India 123 - Saravanan Raj · Polytechnics” to provide vocational education ... development...

123India

Saravanan, R., (2008), India, Country Chapter No.: 5, In: Saravanan, R.,

(Ed.) Agricultural Extension: Worldwide Innovations, New India Publishing

Agency, New Delhi.pp 121-157

1. COUNTRY BACKGROUNDINDIA is one of the oldest civilisations in the world with rich

cultural heritage. India has become self-sufficient in agriculturalproduction, and is now the tenth industrialised country in the world.It covers an area of 32,87,263 sq km. Lying entirely in the northernhemisphere, the mainland extends between latitudes 8°4' and 37°6'north, longitudes 68°7' and 97°25' east, and measures about 3,214 kmfrom north to south between the extreme latitudes and about 2,933km from east to west between the extreme longitudes.

Agriculture is the mainstay of the Indian economy, as it constitutesthe backbone of the rural livelihood security system. It is the core ofplanned economic development in India, as the trickle-down effect ofagriculture is significant in reducing poverty and regional inequalityin the country. Growth in agriculture has a maximum cascadingimpact on other sectors, leading to the spread of benefits over the entireeconomy and the largest segment of population. 141 million hectaresis the net sown area, while 190 million hectares is the gross croppedarea. The net irrigated area is 57 million hectares with a croppingintensity of 134 per cent. Eighty-two per cent of farmers have smalland marginal land holdings. The agriculture sector contributes about

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21 per cent of India’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP); 11 per cent oftotal exports; and provides employment to around 56.4 per cent of thework force. The annual agricultural growth rate during 2002 -03 to2006 -07 averaged around 2.45 per cent. Agricultural food grainproduction was 208.60 million tones. The rapid growth of agricultureis essential not only for self-reliance but also for meeting the food andnutritional security of the people, to bring about equitable distributionof income and wealth in rural areas, and to reduce poverty and improvethe quality of life (DoA&C, 2008).

2. HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF EXTENSION

SERVICES IN INDIA

Agricultural extension as a nationwide organisation, aiming atthe integrated development of rural India is of relatively recent origin(1950s). However, agricultural extension and development work inIndia had its beginning in the 1860s. The history of agriculturalextension and development in India dates back to the year 1866 as aresult of the report of Orissa famine commission. Department ofRevenue, Agriculture and Commerce started functioning during 1871in the secretariat of British India. Recommendations of the faminecommission report 1880 influenced establishment of agriculturalsecretariat in 1881, and by 1882 agricultural departments in most ofthe states started functioning. As a result of the famine commissionreport 1901, Imperial Agricultural Research Institute and AgriculturalCollege, Pusa (Bihar), was started. The Government of India Act, 1919,made the agricultural development become a state subject. The RoyalCommission Report -1928 established a firm foundation for the co-ordinated research and agricultural development. The Grow MoreFood Enquiry Committee Report - 1952 recommended the extensionorganisation for the co-ordinated development of rural life.

Organized extension services in India begun with the initiation ofCommunity Development Programme (CDP) in 1952. It was a broadbased concept covering agriculture, health, education, rural industries,transport and communication, roads and welfare of women andchildren. Though the CDP had brought all round development,emphasis on self sustenance to avoid imports of food grains, ‘AreaApproach’ has been started with the launching of Intensive AgriculturalArea Programme (IAAP) and High Yielding Varieties Programmeduring sixties. During the fourth five year plan, maintaining proper

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ecological balance and optimum utilization of land and water, livestockand human resources were given due emphasis in Drought Prone AreaProgramme (DPAP) in 1970. Apart from this, area based programmeslike Desert Development Programme (DDP) in 1977-78, CommandArea Development Programme (CADP) in 1974 and “Target GroupApproach” based programmes like, Small Farmers DevelopmentAgency (SFDA) and Marginal Farmers and Landless Labourer’sAgency (MFALA) started during 1971- 72, laid emphasis on socialequity, agriculture, poultry and horticulture. In 1980s Integrated RuralDevelopment Programme (IRDP) accelerated the development ofagriculture.

The concept of training for professional skills and contact farmersapproach was adopted for the participatory technology transferthrough the implementation of Training and Visit (T&V) system since,1974. The T&V system concept was further strengthened throughestablishing research-extension-farmer linkage under NationalAgricultural Extension Project (NAEP) in 1983.

