India Methane to Markets...Commerce and Industry (FICCI) 1, Federation House Tansen Marg, New Delhi...

Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry [1]

Agro-Industrial & Livestock Sector

Prepared by

Federation of Indian Chambers of

Commerce and Industry (FICCI)

1, Federation House

Tansen Marg, New Delhi – 110 001

Phone: +91-11-23278769 (Extn. 354;

421)

+91-11-23320714, 23721504

Prepared for

PA Consulting Group as a part of

Methane to Markets Program of U.S.

EPA

Me

tha

ne

to

Ma

rk

ets

JAN

UA

RY

20

10

Re

sou

rce

Ass

ess

me

nt

Stu

dy

fo

r A

gro

-

Ind

ust

ria

l a

nd

Liv

est

ock

Wa

ste

s –

In

dia


About FICCI

Established in 1927, FICCI is the largest and oldest apex business organisation in India.

Its history is closely interwoven with India's struggle for independence and its

subsequent emergence as one of the most rapidly growing economies globally. FICCI

plays a leading role in policy debates that are at the forefront of social, economic and

political change. Through its 400 professionals, FICCI is active in 52 sectors of the

economy. FICCI's stand on policy issues is sought out by think tanks, governments and

academia. Its publications are widely read for their in-depth research and policy

prescriptions. FICCI has joint business councils with 79 countries around the world.

A non-government, not-for-profit organisation, FICCI has direct membership from the

private as well as public sectors, including SMEs and MNCs. As an apex chamber, over

350 chambers of commerce and industry are our members; thus FICCI is the voice of

India's business and industry. FICCI works closely with the government on policy issues,

enhancing efficiency, competitiveness and expanding business opportunities for

industry through a range of specialised services and global linkages. It also provides a

platform for sector specific consensus building and networking. Partnerships with over

350 chambers from across the country carry forward our initiatives in inclusive

development, which encompass health, education, livelihood, governance, skill

development, etc.

With 8 offices in India, overseas offices in the UK, USA, Singapore, etc. and institutional

partnerships with 211 counterpart organisations, FICCI serves as the first port of call for

Indian industry and the international business community.


Disclaimer

This report is intended as a part of Methane to Markets Resource Assessment study for

Agriculture and Livestock sector in India. This report discusses on the subject mentioned

with specific emphasis to the Dairy, Sugar and Distillery, and Food processing sectors.

This report is intended only for the use of the individual or entity to which it is

addressed (P A Consulting or organizations entitled to access this report by PA

Consulting) and may contain information which is privileged, confidential, proprietary,

or exempt from disclosure under applicable law. If you are not the intended recipient

and don’t belong to the respective category, you are strictly prohibited from reading this

report, disclosing the information in the report, or in any way using this report. If you

have received this report in error, please notify the sender, destroy and delete any

copies you may have received.

The data provided in this report are verified, authentic data including data from

National and International Organization Reports, India’s Official Records, Scientific

Publications, FICCI research analysis and from structured interviews with various

organizations conducted by FICCI. The site visit reports are from the FICCI organized site

visits to assimilate data for the purpose of this report.

This report was prepared by the Environment & Climate Change team of FICCI. Any

scientific or technical information related to the report shall be addressed to the below

mentioned authors.

Aditi Sharma

Management Trainee

Rishiram Ramanan

Senior Assistant Director

Rita Roy Choudhury

Director & Head

Environment & Climate Change

Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce & Industry

Federation House, 1, Tansen Marg

New Delhi – 110 001

Telephone: +91-11-23738760-70 (Ext. 354; 421)

Fax: +91-11-23721504, 23320714

E-mail: [email protected]


CONTENTS

About FICCI.................................................................................................................. 2

1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 5

1.1 Agriculture sector in India ................................................................................ 5

1.2 Greenhouse gas emissions in India ................................................................... 5

2. BACKGROUND AND CRITERIA USED FOR SELECTION ................................................. 7

2.1 Methodology Used................................................................................................ 7

2.2 Estimation of Methane Emissions in the Livestock and Agro-Industrial Sectors . 9

3. SECTOR CHARACTERISATION .................................................................................... 13

3.1 Potentially Significant Livestock and Agro-Industrial Sectors and Subsectors ... 13

3.2 Livestock Sector .................................................................................................. 13

3.3 Sugar and Distilleries ........................................................................................... 32

3.4 Food Processing .................................................................................................. 43


1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Agriculture sector in India

Agriculture in India is the means of livelihood of almost two thirds of the work force in

the country, with over 600 million farmers involved in agriculture related activities.

Agriculture and allied activities contribute about 30% to the gross domestic product of

India. With arable land area at 168 million hectares, India ranks second only to the U.S.

in size of agriculture. India has 52% of cultivable land and varied climates. There are a

wide range of sub sectors covered directly or indirectly under agriculture sector, viz.

crop, livestock and dairy and agro-based industries (sugar and distillery, paper and pulp,

food and food processing industries etc). Being an important economic sector, it not

only has social but also environmental implications. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions

and climate change have a direct association with agriculture and its subsectors.

Agricultural activities including livestock rearing, dairy and food based industries, sugar

and distillery industries, among others, contribute substantially to the methane

concentration.

1.2 Greenhouse gas emissions in

India

India’s CO2 emissions currently account for

55 percent of total GHG emissions—against

90 percent in Japan, more than 80 percent

in the United States and Russia, more than

75 percent in Brazil and Mexico, and about

70 percent in China and Australia. Methane

and N2O account for 23 and 22 percent of

India’s current GHG emissions, respectively.

The largest source of India’s total GHG is

agriculture. Though agricultural emissions

of CO2 are below 1 percent of the country’s

Figure 1.1: District-wise methane emissions

in India in 2003


total CO2 emissions, agriculture dominates emissions of other greenhouse gases,

accounting for 50 percent of India’s methane (5 million MT) and even a large share of

N2O emissions (0.31 million MT). The primary sources of GHG emissions are from the

large and growing livestock population—estimated to increase to 625 million by 2020,

resulting in the highest density of cattle in the world—and the cultivation of paddy. The

district-wise emission of methane in India is illustrated in figure 1.11.

1 Chhabra et al., 2009. Spatial pattern of methane emissions from Indian livestock. Current Science. 96(5),

683-689.


2. BACKGROUND AND CRITERIA USED FOR SELECTION

2.1 Methodology Used The study was started with the objective of analyzing the waste management practice in

the Agro-Industrial & Livestock waste sectors. The methane emission potential of these

sectors is substantial considering the poor or often inexistent waste management

approach in the sector especially in developing countries. To understand the current

waste management practice followed in this sector, a set of data collection approaches

were followed which would not only

represent the sector as a whole but

also reflect the existing scenario. The

approach undertaken in this study

has been depicted in Figure 2.1.

Data management

o Primary data collection: The

primary data was collected by

distribution of a survey

questionnaire among the various

industries in the sector and

associations representing the industries. The industries and the associations to

which the survey questionnaire was sent were representation of the current status

of the sector. The survey on methane recovery and utilization (MRU) was carried

out to know the current status, barriers and opportunities for recovering and

utilizing methane. In the food processing sector, the survey was circulated to 100

companies and the number of response received was 8. The three sub-sectors

targeted in the food processing sector are- fruit and vegetable processing, edible oil

producing and grain processing. In the sugar and distillery sector, the survey was

send to 201companies out of which 8 responses were received from sugar and

distillery units and one response was received from a standalone distillery unit. In

Figure 2.1: Various steps of data management


the dairy sector, the survey was send to 60 dairy related players including

cooperatives, farms, processing units and consultants and 21 responses were

received.

o Secondary data collection: The secondary data was collected from range of data

sources including national data, international data, data from scientific and technical

reports, data from various organizations in India in respective sectors, other

documents, reports and statistics. The general profile of each sector and then

various sub-sectors were collected. The information such as geographic extent of the

sector, overview of the waste management practice, existing policies and

regulations were garnered. The annual production statistics in case of the food

processing sector and population in the case of livestock sector were gathered.

Information was also sought from various organizations and R&D institutions

working in each sector. With the available data, the data analysis of the methane

potential in each sector was computed based on the current status update from the

primary data. The waste management practice was understood for some sectors

from secondary data sources. Nevertheless, certain sectors such as the livestock

sector the waste management approach followed in India was region specific and

fragmented. The information on specific data were obtained from credible sources,

however, in the event of non-availability of the data, data from international

organizations such as Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Inter-governmental

Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) were obtained. The subsectors and sectors were

then compared based on the methane emission potential and were prioritized for

with focus on the same. The mitigation options were suggested for these prioritized

sectors. Barriers faced by some sectors for the implementation of MRU projects

have also been projected where available.

o Field Visits: Field visits were carried out in each sector with different scales of

operation to ascertain the waste management practices in the sector and to verify

the same with the existing data sources.


o Structured Discussions: Apart from these data sources, data was obtained from

structured discussions with technical experts, industry persons, government officials

and other sources in each of these sectors.

