REGIMES

The pattern of flow of water in a river channel overa year is known as its regime

vol of water = It is measuredeither in cusecs (cubic feet per second) orcumecs (cubic metres per second).

The Ganga has its minimum flow duringthe January-June period. max=aug sept

two Peninsular rivers displayinteresting differences in their regimescompared to the Himalayan rivers

EXTENT OF USABILITY OF RIVER WATER

• Periyar Diversion Scheme• Indira Gandhi Canal Project• Kurnool-Cuddapah Canal• Beas-Satluj Link Canal• Ganga-Kaveri Link Canal

No availability in sufficient quantity(ii) River water pollution(iii) Load of silt in the river water(iv) Uneven seasonal flow of water(v) River water disputes between states(vi) Shrinking of channels due to the extensionof settlements towards the thalweg.