In 1970s Front line extension services by the Indian Council ofAgricultural Research (ICAR) through the establishment of KrishiVigyan Kendras (KVKs)- Farm Science Centres, implementation ofOperational Research Projects (ORPs) and Lab-to-Land Programme(LLP) demonstrated the latest technological advancements to farmers.During 1995-96, ICAR had launched a Technology Assessment andRefinement through Institution Village Linkage Programme (TAR-IVLP) to ensure participatory scientists-farmer linkage and to meetthe further challenges and growing demands of food production. TheWorld Bank funded National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP)was implemented with the innovative component of Innovations inTechnology Dissemination (ITD) during 1998- 2003. It was continuedby the scheme “Support to state extension programmes for extensionreforms” implemented in all the states of India, during 2002-07(DoA&C, 2007b).

2.1. Public Extension Services2.1.1. ICAR-Front line extension services

The front line extension services aim at demonstrating the latesttechnological advances and training to the farmers and extensionpersonnel by the scientists, evolving suitable approaches andmethodologies and serving as a feed back mechanism for the researchsystem (Hansra and Adhiguru, 1998).

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The National Demonstration Scheme (NDS) started during 1964for popularising High Yielding Varieties Programme and the MultipleCropping Programme. The second was Operational Research Project(ORP) started in 1975 to tackle common agricultural problems on thecommunity (an area or watershed) basis using inter-disciplinaryapproach. Thirdly, to commemorate ICAR’s Golden Jubilee, aninnovative scheme, the Lab-to-Land programme was launched in 1979to extend and promote new technologies among the small and marginalfarmers and agricultural labourers and also to test the relevance oftechnologies in their socio-economic conditions. The fourth innovativeproject was recommended by the education commission - 1964-66,for the establishment of specialised institutions called “AgriculturalPolytechnics” to provide vocational education in agriculture and alliedfields. The first KVK was established in 1974 at Pondichery of southIndia. The concept of remandated KVKs has been initiated during2000.

All the four ICAR-Transfer of Technology (ToT) projects wereintegrated with the KVK in 1992. With this integration, now KVK hasa wider role and its mandates are to undertake training of farmers,farm women and rural youth to conduct on farm research fortechnology refinement and front line demonstration, to promptlydemonstrate the latest agricultural technologies to the farmers as wellas the extension workers.

The major activities of Agricultural Extension Division of the ICARare assessment, refinement and demonstration of technology/productsthrough a network of Farm Science Centres (Krishi Vigyan Kendras -KVKs). There are 44 Agricultural Technology Information Centres(ATICs) established under ICAR institutes and State AgriculturalUniversities.

Thrust Areas of Division of Agricultural Extension of the ICAR;

• Assessment, refinement and demonstration of technology/products.

• Training of farmers .

• Training of extension personnel .

• Single window delivery system for technology products,diagnostic services and information through AgriculturalTechnology Information Centres.


• Development of gender-specific technologies .

• Creating awareness of improved agricultural technologies amongthe farmers.

Achievements of Division of Agricultural Extension of the ICAR;

• Established a network of 553 Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVK).

• Conducted 4189 on-farm trials on 537 technologies to identifytheir location specificity under different farming systems.

• Organized 53,974 Frontline Demonstrations (FLD) todemonstrate the production potential of newly releasedproduction technologies on the farmers’ fields.

• Trained more than one million farmers and extension personnelin agriculture and allied fields.

• Conducted large number of extension activities benefiting about4.19 million farmers and other end users.

• Production of more than 82,000 qt. of seeds and 10.2 millionsapling/seedlings/livestock strains, besides various bio-productsfor availability to the farmers.

• Identified gender issues in agriculture at the National ResearchCentre for Women in Agriculture.

• Continued functioning of 44 Agricultural TechnologyInformation Centres (ATIC) in ICAR institutes and SAUs.

• Organized 334 interface meetings involving scientists anddevelopment officials at the district level (ICAR, 2008).