2.2 Estimation of Methane Emissions in the Livestock and Agro-Industrial Sectors

The section describes method to calculate the methane emission from waste generated

from manure management in the livestock sector. The emissions are as per the methods

suggested in the various international and national studies and comparative analysis of

the emission factors has been given in respective section. The study also evaluates the

anaerobic digestion rates which would be achieved in the Indian context considering the

climate regime in different regions of India.

i. Livestock methane emissions

The methane emission from livestock sector is subjected to a lot of analysis both at an

international level and on a national level. This is because of the uncertainty

surrounding the emission levels from the sector. The livestock sector has methane

emissions of three kinds. Those include methane emissions from enteric fermentation,

manure management and wastewater generated from the animal washings etc. IPCC

provides default emission factors for various source categories2. However, country-

specific emission factors provide a more accurate estimation. Hence both the methods

have been presented in the study and the comparative analysis has been presented. For

any of these methods, census data on the livestock population is required. For the

predictions to be more accurate, data on the different species and categories would

help. The data presented in this study for livestock population is from livestock census

data from Government of India and hence it is authentic information. The data on the

emissions from livestock includes a comparative analysis of data presented from Indian

studies and international predictions.

o Enteric fermentation: This report focuses on MRU potential from the livestock

sector. Enteric fermentation is a process of production of methane because of

2 IPCC, 1996. Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change. IPCC Good Practice Guidance and Uncertainty

Management in National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Cambridge University Press, New York.


the fermentation of feed intake in the digestive systems of ruminant animals.

Though enteric fermentation results in the majority of methane emissions from

the Indian livestock sector, enteric fermentation is not relevant from the context

of this report.

o Manure management: Methane emissions from manure related activities are

just a small percentage of the overall emissions from the livestock sector, the

majority of which is from the enteric fermentation. This section provides an

indicative method for the calculation of methane emissions from manure

management in the livestock sector. The method for the calculation of the

emission factor was IPCC Tier II and the figures projected by the IPCC values have

been compared with the studies conducted from the Indian context2. The

methane emissions from the manure management in livestock sector include the

determination of the emission factor of the each livestock category and the

volatile solid concentration in the excreta of the each livestock category. The

emission factor for each livestock community for existing manure management

systems shall be calculated using the following formula.

…………. (2.3)

Where:

EF(T) = annual CH4 emission factor for livestock category T, kg CH4 animal-1

yr-1

VS(T) = daily volatile solid excreted for livestock category T, kg dry matter animal-1

day-1

365 = basis for calculating annual VS production, days yr-1

Bo(T) = maximum methane producing capacity for manure produced by livestock

category T, m3 CH4 kg

-1 of VS excreted

0.67 = conversion factor of m3 CH4 to kilograms CH4

MCF(S,k) = methane conversion factors for each manure management system S by

climate region k, %

MS(T,S,k) = fraction of livestock category T's manure handled using manure management

system S in climate region k, dimensionless


After the calculation of the emission factor for each livestock the methane emissions

shall be calculated as per equation 2.4 considering number of animals in each category.

……………………………………….. (2.4)

CH4Manure = CH4 emissions from manure management, for a defined population, Gg

CH4 yr-1

EF(T) = emission factor for the defined livestock population, kg CH4 head-1

yr-1

N(T) = the number of head of livestock species/category T in the country

T = species/category of livestock

Emission estimation from manure management and enteric fermentation process

require specific data such as gross energy intake and volatile solid excreted by the

different livestock categories. The volatile solid excreted can be calculated by the

following formula.

……………………… (2.5)

VS = volatile solid excretion per day on a dry-organic matter basis, kg VS day-1

GE = gross energy intake, MJ day-1

DE% = digestibility of the feed in percent (e.g. 60%)

(UE X GE) = urinary energy expressed as fraction of GE. Typically 0.04GE can be

considered urinary energy excretion by most ruminants (reduce to 0.02 for ruminants

fed with 85% or more grain in the diet or for swine). Use country-specific values where

available.

ASH = the ash content of manure calculated as a fraction of the dry matter feed intake

(e.g., 0.08 for cattle). Use country-specific values where available.

18.45 = conversion factor for dietary GE per kg of dry matter (MJ kg-1

). This value is

relatively constant across a wide range of forage and grain-based feeds commonly

consumed by livestock.

The Methane conversion factor also varies according to the manure management

practice followed and is dependent on the climate region. India, being a tropical

country, the methane emission is calculated for warm climatic conditions. Accordingly,

emission factor for manure management sub-sector which shall be calculated for each


category of livestock has been presented in table 2.13. This is a comparative analysis

which deals with the calculation of emission factor from using predictions from different

studies.

Table 2.1: Comparative analysis of methane emission factor from different studies for

livestock sector

*CLRI: Central Leather Research Institute; NPL: National Physical Laboratory; ALGAS:

Asia Least-cost Greenhouse Gas Abatement Strategy

3 Swamy and Bhattacharya, 2006. Budgeting anthropogenic greenhouse gas emission from Indian

livestock using country-specific emission coefficients. Current Science. 91(10), 1340-1353.

Category Manure Management

IPCC

Tier II

CLRI*

IPCC

Default

Values

IPCC

energy

Equation

(NPL*)

ALGAS

*

Cattle

( Indigenous)

-Dairy

-Non Dairy

3.0 - 3.5

1.7 - 2.0

5.30

2.00

3.61

3.00

5.3

2.0

Cattle

( Crossbred)

-Dairy

-Non Dairy

3.0-3.5

1.7-2.0

5.30

2.00

4.38

2.00

5.3

2.0

Buffalo

-Dairy

-Non Dairy

3.8- 4.15

3.8- 4.15

4.70

4.70

4.82

3.00

4.70

4.70

Sheep 0.10 - 0.21 0.18 0.18 0.18

Goat 0.11 - 0.22 0.18 0.18 0.18

Horses and

ponies

1.09 - 2.18 1.60 1.60 1.60

Donkeys 0.60 - 1.19 0.97 0.97 0.97

Camels 1.28 - 3.56 1.96 1.96 1.96

Pigs 3.00 - 6.00 4.50 4.50 4.50


3. SECTOR CHARACTERISATION

3.1 Potentially Significant Livestock and Agro-Industrial Sectors and Subsectors

The sectors have been chosen in considering the environmental policy and regulatory

framework, organic nature of the waste, quantum of waste generated and significance

of the industry from the Indian context. The livestock sector has been considered for the

resource assessment study as large proportion of Indian methane emissions are from

livestock sector1. The sugar and distillery and the food processing sectors have been

considered in this assessment study because of their importance in the Indian context in

terms of economic contribution as well as the quantum of highly organic waste

generated. The sub-sectors selected under the food processing sectors are grain

processing, edible oil and fruits and vegetable processing sectors. Other sectors have

not been considered in this report.

3.2 Livestock Sector

Indian livestock industry makes up for a significant amount of world's livestock

resources. Both the national economy as well as the socio-economic growth of the

country is backed by the livestock sector. Besides offering great potential and

outstanding contribution to the agricultural sector over the past so many years,

livestock has proved to be life-savior in many catastrophic situations such as flood or

draught.

The livestock sector has been of huge economic potential over the years along with

agriculture. During the years 2003-04, the total worth of livestock output was Rs.

1,645,090 million with leather accounting for Rs. 26,600 million and meat & meat

products accounting for Rs. 17,200 million. This was 25.9% of that of agricultural output.

Also cumulatively, livestock, poultry and other related products brought in total revenue

of Rs. 51,200 million in 2004-054. India has a huge livestock population and at the

current livestock population growth rate the India would have a highest density cattle

4 http://www.fao.org/AG/AGAInfo/resources/en/publications/sector_briefs/lsb_IND.pdf


population in the world by 20205. The distribution of livestock sector in terms of

percentage of animals in each category has been depicted in Table 3.2.1.

India is the world’s largest milk producer. Milk production in India has continuously

increased because of increasing livestock population, better feedstock and better

breeds. Milk consumption has equally kept pace with the increasing supply. However,

milk productivity in India has traditionally remained low6. As per 2009-10 figures of US

Department of Agriculture (USDA), the milk production in the country is 108 million

metric tons and growing at an annual rate of 4%. The report of USDA suggests that

strong farm-gate prices along with rising domestic demand for a variety of milk

products, supported by growth of the Indian economy, are the primary factors driving

increased production7. The unorganized sector handle about 65-70% of the total milk

produced. In the organized dairy industry, the cooperative milk processors have a 60%

market share. The cooperative dairies process 90% of the collected milk as liquid milk

whereas the private dairies process and sell only 20% of the milk collected as liquid milk

and 80% for other dairy products with a focus on value-added products8. Thus milk

processing system in India is a three-tier system with majority handled by unorganized

sector.

3.2.1 Operational/production process

It can be ascertained from the above mentioned profile of livestock and dairy sector

that majority of the sector is unorganized small units. The organized sector contributes

to only a small percentage of the milk processing. Hence methane emission from

livestock sector has been emphasized in the forthcoming section.

5 http://www.ncap.res.in/upload_files/policy_brief/pb7.pdf

6 http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/ARTICLE/AGRIPPA/657_en-03.htm#TopOfPage

7 http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-188920729.html

8 http://www.nabard.org/fileupload/DataBank/TechnicalDigest/ContentEnglish/issue9td-6.pdf


Table 3.2.1: Livestock population in India in 2003 by category9

Livestock sector contributes around 6.8% of the GDP and contributes handsomely by

33% to the agriculture sub-sector. Though the sector is huge and substantially

contributes to GDP of the nation, waste management practice in the sector is still at its

primitive stage. The sector produces highly organic waste which generates methane

emissions contributing overwhelming percentage to overall methane emission of the

agriculture sector. The methane emission from each category of the livestock sector has

been presented below.

9 http://www.nddb.org/statistics/population_india_species.html

Species (In Million Numbers) 1977 1982 1987 1992 1997 2003

Cattle 180.0 192.5 199.7 204.6 198.9 185.2

Adult female cattle 54.6 59.2 62.1 64.4 64.4 64.5

Buffalo 62.0 69.8 76.0 84.2 89.9 97.9

Adult female buffalo 31.3 32.5 39.1 43.8 46.8 51.0

Total Bovines 242.0 262.2 275.7 288.8 288.8 283.1

Sheep 41.0 48.8 45.7 50.8 57.5 61.5

Goat 75.6 95.3 110.2 115.3 122.7 124.4

Horses and Ponies 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8

Camels 1.1 1.1 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.6

Pigs 7.6 10.1 10.6 12.8 13.3 13.5

Mules 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2

Donkeys 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.7

Yaks 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1

Mithun NA NA NA 0.2 0.2 0.3

Total Livestock 369.4 419.6 445.2 470.9 485.4 485.0

Poultry 159.2 207.7 275.3 307.1 347.6 489.0

NA: Not Available; *Includes chicken, ducks, turkey & other birds

Source: Livestock Census, 2003


Figure 3.2.1: Category-wise contribution to the methane emissions in Livestock sector1

The total estimated methane emission (which includes enteric fermentation and

manure management) from Indian livestock was 11.75 Tg for the year 2003. The figure

adopted in the study is in accordance with the India’s Initial National Communication to

the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (IINC) method of

methane emission estimation2. Enteric fermentation constitutes a major part of the

total methane emissions accounting for ~91% or 10.65 Tg of the total, while manure

management of livestock accounts for only 9% or 1.09 Tg. Cattle and buffalo are the

major source of methane emission (10.9 Tg) compared to 0.86 Tg emission from other

livestock. Livestock contributes about 18% of the global greenhouse gas (GHG)

emissions, and as much as 37% of anthropogenic methane (Figure 3.2.1 & Table 3.2.2).

3.2.2 Waste characteristics and management systems

The principal factors affecting methane emission from livestock manure are the amount

of manure that is produced and the portion of the manure that decomposes

anaerobically3.


o Enteric fermentation: This is responsible for high emission of methane from

ruminants. These animals possess rumen or fore stomach, which allows them to

digest large quantities of cellulose and other roughages found in plant material.

A small fraction of symbiotic microorganisms (3–10%) is methanogenic bacteria,

which produce methane while removing hydrogen from the rumen. Methane is

released mainly through eructation and normal respiration and a small quantity

as flatus. As mentioned elsewhere, from the context of this report, enteric

fermentation has not been considered in projecting the potential for MRU.

o Manure management: Livestock manure is principally composed of organic

material. When this organic material decomposes in anaerobic environment,

methanogenic bacteria produce methane. When manure is stored or treated as

a liquid (e.g. in lagoons, ponds, tanks or pits), it tends to decompose

anaerobically and produce a significant quantity of methane. When manure is

handled as a solid (e.g. in stacks or pits) or deposited on pastures and

rangelands, it tends to decompose aerobically and little or no methane is

produced.

In India, the number of cattle per farm shall range between 450 and 200,000 animals.

The different categories of waste generated include animal dung, rumen, wastewater,

fat and grease, fodder, hay and feed residues. Out of these waste categories, animal

dung and wastewater constitute the maximum to the total. On an average a cattle farm

produces manure in a range of 15 to 100 MT/ day depending upon number of animals

and wastewater generated was found to be in a range of 15,000 L/day to 100 m3/ day,

while other types of wastes like fodder and hay, fat and grease may lie in the range of

25 kg/day to 1500 kg/day. It can be ascertained from figure 3.2.2 most common manure

management practice (40%) is aerobic treatment like composting; about 40% of the

manure is piled up or dumped in pits resulting in methane emissions. About 20% of sun-

dried manure is used as fuel for cooking and heating purposes.


Figure 3.2.2: An overview of manure management practice in India

Insignificant amount of wastewater is generated at farm level from animal washings and

cleaning the farms. In the dairy sector, dairy cooperatives and milk processing units

generate huge volumes of wastewater which is properly treated unlike manure. The

treatment options include common effluent treatment plants, aerobic treatment and

anaerobic digesters. The regulatory pressure has resulted in treatment of wastewater

generated without being discharged into surface water bodies. Some farms have

established anaerobic digesters with biogas collection system, however, because of

various reasons, most farms are currently non-operational. Organizations encounter

multitude of problems in erection and operation of MRU units because of lack of

technical know-how at a farm level. Some of the technical problems reported to be

faced by during operation are improper mixing of cow dung, less production of biogas in

winter season, maintenance problem, problem in slurry management, leakages,

insufficient gas formation, design, gas pressure regulation, methane gas collection,

storage and utilization, irreparable damages caused due to improper handling. The

barriers faced for implementation of MRU projects have been projected in figure 3.2.3.


Figure 3.2.3: Barriers in implementation of MRU projects in dairy sector in India

The methane emissions from manure management for different category livestock in

India have been presented (Table 3.2.2). All the figures presented are for the base year

2003.

Table 3.2.2: Category-wise methane emission from enteric fermentation and manure

management and percentage contribution of each category to the total methane

emissions in 20031

Livestock

category

Population

(Million)

Enteric

Fermentation

(Tg)

Manure

Management

(Tg)

Total

Emission

(Tg)

Percentage

Contribution

Dairy cattle

Indigenous

Exotic

Sub-total

82.96

19.74

102.70

2.32

0.84

3.17

0.289

0.074

0.363

2.61

0.92

3.54

22.20

7.83

30.03

Non-dairy cattle

(indigenous)

Below 1 yr

1-3 yrs

Adults

Sub-Total

9.85

12.00

55.68

77.53

0.09

0.27

1.76

2.12

0.012

0.034

0.162

0.208

0.102

0.304

1.922

2.33

0.87

2.59

16.36

19.78

Non-dairy cattle


The methane emissions from enteric fermentation and manure management for

different regions in India have been presented below. All the figures presented are for

the base year 2003. Figure 3.2.4 depicts the methane emissions from Northern states of

India in which Uttar Pradesh (U.P) has the largest number of livestock population and

corresponding methane emission followed by Punjab and Haryana. Jammu and Kashmir

(J&K) which has a higher livestock population emits much lesser methane because of the

cooler climatic conditions. The case is well supported by similar trends in Himachal

Pradesh and Uttarakhand.

(exotic)

Below 1 yr

1-3 yrs

Adults

Sub-Total

1.90

1.14

1.87

4.91

0.02

0.03

0.06

0.11

0.002

0.003

0.004

0.01

0.022

0.033

0.064

0.12

0.19

0.28

0.54

1.04

Dairy buffalo 80.03 4.06 0.371 4.441 37.78

Non-dairy buffalo

Below 1 yr

1-3 yrs

Adults

Sub-Total

7.37

3.83

6.68

17.88

0.06

0.08

0.29

0.44

0.013

0.014

0.028

0.055

0.073

0.094

0.318

0.490

0.62

0.79

2.70

4.17

Sheep 61.40 0.23 0.010 0.240 2.04

Goat 124.35 0.45 0.020 0.470 3.99

Horse and pony 0.75 0.01 0.001 0.011 0.09

Mule and donkey 0.65 0.02 0.002 0.022 0.19

Camel 0.63 0.03 0.001 0.031 0.26

Pig 13.52 0.01 0.060 0.070 0.59

Sub-total 201.3 0.77 0.094 0.860 7.30

Total 485.00 10.65 1.09 11.75


Figure 3.2.5: Methane emissions from livestock sector in the Northern states of India in

20031


Figure 3.2.6: Methane emissions from livestock sector in the North-Eastern states of

India in 20031

The North-Eastern region in India comprises several states, however, most states have

lesser human and livestock population density. In addition, because of the cooler

climatic conditions prevailing in these states methane emissions are much lesser than

the other region. The methane emissions from manure management in the state of

Assam is high and would serve as an interesting case study in the North-East region.


Figure 3.2.7: Methane emissions from livestock sector in the Western states of India in

20031

The western region holds the distinction of being the largest methane emitter in India.

This is because of the couple of reasons which include higher livestock population and

much warmer environment compared to the other region. Rajasthan and U.P in the

Northern region are highest methane emitters in India. Both the states have

correspondingly higher livestock population and warmer climates. Chattisgarh,

interestingly, has high manure management related emissions and constitute about 75%

of the total methane emissions contradictory to the overall Indian trend. This state

would also serve as a useful case study in the western region for improving manure

management practices.


Figure 3.2.8: Methane emissions from livestock sector in the Southern states of India in

20031

The methane emissions in Southern region is low when compared to other states in

India. Though the livestock population is high in these states, total methane emission is

less. In the southern region, Kerala emits much lesser methane and Andhra Pradesh

(A.P) is the highest emitter of methane among the Southern states. Methane emission

thus has a direct correlation with the livestock population and the geographical extent

of the states.