2.1.2. Department of agriculture

Agriculture being a state subject, most of the extension work iscarried out by the respective state governments. In India, all the statesand union territories have a separate department of agriculture andalso line departments for the development of horticulture, fisheries,animal husbandry and veterinary, forestry, soil and waterconservation. The Department of Agriculture (DoA) which is a primepublic extension service provider, undertakes regulatory function andalso management of supplies and services. Extension approaches,services and supply will vary from state to state. For example, history,evolution and current methods of extension of Department ofAgriculture, Karnataka State of India, is delineated below.

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State Department of Agriculture, Karnataka State of India

Agricultural Extension, a science based process, began over acentury ago, in 1899, in the erstwhile Mysore State, with the creationof a post of an agricultural chemist, Dr. A Lehmann being itsdistinguished first incumbent. In those days, the State of Mysore wasknown for some outstanding commercial crops like Coffee, Arecanutand Sericulture. The first two in particular had certain serious diseaseproblems that threatened the plantation farmers. This situation calledfor the adoption of scientific approaches to agriculture. As such, asearly as 1905, a post of an Entomologist-cum-Mycologist was createdin the state and Dr. Leslie C. Coleman was appointed to the post. Aformal Department of Agriculture took Shape in 1913 and Dr.Coleman became the first Director of Agriculture in Mysore.

Diversification of agricultural activities: The Department ofAgriculture, in the early years, was entrusted with the responsibilityfor developing agriculture which included horticulture, sericulture,animal husbandry and veterinary services, forestry, bee-keeping,fisheries, co-operation and statistics. Over the years, as each one ofthese areas began to grow in their own right and specialization separatedepartments were established for them, except for bee-keeping whichbecame a part of the Industries Department.

States reorganisation in 1956 was a major event in the history ofthe Department of Agriculture. Integration of the whole of theagriculture service from erstwhile Mysore, with parts of the agriculturalservices of erstwhile Bombay, Hyderabad, Madras and Coorg, had tobe brought about in a short time. At this stage, the departmentestablished regional offices in the new state, with specialist positionsin the Directorate heading agricultural research and education.

While the Department of Agriculture was undergoingorganisational reforms at the top level and agriculture technology atthe field level was transferred through the Community DevelopmentProgramme (CDP). The Agriculture Extension Officer (AEO)functioned under the guidance of the Block Development Officer(BDO) in each block and the Grama Sevaks were the cutting edgeextension functionaries. This was referred to as the National ExtensionService (NES).

The University of Agricultural Sciences (UAS), Bangalore, cameinto existence in 1965. With this, the agricultural and veterinary


colleges, as well as agricultural research stations that were hithertounder the administrative control of Department of Agriculture weretransferred to the University. In turn, the Department of Agriculture,in order to push up the pace of agricultural growth, was required toconcentrate on agricultural development ensuring supplies andservices, along with regulatory functions.

Green revolution era extension system, 1967: The advent of the newagricultural technology, which made the Green revolution possible,required a technical organisation that was more vigorous and moreadequately manned. In 1967, Department was reorganized, providingfor four divisional agricultural officers, in addition to strengtheningthe existing system at the state, district and sub divisional levels. Thus,during the era of Green revolution, the Department of Agriculturewas strengthened in many ways to provide a better technical leadershipfor agricultural development in the state.

Training and Visit (T&V) system, 1979: The World Bank assistedT&V system implemented in 1979. The T&V system approachemphasised on high professionalism, single line of command,concentration of effort, time-bound work, field and farmer orientation,regular and continuous training and linkages with research. Hence,both the organisation and strategy of service was reorganised tofunction independent of the National Extension Service (NES) blocks.Depending heavily on the research linkages with the AgriculturalUniversity it envisaged frequent training activities for the district andvillage level extension staff, a bigger role for the Subject Matter Specialist(SMS) and a more structured interaction with selected contact farmers.As a result, the system brought in 5200 Agricultural Assistants (AAs)at the village level, 750 Assistant Agricultural Officers (AAOs) at therange level. In addition to bringing the Assistant Director of Agriculture(ADA) to be in charge of the extension work at the taluk level and theDeputy Director of Agriculture (DDA) at the district level.

Operationally, the T&V system, which was designed for a highinflow of new technology from the research establishment, faced somepractical difficulties in subsequent years since the expected researchinputs did not materialise in adequate measure. As such, the staffintensive, high profile and regimental T&V system attracted thecriticism that it did not produce the results to commensurate with itssize.