Figure 3.2.9: Methane emissions from livestock sector in the Union Territories of India in

20031

The methane emission in the Union Territories (U.T) needs a special mention not

because of the volume of the methane emission or the livestock population but for the

source of methane emission. The methane emission from U.T because of manure

management practices is high especially in union territories like Daman and Diu and

Chandigarh. This may be beacuse of inefficient traditional manure management

practices in these Union Territories. U.T also serve as perfect case studies for these

methane recovery and utilzation projects if taken up in a demonstration mode. In

Daman and Diu and Chandigarh, the methane emissions is a clear deviation from all

over India with manure management accounting for almost all of the methane

emissions from livestock population.


Figure 3.2.10: Methane emissions from livestock sector across India in 20031

As shown in figure 3.2.8, Western region contributes to highest concentration of

methane emissions through manure management practices, followed by Eastern and

Northern region. This is also directly proportional with the livestock population.

Interestingly, Southern region which remains hotter all around the year compared to

other regions in India results in lower methane emissions as compared to other regions

even though it has a higher livestock population than Northern region. This suggests

Southern region has better manure management and other animal management

practices which effectively reduces methane emissions in this region.

3.2.3 Policies and programmes related to MRU in the livestock sector

This section briefs the existing regulations and policies of the Government of India which

directly or indirectly has defined effect on the waste management practice of the dairy

sector.


i. National Biogas and Manure Management Programme (NBMMP)

The Central Sector Scheme on National Biogas Programme, which mainly caters to

setting up of family type biogas plants, has been under implementation since 1981-82.

National Biogas and Manure Management Programme provides for central subsidy in

fixed amounts, turn-key job fee linked with three years’ free maintenance warranty;

financial support for repair of old-non functional plants; training of users, masons,

entrepreneurs, etc.; publicity and extension; service charges or staff support; State level

Biogas Development and Training Centres (BDTC); (fixed amount of CFA to institutional

biogas plants); financial support for institutions for cattle dung based power generation

plants, etc. A cumulative total of 3.93 million family type biogas plants have been set up

in the country against estimated potential of 12 million plants10

.

ii. Intensive Dairy Development Programme

The Scheme, modified as Intensive Dairy Development Programme on the basis of the

recommendation of the evaluation studies was launched during Eighth Plan period and

is being continued during the Eleventh Plan with an outlay of Rs. 29.99 crore for 2008-

09. So far 84 projects with an outlay of 480.05 crore have been sanctioned in 25 States

and one UT. A sum of Rs. 330.35 crore has been released to various State Governments

upto 31st March, 2008 and 206 districts have been covered. The scheme has benefited

about 15.07 lakh farm families and organized about 24808 village level Dairy

Cooperative Societies till 31st March, 200811

.

iii. Biogas based Distributed / Grid Power Generation Programme

The MNRE started a scheme "Biogas based Distributed / Grid Power Generation

Programme" from 2005-06 (January 4, 2006) with a view to promote biogas based

power generation, especially in the small capacity range, based on the availability of

large quantity of animal wastes and wastes from forestry, rural based industries (agro /

food processing), kitchen wastes, etc. The programme is implemented through nodal

departments / agencies of the States / UTs, KVIC, institutions and NGOs. The projects

10

http://mnes.nic.in/prog-ftbp.htm#Annexure-I 11

http://dahd.nic.in/intensive_dairy_development_prog.htm


may be taken up by any village level organization, institution, private entrepreneurs etc.,

in rural areas as well as areas covered under the Remote Village Electrification (RVE)

programme of MNRE other than the industries and commercial establishments covered

under Urban, Industrial & Commercial Applications (UICA) programmes for sale of

electricity to individual / community / grid etc. on mutually agreeable terms12

.

Apart from these initiatives, MNRE has various national level R&D programmes on

improving the utilization of waste and conversion of the same into energy13

. The biogas

programme is integrated in each of the initiative the MNRE has taken towards

renewable energy development, in general. The Government of India provides subsidies

and financial assistance to waste to energy projects, especially for households14

.

The above mentioned schemes are for the biogas plants for family type or farm based

activity. These are specific programmes which deal with the biogas recovery and

utilization in the dairy sector. There are other programmes which have an indirect effect

on the waste management practice of the dairy industry. The Government implemented

four such schemes for the development of dairy sector during 2007-08.

iv. Strengthening Infrastructure for Quality and Clean Milk Production

A new centrally sponsored scheme was launched in Oct 2003, with the main objective of

improving the quality of raw milk produced at the village level in the country. Under this

scheme, assistance is provided for training of farmers on good milking practices. The

scheme is being implemented on 100 % grant-in-aid basis to District Coop Milk Union

and State Coop Milk Federation through the State Governments/UTs for components

viz, training of farmer members, detergents, stainless steel utensils, strengthening of

existing laboratory facilities whereas 75 percent financial assistance is provided for

setting up of milk chilling facilities at village level in the form of bulk milk coolers. Since

inception, 130 projects at total cost of Rs. 194.93 crore with a central share of Rs 159.08

crore have been approved up to 31st March 2008 under this scheme. A total sum of Rs.

100.57 crore as central share has been released to the concerned State Governments

12

http://mnes.nic.in/adm-approvals/biogaspower_a.htm 13

http://mnes.nic.in/rand-bioenergy.htm 14

http://mnes.nic.in/supportmenu.htm


for implementation of approved project activities up to 31.03.08. The Scheme has

benefited 4,17,000 farmer members by imparting training and by installing 15.56 lakh

litre capacity of Bulk Milk Coolers to facilitate marketing of milk produced by them and

keeping its quality intact as on 31.03.0815

.

v. Assistance to Cooperative

The scheme aims at revitalising the sick dairy cooperative unions at the district level and

Co-operative federations at the state level. National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) is

the project implementing agency and central grant is released through NDDB. The

scheme is being continued during Eleventh Five Year Plan with a tentative outlay of Rs.

50 crore. Since inception in 1999-2000, 32 rehabilitation proposals of milk unions in 12

states namely, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana,

Kerala, Maharashtra, Assam, Nagaland, Punjab, West Bengal and Tamil Nadu at a total

cost of Rs. 197.37 crore with a central share of Rs. 98.68 crore have been approved upto

31.03.2008. A total sum of Rs. 79.19 crore including Rs. 5.05 crore in 2007-08 has been

released till 31.03.08. An amount of Rs. 7.00 crore has been provided for continuation of

the scheme during 2008-09. Out of which, a sum of Rs. 2.19 crore has also been

released to the concerned milk unions including a new project approved for Saharanpur

Milk Union in Uttar Pradesh State during the current financial year till 31.05.0816

.

vi. Dairy/Poultry Venture Capital Fund

To bring about structural changes in the unorganized sector, the measures like milk

processing at village level, marketing of pasteurized milk in a cost effective manner,

quality up-gradation of traditional technology to handle commercial scale using modern

equipment and management skills and to encourage new pieces of birds and low input

technology for poultry farming among rural farmers, a new scheme viz, Dairy/Poultry

Venture Capital Fund was initiated in the Tenth Five Year Plan. The assistance under the

scheme is provided to the rural/urban beneficiaries; under the scheme include

15

http://dahd.nic.in/strenghtinfrastructure.htm 16

http://dahd.nic.in/IDDP/assistance_to_cooperatives.htm


agriculture farmers/individual entrepreneurs and groups of all sections of unorganized

as well organized sector including cooperatives and NGO from any part of the country.

The scheme was approved in December, 2004 with a total outlay of Rs. 25.00 crore. It is

being implemented through NABARD and the funds are released to NABARD to be kept

as revolving fund. Since inception, a sum of Rs. 77.99 crore has been released to

NABARD for implementation of scheme upto 31st

March, 2008. There is a budget

provision of Rs. 40.00 crore for implementation of the scheme during 2008-09, out of

which Rs. 20.00 crore have been released till 30/6/200817

.

vii. Milk and Milk Product Order-1992

The Government of India notified the Milk and Milk Product Order on June 1992. As per

the provisions of this order, any person/dairy plant handling more than 10,000 liters per

day of milk or 500 MT of milk solids per annum needs to be registered with the

registering authority appointed by the Central Government. The Order was amended

from time to time as per the decision taken in Milk and Milk Product Advisory Board and

as per request received from State Governments. In pursuance of the Cabinet decision

dated 22/2/2002, this Department has amended MMPO-1992 vide Milk and Milk

Product (Amendment) Order 2002, SO No. 335(E) dated 26.3.2002, where the provisions

of assigning milk shed has been done away with. The power of granting Registration to

the units up to 2.00 lakh liters per day processing capacity where entire activities of

units lies within a State has been delegated to concerned State Registering Authority18

.

viii. Framework for Programmatic CDM (CDM-PoA) for decentralized biogas plants,

medium and large scale by MNRE19

MNRE has taken an initiative for developing a framework for Programmatic CDM

projects in the country. This framework addresses, among other renewable energy

technologies, decentralized, medium and large-scale biogas plants which shall be taken

up as a CDM-PoA project with the United Nations Framework for Convention on Climate

Change (UNFCCC) for issuance of certified emission reductions (CERs).