Revamping the department 1995: The extension system has been

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subjected to a review, in Karnataka during 1990s. Further, by late1980s, it was realised that the agricultural progress in the state wasslowing down and the productivity in some of the major crops wastending to stagnate. To accelerate agricultural development, StateGovernment constituted an expert committee where in the committeereport 1994 it was primarily recommended for integration of thefunctions of soil and water conservation with crop production andrevitalization of the agricultural extension service. Based on therecommendations of the expert committee, the State Governmentbrought about the reorganisation of the department of agriculture in31st may 1995. The main features of this reorganisation were:integration of crop production and soil conservation activities at thefield level, pooling of field staff of soil conservation and extension wingsand redeploying them to carry out the integrated field work effectively,positioning one Agricultural Assistant (AA) at the Gram Panchayatlevel and one Assistant Agricultural officer in every Range comprisingof 3-5 Gram Panchayats, all to be responsible for the integratedfunctions, making the Assistant Director of Agriculture (ADA) at thetaluk level responsible for all the agricultural development programmesincluding soil conservation. Many of the bigger districts in the statehad two agricultural divisions, each headed by a Deputy Director ofAgriculture (DDA), Dharwad district, being the biggest one, had threesuch agricultural divisions, a Joint Director of Agriculture (JDA) headsmost of the districts in the state, who are responsible for the integratedagricultural development work. The exceptions being the smallerdistricts of Bidar, Kodagu and Bangalore (Urban), the divisional JointDirector of Agriculture and the Divisional Deputy Director ofAgriculture (Soil Conservation) that existed in the previous set up,ceased to exist in the new set up. The focus and strategy of theagricultural extension service in the new setup underwent substantialmodifications, the Agricultural extension services worked more closelywith other farm technology departments, offering a wider range ofenterprises to farmers, the officers heading the districts, either JointDirector or Deputy Director of Agriculture who worked with the ZillaPanchayats, at the District level.

In later years of 1990s, Karnataka State agricultural scenarioindicated that a number of small holdings are increasing. Even withthe spread of department of agriculture, farmers find it difficult toaccess to services like testing of soil and seed, deteriorating quality ofland and water, uncertainties in dry land agriculture and more demand


for agricultural raw materials for agro-based industries and increasedemphasis on exports. This situation made the State Government toformulate new extension strategy, Raita Mitra Kendra (RMK)conceptualized and implemented (210 Raita Samparka Kendras(RSKs)-Farmers Communication Centres) during 2000.

Farmers’ Communication Centres established at Hobil HQ, twoAgricultural Officers and five AAs would man this FarmersCommunication Centres. To this extent the organisational setup ofthe department has been reorganized. While two AssistantAgricultural Officers (AAO) and two AAs remains at the FarmersCommunication Centres, the other one AO and four AAs will go onfield visit as and when demanded by the farmers. They are expectedto attend both extension work as well as other assigned work like cropcutting experiments.

Functioning of Farmers’ Communication Centres fulfill thefollowing objectives, to provide update information on crop productionoptions, production practices, markets etc., to facilitate on site provisionof agricultural inputs like fertilizer, plant protection chemicals, seedsetc., to facilitate on site provision of primary testing facilities like seedgermination and quality tests, soil testing, etc., to provide demonstrationof both public and private seed materials and inputs at the kendralevel and to provide a forum for interface with public and privatesector technologies and inputs.

Levying of User Charges: The Government would allow the Farmers’Communication Centres to levy user charges at certain rates. Usercharges will be collected from various private companies involved inAgriculture sector and also from the farmers for services like watertesting ( Rs. 20 /test), soil testing (Rs. 10 / test), seed testing (Rs. 4 /test) and internet information (browsing Rs. 1.50/ minute, Rs. 0.50 /sheet of printing). Further charges are collected for hiring of cropdemonstration plot (Rs. 1/ sq.mtr./ month), hiring of storage spacefor input traders (Rs. 100/ month – 2ft- 3ft) and hiring of informationroom (Rs. 50 month/sq. mtr.). Revenue generated in this manner willbe utilized for the further development of extension system and inlong run this will lead to ensure the financial sustainability of the system.