17

http://dahd.nic.in/schemes/dairy(20).htm 18

http://www.dahd.nic.in/milkorder.htm 19

http://mnes.nic.in/pdf/fp-cdm-renewableenergy.pdf


3.2.6 Technology Options

As indicated in the programmes and policies, there are indigenous technologies for

anaerobic digestion developed in India. The scale of the bio-digester for livestock wastes

would also be smaller decentralized units which have been promoted by MNRE for

biogas production. The bio-digester used would be a conventional model considering

the easy biodegradability of the waste and capital costs to the end-users.

Technology options used in the large scale integrated waste handling units shall be

incorporated later after site visits.

3.2.7 Costs and potential benefits

Major cost elements involved in the MRU projects in this sector would be capital costs

for bio-digester and recurring operation & maintenance costs. Other costs could include

capacity building costs like training manpower for biogas plant operation and

maintenance, costs for feasibility studies and other pre-operative expenses. The

benefits would be energy access for local population and intangible benefit of methane

emission reduction from the livestock sector. The decentralized biogas program if taken

up by the Government of India on an all India basis, would benefit the innumerable

villages, will result in generation of CERs through a CDM-PoA and thus help in reducing

overall costs. An additional benefit would be generation of manure from the bio-

digester rich in nutrients (organic fertilizers) for local use which would replace chemical

fertilizers.

3.2.8 Case Study

Case study will be added after all the field visit reports are approved by the industries.


3.3 Sugar and Distilleries

This will cover both sugar industry units and distilleries (both stand alone units as well as

integrated units where relevant)

3.3.1 Sector profile

The sugar and distillery sector is one of the largest Agro-Industrial industries in India.

India has been known as the original home of sugar and sugarcane. India is the largest

sugar consumer in the world and is the second largest producer of sugar including

traditional cane sugar sweeteners equivalent to 19.55 million tonnes raw value.

Sugarcane cultivation in India has seen a slight increase in the last decade but a more

dramatic increase shall be observed in the sugar production with improvement in the

process, technology and overall efficiency of the plants especially in the last few years

(Table 3.3.1). As to the statistics there were a total number of 571 sugar factories in

India as on March 31, 2005

compared to 138 during 1950-51.

In the year 1999, there were 285

distilleries in India producing 2.7 X

109 L of alcohol and generating 4

X 1010

L of wastewater each year.

This number has gone up to 319

in 2004, producing 3.25 X 109 L of

alcohol and generating 4.04 X

1011

L of wastewater annually20

.

Sugarcane is cultivated all over

India, though the major clusters

of sugarcane cultivation include

Maharashtra, U.P and Tamil

Nadu. The figure 3.3.1 depicts the states producing sugarcane in India.

20

Mohana et al., 2009. Distillery spentwash: treatment technologies and potential applications. Journal of

Hazardous Materials. 163, 12-25.

Figure 3.3.1: Sugarcane producing states of

India


The sugar mills and distilleries in India are located in the vicinity of the sugarcane

producing areas because of the amount of raw material needed for the industry is huge

and long distant transportation of cane and molasses is difficult not only because of the

distances but also because of regulatory framework. Hence, typically, the distilleries and

sugar mills are located within a 200 km radius of sugarcane cultivation. Sugar Industry in

India is not liberated unlike most Indian industries.

Table 3.3.1: Productivity and land indicators of sugarcane production in India21

3.3.2 Operational/production process

Sugar and distillery industries are interrelated industries. The raw material for sugar

industry is sugarcane which is well-known. The sugarcane collected from neighbouring

area reaches the sugar mill where it is crushed and cane juice is clarified. The sugar is

extracted from clarified cane juice and crystallized. Alcohol production in distilleries

consists of four main steps viz. feed preparation, fermentation, distillation and

packaging. Ethanol can be prepared from various biomass materials but the potential

for their use as feedstock depends on the cost, availability, carbohydrate contents and

the ease by which they can be converted to alcohol. Nearly 61% of world’s ethanol

production is from sugar crops. Most Indian distilleries exclusively use cane molasses as

21

Kostka et al., 2009. The future of sugar cane in (the) People’s Republic of China and India – Supply

constraints and expansion potential. Applied energy. 86, S100-107.

Year 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Area

harvested

(ha)

3940 4100 4228 4300 4430 4230 4000 3660 4200 4500 4650 4721

Production

(Kilo Tons)

262 296 299 296 300 282 236 237 281 315 325 330

Average

yield

(Tons/ha)

66.5 72.1 70.8 68.7 67.7 66.7 59.1 64.8 67.0 70.1 69.9 70.0


raw material for fermentation. In India, there are a number of large-scale distilleries

integrated with sugar mills.

3.3.3 Waste characteristics and management systems

The main raw material used in the sector, is found to be sugarcane (sugar mill) and

molasses (distilleries), the quantity of sugarcane crushing ranging from 20,000 tons/year

to 2 X 105 tons/year depending upon the scale of the production unit. The waste

products from sugar mill comprise bagasse (residue from the sugarcane crushing),

pressmud (mud and dirt residue from juice clarification) and molasses (final residue

from sugar crystallization section)22

. Bagasse is used as an energy source in the boiler to

replace coal and attracts a high price. The press mud in sugar mill is organic in nature

and it is usually composted. The molasses is taken up by the distilleries for alcohol

production and serves as the raw material for most distilleries in India. The wastewater

generated through washings and other process steps in sugar industry is easily treated

through aerobic treatment methods such as activated sludge treatment process as the

effluent has less COD and BOD levels. Hence in this sector, distilleries have higher

potential for MRU projects than sugar mills where the potential for such projects is

almost nil because of low organic nature of effluent.

The effluents from molasses based distilleries contain large amounts of dark brown

coloured spent wash with a biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen

demand (COD), the index of its polluting character, typically in the range of 50,000–

60,000 and 110,000–190,000 mg L-1

, respectively. The characteristics of a typical

distillery spentwash have been outlined in table 3.3.218

.

22

Suganya, K., and Rajannan, G., 2009. Effect of One Time Post-Sown and Pre-Sown Application of

Distillery Spentwash on the Growth and Yield of Maize Crop. Botany Research International. 2(4); 288-

294. (http://www.idosi.org/bri/2(4)09/15.pdf)


Table 3.3.2: Characteristics of untreated distillery spentwash18

With government policies on pollution control becoming more and more stringent,

distillery industries have been forced to look for effective treatment technologies. Such

technologies would not only be beneficial to environment, but also be cost effective. As

discussed earlier, bagasse and molasses have industrial applications while pressmud has

no direct industrial application. However, pressmud shall be mixed with spentwash in an

average ratio of 1:2.5 for composting.

Parameters Value for untreated

spentwash

pH 3.0-4.5

BOD5 (mg/L) 50,000-60,000

COD (mg/L) 110,000-190,000

Total Solids (TS) (mg/L) 110,000-190,000

Total Volatile Solids (TVS)

(mg/L)

80,000-120,000

Total Suspended Solids (TSS)

(mg/L)

13,000-15,000

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

(mg/L)

90,000-150,000

Chlorides (mg/L) 8000-8500

Phenols (mg/L) 8000-10,000

Sulphates (mg/L) 7500-9000

Phosphate (mg/L) 2500-2700

Total Nitrogen (mg/L) 5000-7000


The other modes of treatment include incineration of spentwash, biomethanation

followed by composting or aerobic treatment. Biological treatment of distillery

spentwash is either aerobic or anaerobic but in most cases a combination of both is

used.

A typical COD/BOD ratio of 1.8–1.9

indicates the suitability of the effluent

for biological treatment. Aerobic

treatment of wastes with high organic

load such as molasses is associated

with operational difficulties of sludge

bulking, inability of the system to treat

high BOD or COD loads economically,

relatively high biomass production and

high operational cost in terms of

energy requirements. Moreover, a

BOD:N:P ratio of 100:2.4:0.3 suggests

that anaerobic treatment methods at

the primary stage will be more

effective than aerobic treatment

methods for reducing the pollution potential of distillery effluent. Anaerobic treatment

of distillery effluent is an accepted practice in India and various anaerobic treatment

methods are in full scale operations in India18

.

i. Anaerobic treatment

Anaerobic digestion is viewed as a complex ecosystem in which physiologically diverse

groups of microorganisms operate and interact with each other in a symbiotic,

synergistic, competitive, antagonistic association. In the process, methane and carbon

dioxide are generated. There are few treatment methods which follows anaerobic

digestion of waste. Anaerobic lagoons are the simplest choice for anaerobic treatment

Figure 3.3.2: Anaerobic lagoon in a distillery

in India


of distillery waste. In India, anaerobic lagoons are used commonly for the treatment of

distillery spentwash as this is seen as a most cost-effective option23

.