The scheme will be implemented for three years with the expectedadvantages like having a number of farm advisory services under oneroof, improveing farmers’ accessilibity to services, providing marketorientation into extension, providing seed and soil testing facilities,

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and improving private sectors participation in Agricultural progress(Anonymous, 2000a).

2.1.3. University extension services

In India, there are 41 State Agricultural Universities (includingspecialised horticulture and forestry, veterinary & animal husbandryuniversities) and five deemed to be universities are also undertakingextension service to the farmers. The extension approach and strategyvaries from university to university. The extension role of agriculturaluniversities is limited to evaluation of research findings through fieldtrials, introduction of new farm technology through front linedemonstrations, providing primary farm information support throughthe literature, radio and television programmes, print media,exhibitions, audio-visual aids and information and communicationtechnologies (ICTs). Further, it is limited to conducting trainingprogrammes to the extension professionals and farmers and innovatingmethodological improvements in extension work (Dwarakinath, 1979).The Directorate of Extension Education of the State AgriculturalUniversities plan, organise and co-ordinate extension activities suchas: farm advisory, training, communication and information servicesthrough their Extension Education Units (EEUs) and or Krishi VigyanKendras (KVKs) (Farm Science Centres) and or AgriculturalTechnology Information Centres (ATICs) and or Farmers’ TrainingCentres (FTCs) and farm communication units. They also organiseFarmers’ Fairs or Krishi Melas and farmers training programmes. Theirfarm publications, video cassettes/ CDs have appreciable circulation(Shingi et al., 2004).

History and Development of the Extension System of the University ofAgricultural Sciences, Bangalore, India: The University of AgriculturalSciences (UAS), Bangalore, was started in the year 1965, with the aimof teaching and conducting research. But the University extensionservice came into existence in the year 1967, on a pilot basis coveringeleven taluks of Bangalore district.

The University of Tennessee/India Agricultural Programme/USAID technically and financially supported the pilot extensionproject. The pilot extension project was started with the followingobjectives.

1. To demonstrate the effective application of the new technologyof crop production in respect of high yielding crops.


2. To illustrate the more effective strategy of extension work buildaround good demonstrations and a wider educational use of suchdemonstrations.

3. To forge ways and means of co-ordinating the extension effortsof the University with those of other agencies already existing inthe field (Anonymous, 1970).

The UAS - Extension Education Units (EEUs) were introduced inthe state and the activities extended to dairy, poultry and horticulture.The main functions of the unit are;

a. Conducting adaptive trials of new research findings on farmers’fields.

b. Establishing early demonstrations of new agricultural technology.

c. Conducting whole farm demonstrations as well as blockdemonstrations and

d. Training farmers, farm youth and farm women througheducational efforts.

Director of Extension is the whole time officer, responsible forplanning and implementing extension programmes. The Extensionleader under the guidance of Extension co-ordinator supervises theentire work of the Extension Education Unit. Extension guides carryout extension functions and they are provided technical guidancethrough a set of Subject Matter Specialists (SMSs). Efforts are also madeto upgrade the technical know how of the extension guides throughfortnightly meetings, besides on the spot technical guidance by thesubject matter-specialists in tackling the field problems. (Anonymous,1993, Saravanan, 2003).

3. CURRENT FORCES OF CHANGE

The changing economic scenario and the need for appropriateagricultural technologies and agro-management practices to respondto food and nutritional security, poverty alleviation, diversifying marketdemands, export opportunities and environmental concerns are posingnew challenges to the technology dissemination system. It is expectedthat future agricultural growth would largely accrue fromimprovements in productivity of diversified farming systems withregional specialization and sustainable management of natural

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resources, especially land and water. Effective linkages of productionsystem with marketing, agro-processing and other value-addedactivities would play an increasingly important role in thediversification of agriculture.

The extension division of the department of agriculture and co-operation, the Government of India, made the following reference onthe current forces of change in the agricultural extension, “it is becomingincreasingly evident that public extension by itself can no longerrespond to the multifarious demands of farming systems. There is aneed for reappraisal for capacity of existing agricultural extensionsystems to address, effectively, contemporary and future needs of thefarming community. Public funding for sustaining the vast extensioninfrastructure is also under considerable strain. Meanwhile, in responseto the market demand, the existing public extension network isinexorably being complemented or supplemented and in someinstances replaced by private extension. As the nature and scope ofagricultural extension undergoes fundamental changes, the outlook isfor whole policy mix nurturing plurality of institution” (DoA&C, 2000).

4. CURRENT PUBLIC EXTENSION APPROACHESThe Department of Agriculture (DoA) in all the States and Union

Territory is the only institution available throughout the country forfarmers to consult for information, though their role in deliveringinformation in non food grain crops is limited. The commodity boards(Rubber, Tea, Coffee, and Species) provide large number of servicesincluding extension to the farmers. The field extension activities of thedirectorate of extension of the state agricultural universities,agricultural colleges and research stations of SAU/ICAR are restrictedto few villages around their location (Sulaiman, 2003).

Further, state specific extension programmes were implementedby the state governments, for example, diversified agriculture supportproject started with World Bank assistance in Uttar Pradesh state ofnorth India in 1998. The project aimed at increasing agriculturalproductivity and income of farmers through diversification ofagricultural production systems, promotion of private sectorparticipation, improving rural infrastructure, marketing support,strengthening grass root level institutions and improving researchextension linkages. All the activities are being implemented throughactive involvement of people, especially through the self-help group(SHG) members.


The Department of Agriculture and Co-operation (DoA&C) ofthe Central Ministry of Agriculture has a separate division of extension,which lays down major policy guidelines on extension and theDirectorate of Extension (DoE) implements specific programmes andactivities. During India’s 10th plan period (2002 -2007), the departmentof agriculture and cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture, Governmentof India, implemented the following schemes:

1. Mass media support to agricultural extension

2. Support to state extension programmes for extension reforms

3. Agri-clinics and agri-business centres

4. Establishment of kissan call centres

5. Extension support to central institutes

6. Externally aided projects

National policy on frame work for agricultural extension,Government of India (DoA&C, 2000), envisages an extension servicemore broad based and holistic in content and scope, thus beyondagriculture technology transfer. Technology generation and itsapplication will have to focus more strongly than before on the themesof optimization by producers of their available resources, sustainability,coping with diversity by adapting technology more specifically to agro-ecological or social circumstances. The national policy framework foragricultural extension focuses on promotion of policy reforms farmingsystem through and participatory approach, multi-agency extensionservice (public, private, NGO, Mass media), promotion of demanddriven and farmer accountable extension, public funds for privateextension, sharing for extension services, effective regulation,enforcement and co-ordination. Further, the institutional restructuringpolicy proposal provided with a list of various decentralisedinstitutional models was proposed to the states to select and adapt totheir own requirements like: management of reforms, mechanism toimprove research and extension linkages, ways of capacity buildingamong extension functionaries, strategies for empowering farmers,use of information technology (IT) in extension, financial sustainabilityand resource mobilization.

4.1. Current Extension Reforms

The pilot testing of the extension reforms were undertaken throughInnovations in Technology Dissemination (ITD) component of the

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World Bank funded National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP)in 28 districts of seven states of India, since 1998. In continuation ofextension reforms, during 2002 – 2007, the scheme “Support to stateextension programmes for extension reforms” is being implementedwith the following key reform elements:

1. New institutional arrangement by providing innovativerestructured autonomous bodies at the district and block level,which are flexible, promote bottom-up and participatoryapproaches which are farmer driven and facilitate public- privatepartnership.

2. Convergence of line departments and programmes and operatingon gap filling mode by formulating strategic research andextension plan (SREP) and annual plan of works.

3. Encouraging multi agency extension strategies involving inter-alia public / private extension service provider.

4. Moving towards integrated, broad based extension delivery inline with farming systems approach.

5. Adopting group approach to extension cooperating throughfarmer interest groups (FIGs) and self help groups (SHGs).

6. Addressing gender concerns (Mobilizing farm women intogroups, capacity building etc.).

7. Moving towards sustainability of extension services (eg. Throughbeneficiary constitution).

The Salient Features and Status of Implementation of ExtensionReforms Scheme

A status report of the Department of Agriculture and Co-operation,Government of India (DoA&C, 2007b) noted that AgriculturalTechnology Management Agencies (ATMAs) are established at districtlevel as an autonomous institution providing flexible workingenvironment involving all the stakeholders in planning andimplementation of extension activities. ATMA is a unique district levelinstitution, which caters to activities in agriculture and allied sectorsadopting a farming system approach and convergence of programmesof related departments. Local research and extension priorities are setthrough Strategic Research and Extension Plans (SREPs), which aredeveloped using participatory methodologies. One of the major focuses