The figure 3.3.2 shows a properly lined open lagoon in a distillery in India used for the

treatment of spentwash. Open lagoons require vast area to treat large volumes of the

wastes and also lead to odor nuisance21

. Anaerobic digestion results emission of

methane from the open lagoons into the atmosphere. Majority of GHG emission from

distillery waste management sector in India is from open lagoon system. After the CREP

guidelines, the open lagoons are not usually encouraged in India but some distilleries in

India still treat the waste in open lagoons. However, the situation in India is changing

with most distilleries adopting high rate anaerobic digesters for biogas production and

subsequent use as energy source.

ii. Aerobic treatment

Anaerobic treatment of

spentwash leaves the COD

concentration of the spentwash

at 20,000 mg/L assuming a

untreated spentwash COD

concentration of 1,00,000 mg/L

and a treatment efficiency of 80%

during anaerobic digestion, which

is the primary treatment step. This requires the use of subsequent aerobic treatment

system such as activated sludge treatment process which not only helps in the reduction

of COD but also reduces colour of the effluent to some extent. Composting of

spentwash and pressmud is also used as an option after anaerobic treatment of

spentwash in case of distilleries attached to sugar industry. Figure 3.3.3 illustrates the

composting of spentwash in a distillery in India22

.

23

http://www.sgsqualitynetwork.com/tradeassurance/ccp/projects/224/UGSIL_PDD.pdf

Figure 3.3.3: Composting in a distillery in

India


iii. Physical treatment

Though the organic load of the effluent is reduced to a large extent in biological

treatment, the colour of the spentwash still remains brown. Hence the physical

treatment options such as adsorption or coagulation/ flocculation is usually used. Since

a zero discharge is to be achieved, the treated spentwash is usually again send to open

lagoon or composted or used for irrigation or for in house water usage21

.

Figure 3.3.4: Overview of the waste management practices in the sugar and distillery

sector

As discussed in previous section, the waste treatment system is usually a combination of

anaerobic digestion (closed reactors and open lagoons), aerobic treatment (activated

sludge treatment process followed by clarifier and composting). As mentioned

elsewhere, composting is the final treatment option if the industry is combined sugar

mill and distillery unit. In case of smaller integrated units, composting shall be the only

treatment option. Anaerobic treatment is usually the first step of treatment considering

the highly organic nature of the waste followed by aerobic treatment. The spentwash is

directly fed for anaerobic digestion and MRU projects in the sector are quite high with

above 80 % of distilleries already possessing biogas plants. Even after methane recovery,

the effluent is highly organic in nature, resulting in the use of lined open lagoons for


further reduction of organic content in the waste. The effluent is stored for about 30 to

45 days in the open lagoons and treated aerobically. Common biogas plants are not a

regular feature since majority of units have their own biogas plants (Figure 3.3.4).

The biogas generated in the units is used for captive consumption for process heating

and in some industries for electricity generation for captive use and in excess, to be

exported to grid. About 50% of the distilleries draw co-generation benefits from their

units. Thus, the payback period of the project is 4 to 5 years on an average. The biogas

plants have been found to be working satisfactorily in most distilleries with a biogas

composition of 55 to 70 % methane and 30 to 45 % carbon dioxide and with a calorific

value of 4500 to 5500 Kcal/m3.

3.3.4 Methane emissions reduction

The methane generation from distilleries in India is mainly due to the usage of open

lagoon treatment for the anaerobic digestion of the waste. It shall also be due to various

other sources such as composting of waste, ill-operated aerobic treatment system and

in some cases improper storage of spentwash. However, MRU plants are found in large

number of distilleries as indicated in previous sections.

3.2.5 Policies and programmes related to MRU in the sugar and distillery sector

Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), India in consultation with industrial associations,

experts in respective fields, State Pollution Control Boards and Ministry of Environments

& Forests (MoEF), India has come out with specific time bound action plan for each type

of major 17 categories of industries which has been named as “Corporate Responsibility

for Environmental Protection” (CREP, 2003). As per the guidelines, zero discharge with

any or combination of the following measures:

o Compost making with press mud/agricultural residue / Municipal Waste;

o Concentration and drying / Incineration;


o Treatment of spent wash through biomethanation followed by two stage

secondary treatment and dilution of the treated effluent with process water for

irrigation.

Performance study of some distilleries was carried out during 2002-2006. Industries

were pursued to implement CREP recommendations through state boards as well as by

issue of directions and through task force meetings. The time targeted action plan under

CREP and status of its implementation are as below24

.

Table 3.3.3: Status of compliance by the distilleries as per CREP guidelines

CREP Action Points Status (as on December 2006)

All distilleries will achieve zero

discharge in surface water bodies and

100% utilization of spent wash by

December, 2005.

Information on compliance received from

233 distilleries of which information from 17

distilleries was incomplete. 101 distilleries

achieved 100 % utilization of spentwash. 34

others achieved 50 to 75 %. 22 distilleries are

closed.

Proposal for standalone new

distilleries and expansion of existing

distilleries without achieving zero

discharge in surface water / ground

water will not be

considered by MoEF / SPCB.

Being followed by SPCBs / MoEF

Although there has been a good amount of progress and improvement in the status

since then, yet it is evident that the Indian distilleries are lagging far behind in achieving

the zero discharge norms.

3.3.6 Technology Options

Anaerobic digesters shall have two modes of operation, single-phasic or bi-phasic. The

choice of single-phasic or bi-phasic modes lies in the volume of spentwash being

handled as well as the type of reactors being used. The reactor types for anaerobic

digestion of spentwash being used in India are both conventional and high-rate reactors.

Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor (CSTR) and Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Reactor

24

http://www.cpcb.nic.in/divisionsofheadoffice/pci3/Profiles.pdf


(UASB) are most commonly used reactors for treatment of spentwash in India. The

conventional digesters such as continuous stirred tank reactors (CSTR) are the simplest

form of closed reactors with provision of gas collection. Treatment of distillery effluent

in CSTR has been reported in single as well as biphasic operations, resulting in 80–90%

COD reduction within a period of 10–15 days. The HRT in CSTR-type reactor is

determined by the specific growth rate of the slowest growing microorganism in the

system. This generally means that very high HRT values are required to achieve an

acceptable level of degradation. The high HRT values make the CSTR concept less

feasible and unattractive for treatment of the wastewaters25

.

UASB reactor systems belong to the category of high rate anaerobic wastewater

treatment and hence it is one of the most popular and extensively used reactor designs

for treatment of distillery wastewaters globally. The success of UASB depends on the

formation of active and settleable granules. These granules consist of aggregation of

anaerobic bacteria, self immobilized into compact forms. Particularly attractive features

of the UASB reactor design includes its independence from mechanical mixing of

digester contents, recycling of sludge biomass and ability to cope up with perturbances

caused by high loading rates and temperature fluctuations. UASB reactors are

particularly suited for the treatment of distillery spentwash and other high strength

organic wastewater. Other types of anaerobic reactors for industrial treatment of

spentwash are sparsely used.


There is still considerable cost factor associated with the implementation of both the

aforementioned anaerobic digestion technologies. Though the technologies have been

deployed all over India and available to Indian distilleries, there is no direct regulation

on the methane avoidance. This has led to several distilleries still continuing with the

traditional practices such as anaerobic lagoons which result in methane emissions into

25

Tewary et al., 2007. Waste management initiatives in sugarcane molasses based distilleries in India.

Resources, Conservation and Recycling. 52, 351-367.


the atmosphere. The cost is especially a critical factor in implementation of these

technologies in co-operative distilleries run by farmers. However, because of the

implementation of CREP guidelines in several distilleries, in the long run, distilleries

would be able to identify the potential of MRU projects and its benefits. The benefits of

implementation of such projects in distilleries would be attaining energy-self-sufficiency

especially distilleries integrated with sugar units by burning both methane and bagasse

in boilers. This would avoid dependency on coal and result in reduction in both methane

and CO2 emissions. The added benefit apart from sufficient payback period is part-

financing of such projects through CDM of UNFCCC.

3.3.8 Case Study

Case study report would be incorporated upon receiving the approved report from the

industry.


Figure 3.4.1: Segment-wise share of

production in the food processing sector

3.4 Food Processing

Food processing sector includes all the sectors related to food crops produce and

livestock sector. However, from the purpose of this report, the food processing sub-

sectors such as fruits and vegetable sector, edible oil sector and grain processing sector

which over two-third of the food processing sector in India has been deliberated.

3.4.1 Sector profile

India is among the leading food producers with the second largest arable land area. The

diverse agro-climatic conditions in the country are favorable for taking up the

production of a wide variety of crops. Though food processing sector in India is one of

the largest in the world, the sector is highly unorganized. A large percentage of

production (49%) in the food processing sector comes from the unorganized fraction

(Figure 3.4.1 & 3.4.2)26

.

Thus the food processing industry is

also widely scattered in different

parts of the country. The sector is

highly fragmented and dominated by

unorganized sector with 75% units

falling under it. Food is the biggest

consumption category in India with

spending amounting to about 21% of

India’s GDP. The Food Processing

Industry comprises 43% of the Indian

Food Industry, the contribution being largely from the organized sector. During the

period 2004 to 2007, the number of registered operating food processing units

increased from 24,000 to 25,725 units27

. The food processing sector though in the

nascent stage constitutes 14% of manufacturing GDP and amounts to products value of

26

Food Processing: Market and Opportunities, Report by Indian Brand Equity Foundation 27

Land of Opportunities: The Food Industry in India. 2009. Report on food industry, FICCI, India


Rs.280,000 crores. Over the last decade or so food processing has grown at a rate of

7.1% per annum.

As much as 70% of the current food spending by the Indian consumer is on agri-

products. Out of which, two-third is on primary and secondary processed products.

Main sectors included in the Indian Food Processing sector with the percentage

contribution have been illustrated in figure 3.4.2. The industries from this sector are

mainly based in Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil

Nadu, Karnataka and Maharashtra. There are several Agricultural Produce Market

Committees (APMCs) established in each state to facilitate marketing of the agricultural

produce viz., 145 in Karnataka, 295 in Maharashtra and so forth.

Figure 3.4.2: Percentage distribution of each sub-sector in the food processing sector28

28

Ministry of Food Processing Industries, Government of India


Correspondingly, there are many

regional clusters formed for many food

commodities. There are about 358

clusters identified in the country. Some

of them are Fruits and vegetable

processing clusters in Pune

(Maharashtra), Whole of Bihar; Petha

Cluster in Agra (Uttar Pradesh); Mango

Clusters in Chittoor (Andhra Pradesh)

and Krishnagiri (Tamil Nadu); Chikki

Cluster in Lonavala (Maharashtra); Rice

milling Clusters in Punjab, Haryana. The

key producing regions are given in the

figure 3.4.329

. The food processing industry produces large amount of biodegradable

waste. However, the characteristics of the waste and the waste treatment options

followed differ significantly in each sub-sector and are entirely dependent on the type of

raw material used and the processes involved. Hence each sub-sector in the food

processing sector as such have been described in the following sections with emphasis

on the sub-sector productivity, geographical spread, waste characteristics and its

management.

3.4.2 Fruits and vegetables

3.4.2.1 Sector profile

India produces the widest range of fruits and vegetables in the world. It is the second

largest vegetable and third largest fruit producer accounting for 8.4% of the world’s

production. Fruit production in India registered a growth of 3.9% during the period

2000-05 whereas the fruit processing sector grew several times faster at 20% over the

same period. The total area under fruit cultivation is estimated at 4.18 million hectares.

29

Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India

Figure 3.4.3: The productivity of major

agricultural states in India


The total area under vegetable cultivation is estimated at 7.59 million hectares.

However, less than 2% of the total vegetables produced in the country are commercially

processed, as compared to nearly 70% in Brazil and 65 % in USA. About 20% of

processed fruits and vegetables are exported. Fruit exports have registered a growth of

16% in volume and 25% in value terms in 2005-06. Mango and mango based products

alone constitute 50% of the exports17

.

The total installed capacity of fruits and vegetables processing industry has increased

from 1.1 million tonnes in January 1993 to 2.5 million tonnes in January 200730

. Major

states in India contributing to the fruit and vegetable production are Andhra Pradesh

(Mango, Tomato, Chilly, Turmeric), Uttar Pradesh (Mango, Potato) Gujarat (Onion,

Potato, Banana, Mango), Maharashtra (Grapes, Mango, Banana), Karnataka (Citrus

fruits, Grapes, Mango) Tamil Nadu (Guava, Banana, Mango), West Bengal (Brinjal,

Cabbage, Potato, Mango), Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir (Temperate fruits

Apple, Pear, Plum, Peach).

3.4.2.2 Production process/ operation

The major processed items in the fruit and vegetable segment are fruit pulps and juices,

fruit based ready-to-serve beverages, canned fruits and vegetables, jams, squashes,

pickles, chutneys, dried fruits and vegetables, fruit juice concentrates and dehydrated

vegetables. The various processes involved in fruits and vegetable processing industry

are washing, husking, desilking, blanching, cutting, peeling, slicing, clipping, screening,

grading, and inspection. These processes are employed as per product requirements.

30

http://www.dnb.co.in/SMEPune/Food%20Processing.asp


3.4.2.3 Waste characteristics and

management

Food processors may have totally

different effluents, each high in

carbohydrates. The fruit and

vegetable industry typically generates

large volumes of effluents and solid

waste comprising leaves, trimmings,

stems, peels, pods, husks, cobs, silk, and defective processed vegetables. The waste

generated is 43% of the total quantity processed. The main solid wastes are organic

materials, including discarded fruits and vegetables. The effluents contain high organic

loads, cleansing and blanching agents, salt, and suspended solids such as fibers and soil

particles. They may also contain pesticide residues washed from the raw materials. The

BOD and COD levels of the effluent may vary with the nature of fruit or vegetable

processed. They may be as high as 1000 mg/L (BOD) and 2000mg/L (COD) in case of

potato processing making anaerobic treatment more favorable. The table 3.4.1

illustrates quantity of waste generated from the processing of different fruits and

vegetables in India31

.

The effluent from fruits and vegetable sector, as mentioned elsewhere, is rich in organic

content and hence the biological treatment of the waste is an appropriate option taken

by most food processing industry. Preliminary treatment of wastewaters includes

screening (or sieving to recover pulp) and grit removal, if necessary. This is followed by

pH adjustment and aerobic treatment of the organic load. Though aerobic treatment

has been a practice in this sector, due to high and variable organic load of the effluent

and high sludge content, it is susceptible to frequent breakdown and energy

requirements to maintain the aerators also result non-operated aerobic systems

31

Rajeswari, K.V., 2009. Methane to markets: Regional workshop on opportunities in livestock and food

processing industry sector, The Energy Research Institute (TERI), India.

Fruit/ Vegetable Quantity of wastes (X 103

tons)

Mango 3144.4

Banana 823.3

Citrus 606

Apple 412

Potato 416.3

Others 214

Total 5625

Table 3.4.1: Quantum of waste generated

from fruits & vegetables in India


resulting in anaerobic digestion. This may lead to methane emission from the waste

management practice in this industry.

However, in recent years anaerobic processes have been preferred as they produce less

sludge, consume less energy, can operate at high organic loading rate and produce no

odour or aerosol nuisance. Anaerobic digestion of wastes is now getting importance due

to energy production that is possible along with pollution abatement. Effluents from

food processing industry are more suited for biogas production. Effluents rich in

carbohydrates are rich in methane production but those with high fat and protein

contents are also suitable. The fruit and vegetable processing industries may produce

450 L/kg of biogas of the quantity processed and may have benefits like facilities for

plant financing, 85% to 95% reduction in organic loading rate (table 3.4.2)22

.

Figure 3.4.4: Waste management practices in the fruit and vegetable processing units

The constituent, nature and quantum of waste produced will completely depend on the

quantity and nature of raw material used and the working phase of the processing unit.

The waste from food processing industry mainly comprises of pulp, peels (8 % to 25 %),

seeds (34 % to 50 %), discarded fruits and vegetables (5 % to 15 %), fibre, waste water

(10 % to 20 %) and brine water. In India, on an average about 63% of industries resort to

aerobic treatment like composting, vermicomposting, activated sludge treatment


process and operation of common effluent treatment facilities. About 18% of units use

anaerobic digestion process with captive use of biogas, other 18% of industries resort to

dumping of untreated wastes (Figure 3.4.4). The units undertaking the methane

generation project has found it beneficial and satisfactory as it contributes to in house

energy needs along with reducing impacts on the environment. However, inadequate

policy incentives, lack of availability of funds, lack of enough technology options etc. are

still barriers faced by other plants to execute MRU projects in the food processing

sector. Conversely, the potential for MRU projects in some units is minimal because of

the minimal and seasonal generation of waste.

Table 3.4.2: Biomethanation generation potential from some of the fruit and vegetable

waste22

3.4.2.4 Technology Options

There are several technologies available for anaerobic digestion. Some of them have

been also discussed in the waste management activities of other sectors. UASB reactor

is seen as a most effective anaerobic treatment system for these industries which

results in about 85 – 95 % reduction in COD. There are also reports of hybrid reactors

being used in this sector which combines merits of both UASB reactor and fixed film

Waste Methane yield

(m3/kg VS added)

Spinach 0.316

Strawberry Slurry 0.261

Apple pulp 0,308

Pineapple pressings 0.335

Carrot waste 0.417

Papaya fruit processing waste 0.357

Green pea slurry 0.31

Banana 0.529

Mixture of fruit and vegetable waste 0.51

Apricot 0.286

Fruit Wastes 0.37

Potato 0.426

Tomato processing waste 0.42


reactor. This reactor offers strong resistance to disturbances such as large fluctuations

in loading rate. However, these reactors are yet to be used in a commercial scale in

India32

.

3.4.3 Edible oil sector


Edible oils are generally derived from various oil seed sources including sunflower,

soybean, corn, peanut, rape seed, and other vegetable sources. India accounts for 8.8%

of world oilseed production. With oilseed production of about 22 million tons and oil

production of around 7 million tons, India is the world's fourth largest edible oil

economy. It is the world's largest producer of castor seed, the second largest producer

of groundnut and the third largest producer of rapeseed and cottonseed33

. Major

oilseed producing states of India are Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,

Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. According to estimates, there are

approximately 150,000 oil crushing units, 785 Solvent extraction units, 950 refineries

(independent and attached with vanaspati solvent extraction plant) and 222 vanaspati

units34

.

3.4.3.2 Production process

The oilseed processing sector is largely concentrated in the cottage industries

dominated by ghnis and kolus (animal operated oil expellers).