of the scheme is to provide extension support to a group of farmersrather than to individual farmers. Farmers are provided financialassistance to organize themselves in the form of a Farmer’sOrganization (FO). FOs are also provided revolving fund assistance.There is a provision to provide rewards and incentives to best-organizedFOs. Financial assistance is also provided to farmers for the followingextension activities in agriculture and allied sectors such as dairy,poultry, fisheries, etc.

• Training of farmers at village level

• Training of farmers at district level

• Demonstration on the field of farmers

• Exposure visit to other districts within the State

• Exposure visit to other States

ATMA is typically registered under the “Societies Registration Actof 1860” that has considerable operational flexibility. The ATMAscheme has several unique features which are helping in revitalizingthe agriculture extension system.

Strategic Research and Extension Plan (SREP)

One of the most important activities undertaken by ATMA is toprepare SREP, which consist of detailed information about agricultureand allied sectors in the district. The purpose of preparation of SREPis to identify research and extension needs of the district. This helps inundertaking only those extension activities which are needed byfarmers in the district. SREP is prepared with full participation offarmers and their representatives at different levels. Technical officersof agriculture and allied departments as well as from KVKs and otherresearch institutions fully participate in preparation of SREPs.

State Extension Work Plan (SEWP)

Based on the research-extension strategies given in the SREPs,block/ district level plans are developed by ATMA institutions. TheState Extension Work Plan is a consolidated activity-wise planincorporating all the district level plans and the state level activities.

Convergence

The SREP and SEWP are a mechanism for promoting convergence

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of all activities for extension. The Work Plans to be submitted by theState Governments for funding under the scheme are to explicitlyspecify the activities to be supported from the resources of otherschemes as well as from the ATMA scheme.

Farming System Approach

The activities specified in the Cafeteria are broad enough to ensureextension delivery consistent with farming system approach andextension needs emerging through Strategic Research Extension Plans(SREPs).

Multi-agency Extension Strategies

Minimum 10 per cent of allocation on recurring activities at districtlevel is to be used through non-governmental sector viz., NGOs,Farmers Organizations (FOs), Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs), para-extension workers, agripreneurs, input suppliers, corporate sector etc.,ATMA scheme also provides that maximum service charge of 10 percent of actual cost of implementation of extension activities approvedby ATMA Governing Board may be provided to Agri-Clinics, NGOs,etc. (excluding the Corporate sector) wherever these activities areimplemented through them.

Mainstreaming Gender Concern

Women farmers play a very significant role in farming operations.With a view to providing necessary extension support, minimum 30per cent of programme funds under ATMA scheme are to be utilizedfor the benefit of women farmers.

Sustainability of Extension Services

With a view to ensure sustainability of extension services, it ismandated that minimum 10 per cent contribution should be realizedfrom beneficiaries with respect to beneficiary oriented activities.

The National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management(MANAGE) has been assigned nodal role to provide needed humanresource development (HRD) and hand-holding support inimplementation of ATMA scheme. At state level, a State AgriculturalManagement and Extension Training Institute (SAMETI) is beingpromoted either by strengthening one of the existing apex traininginstitutes in the state or by mandating SAMETI in a State AgriculturalUniversity (SAU).


Capacity Building of Extension Functionaries

A one-year PG Diploma in Agriculture Extension Managementfor government extension functionaries is being launched by MANAGEin distance learning mode.

Use of Mass Media

Community Radio Stations (CRS) could make a major contributionto agricultural extension by utilizing reach of a radio transmitter anddisseminating information and knowledge, which is locally producedand relevant. A new initiative is being taken to support setting-up ofthe CRS under the scheme.

Monitoring and Evaluation of SEWPs

Project activities at district level are monitored by the ATMAGoverning Board at periodic intervals. At State level, the project ismonitored through an Inter Departmental Working Group (IDWG)functioning under Chairmanship of Agricultural ProductionCommissioner (APC) or Secretary (Agriculture) of the state. Themonitoring mechanism includes quarterly reports, field inspections,workshops, etc. Third party Monitoring and Evaluation is also to beorganized as a state level activity. A simplified Electronic MonitoringSystem (EMS) has been developed and operationalized throughNational Informatics Centre (NIC) for monitoring of the scheme at alllevels. The DoA&C will also organize concurrent Monitoring andEvaluation, including impact evaluation at periodical intervals(DoA&C, 2007a).