3.4.3.3 Waste characterization and management

The quality and quantity of waste generated in this industry depends upon the process

involved and the efficiency of the system in minimizing the losses of raw materials and

the product. Solid wastes are generated as spent fullers’ earth and organic material

32

http://www-

wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/1999/06/03/000094946_9904090505

2283/Rendered/PDF/multi0page.pdf 33

http://indiaimage.nic.in/pmcouncils/reports/industry/tsld045.htm 34

Directorate of Vanaspati, Vegetable Oils and Fats, Ministry of consumer affairs, food and public

distribution, Government of India.


from the bleaching units in the refining section apart from the discarded oilseed waste.

Waste water characteristics are summarized in the following table35

.

Table 3.4.3: Wastewater characteristics in the different process in an edible oil industry

The degree of treatment required depends upon the local conditions, typically the first

stage entailing the use of physical processes to recover free oils and fats. The most

commonly used ones are fat traps, tilted plate separators and dissolved air floatation

units. Centrifuges and electro floatation systems are occasionally used. Further

treatment stages include flow and load balancing, pH control, chemical treatment,

biological treatment and sludge dewatering. In aerobic treatment, activated sludge

process is commonly followed36

. However anaerobic treatment can also be helpful as

the BOD and COD levels of the wastes from the edible oil industry are high. As indicated

in Figure 3.4.4 for fruit and vegetable processing industries, the solid waste generated in

the edible oil sector is also usually dumped in open landfills and hence, the potential for

methane emissions in this industry is noteworthy.

3.4.3.4 Technological options

The technology options for the edible oil sector in anaerobic digestion are similar to the

fruits and vegetable sector and shall not be discussed.

3.4.4 Grain processing sector


India is self reliant in grain production with an annual production of about 217 X 106

35

Information Bulletin, Andhra Pradesh Pollution Control Board, Andhra Pradesh, India 36

Erickson, D.R., 1990. Edible Fats and Oil Processing: Basic Principles and Modern Practices, The American

Oil Chemists Society.

Unit Name pH BOD

(mg/L)

COD (mg/L) TSS

(mg/L)

Oil and

Grease

(mg/L)

Solvent extraction 6.5-9 180-1083 485-2740 79-1352 5-30

Refinery 8-10 1375-6570 2500-10500 100-5800 150-1900

Hydrogenation 6.6-7.5 1200-3800 2700-8800 350-1325 410-1300


tons in 2006-0718

. India is the second largest producer of wheat and rice in the world,

with a 20% share. All major grains, such as paddy, wheat, maize, barley, millets like

jowar (great millet), bajra (pearl millet) and ragi (finger millet) are produced in the

country. The states in India rich in grain production are Punjab (Wheat, Rice), Haryana

(Wheat, Rice), Uttar Pradesh (Wheat, Rice, Pulses), Rajasthan (Millets, Wheat, Pulses),

Madhya Pradesh (Wheat, Rice, Pulses), Maharastra (Wheat) and Karnataka (Maize),

Andhra Pradesh (Maize), West Bengal (Rice). More than 65% of the wheat is converted

into wheat products by organized and unorganized sector. Rice is consumed primarily in

the form of polished rice, parched rice and flaked rice. With a share of 40 %, grain

processing is the biggest component of food sector37

. Wheat and rice together

constitute the staple diet of the country. Total rice milling capacity in the country is 186

million tonnes. There are about 516 large flour mills in the country, as well as about

10,000 pulse mills38

. Rice/Milling industry prevails mainly in the States like UP,

Uttrakhand, Punjab, Haryana, Orissa, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Bihar,

Assam & Karnataka at National level. These States produce Rice of both Basmati & Non

Basmati varieties39

.

3.4.4.2 Production process

Rice, wheat and pulses processing mills form a part of the grain processing industry.

Primary processing constitutes 96 % with the remaining accounted for by the secondary

and tertiary sectors. The primary processing constitutes removal of husk and outer

coating of the grains which involves manual or mechanized process, followed by

cleaning, grading and packing. The secondary and tertiary sectors include further

processing of the grains for value added products.

37

Annual report, 2008-09. Ministry of food processing industries. Government of India. 38

Flavours of Incredible India: Opportunities in food processing industries. Ministry of food processing

industries. Government of India. 39

Government of India, 2003. Diagnostic study report of rice milling industry at Karnal (Haryana).


3.4.4.3 Waste characteristics and management

The solid waste generated in the processing of the grains comprises of mainly rejected

grains, husk and straw. Nowadays, the waste generated such as rice husk and straw are

being used in industries as energy source in the boiler since it has high calorific value.

However, large quantities of waste, especially straw, is left in the agricultural fields

which result in anaerobic digestion and subsequent methane emissions and some

quantum of the waste is also burned resulting in carbon dioxide emissions. Apart from

these waste mentioned, the wastewater is generated from straw wash.

The solid waste such as straw can be given away as cattle feed or burned inside a boiler

and the wastewater can be efficiently treated anaerobically. The rice husk having a high

calorific value, produced after rice processing, is used as source of energy for boilers in

many industries. Waste stream from raw wheat straw wash has a COD as high as 7000

mg/L making anaerobic treatment suitable40

.

3.4.4.4 Technological options

Reactors like Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Reactor (UASB), Upflow Anaerobic Filter

Process (UAFP), Anaerobic Fluidized-Bed Reactor etc. are in use in this sector and hence

serve as the technological options.

3.4.5 Policies and programmes in food processing sector

The Ministry of food processing industry has been actively working on a lot of scheme to

improve functioning of the food processing sector. Some of these measures/ schemes

and programmes have been detailed below.

i. Scheme for Technology Upgradation/ Establishment/ Modernisation of Food

Processing Industries

The Scheme for technology up-gradation/ expansion/ modernization/ establishment of

food processing industries is aimed at creating and up-gradation of existing processing

40

http://cdm.unfccc.int/UserManagement/FileStorage/S3NGEYC2I4TA1YMFG04G8K33AHO0FM


capabilities. The Scheme provides 25% of the cost of plant & machinery and technical

civil works subject to a maximum of Rs. 50 lakhs in general areas and 33.33% up to Rs.

75 lakhs in difficult areas. This Scheme is continued from Tenth Five–Year Plan without

any modifications in pattern of assistance. While in the Tenth Five–Year Plan, the

applications for assistance were processed in the Ministry, in the Eleventh Five–Year

Plan period, the processing and disbursal of grant has been decentralized through

banks/financial institutions to provide a thrust and wider coverage for food processing

industries in the country and simultaneously decentralize the procedures for appraisal,

grant of assistance and monitoring. Decentralization has speeded up the disposal of

cases, improve the viability of food processing units and facilitate better monitoring of

implementation. It also aimed at bringing the services of the Government closer to the

citizens, streamlining the existing procedures and increasing the reach and the

availability of assistance to larger sections of society. It marks an important step towards

implementation of e-governance initiative of the Government

ii. Scheme for Infrastructure Development

The scheme has got three components, namely Mega Food Parks, Integrated Cold Chain

and Setting up /Modernisation of Abattoirs The Cabinet in its meeting held on 11.09.08

had approved establishment of 30 Mega Food Parks (MFP) under the Infrastructure

Development Scheme for Mega Food Parks during Eleventh Five–Year Plan Period out of

which 10 Mega Food Parks have been approved for being taken up in the 1st

phase. The

MFPs will be established at identified location on the basis of cluster mapping and

infrastructure gap identified

iii. Research and Development Scheme

The R&D scheme of the ministry in the food processing sector include activities in the

following areas,

• Development of value added processes food products

• Utilization of waste from food processing

• Development of process for extraction of Natural Food colorants


• Value added products from Guar Gum

• Development of Weaning Foods

• Rapid testing kits for detecting early detection of microbial spoilage

• Minimal processing technology for fruits, vegetables and mushrooms,

preservation of food product and standardisation of shidal processing.


The food processing sector in India is highly fragmented as mentioned in the sector

profiling. There are many small scale units which cannot afford investment on

technology for waste management. Hence there are limited waste management

initiatives in these industries, however, the potential for MRU projects are high in these

sub-sectors as the wastewater is highly organic. Initiatives such as Common Effluent

Treatment Plants (CETP) for food processing industries would not only help in reducing

costs and but also maximize benefits. The various costs elements include in the case of

individual units would be in identifying technology appropriate for MRU for this sector,

implementation of the technology, value of the remaining lifetime of the existing

wastewater treatment system (after depreciation) shall also be included in the costs

elements. Since the technology suited for this sector include UASB, UAFB and anaerobic

fluidized bed reactor, substantial capital costs would be involved. Recurring costs like

O&M expenses would also be major cost elements. If the CETP is being implemented

apart from the aforementioned costs, land costs and other relevant costs shall be one of

the major elements. The CDM projects for waste management in this sector is also less

considering the potential of this sector. Thus, the industry should look forward to the

opportunity for part-financing the waste management projects through carbon markets.

3.4.7 Case Study

Field visit report would be incorporated after receiving the approved report from the

industry.

India Methane to Markets...Commerce and Industry (FICCI) 1, Federation House Tansen Marg, New Delhi...

Documents

Transcript of India Methane to Markets...Commerce and Industry (FICCI) 1, Federation House Tansen Marg, New Delhi...