The extension reform scheme status report indicates that 27 Statesand 1 UT (Andaman & Nicobar) have already established ATMAs in262 districts and 243 SREPs have been prepared. Over 10.00 lakhfarmers including 2.98 lakh farm women (27 per cent) have beenbenefited through farmer oriented extension activities such as; exposurevisits, training, demonstration, kisan melas/ farmer-scientist-extensionpersonnel interaction sessions, since its inception upto December, 2006.Over 7,500 Farmer Interest Groups have been mobilized at village level(DoA&C, 2007b).

5. INSTITUTIONAL PLURALISM5.1. Decentralization of Public Extension System

Agricultural Technology Management Agency (ATMA) is a district

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level body created under the Innovations in Technology Dissemination(ITD) component of National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP)for pilot testing. Agricultural extension reforms have been extendedin the scheme support to state extension programmes for extensionreforms. The model ensured adopting bottom up planning proceduresfor setting the research and extension agenda. Further, facilitatedfarmer driven and farmer accountable extension by integratedextension delivery. Support to state extension programmes forextension reform scheme extended NATP’s ‘ATMA’ model to the wholecountry. The ATMA presents model of a decentralised and demanddriven mechanism operating on the comparative strength of different

stake holders. ATMA is an autonomous institution with participation

of all the key stakeholders involved in project planting and

implementation of agricultural activities for sustainable agricultural

development. It has the flexibility to receive funds directly from

Government of India / States, Membership fees, beneficiaries’

contribution. ATMA has the main responsibility of all the technology

dissemination activities of the district level. It has the linkages with all

the line departments, research organisations, NGOs and agencies

associated with agricultural development in the district with a

sustainable representation of farmer organisations. Local research and

extension priorities are set through strategic research and extension

plans (SREPs), which are developed by using participatory

methodologies such as participatory rural appraisal. Initial lessons of

ATMA are encouraging. The ATMA has flexibility to quickly respond

to training and information needs of farmers, the availability of a

reasonably good untied operational budget and participation of the

farming community by the way of farmer advisory committee’s (FACs)

in the block level are the major factors behind the apparent success of

ATMA (IIML, 2003; Singh, 2003).

5.2. Commercialization of Extension ServicesPublic Extension Beneficiary Contribution

In ATMA model, with a view to ensure sustainability of extension

services, it is being mandated that minimum 10 per cent contribution

should be realised from beneficiaries with respect to beneficiary oriented

activities. Over the years, all the ATMAs were charging some token

money from farmers for participation in training, exposure visit and


demonstrations. However, so far, public sector had not moved towards

large scale commercialization of extension services.

Consultancy Fee

Sulaiman and Sadamate (2000) reported that the College of

Agriculture, Nagpur, started the consultancy cell in 1996. The cell

organizes agro-poly clinic and charges for certain services at the rate

of Rs. 20. The cell also charges for farmers’ training programme and

sells publication and planting materials. Similarly many agricultural

universities and ICAR institutes provide consultancy services for fee.

5.3. Privatization of Public Extension

Privatization is the act of reducing the role of government or

increasing the role of private sector in an activity or in the ownership

of assets. Very often private extension and privatization are viewed

similarly. However, private extension is solely the act of private

individuals or organisations, whereas the privatization of extension

solely rest with the government. Further private extension and

privatization need not have cost recovery or charging fee based. Service

may be at free of cost also (eg. NGOs) (Chandarashekara, 2001).

Considering extension scenario during 1980s and 90s many people

especially extension experts and economists proposed to privatise the

public extension services (Umali and Schwartz, 1994). A study

conducted in Coimbatore district of Tamil Nadu state of India during

1999 revealed that 94.17 per cent of farmers had and 67.5 per cent of

scientists had favourable attitude towards privatization of agricultural

extension services (Saravanan, 1999). Shivalinga Gowda and

Saravanan (2001) reported that a good number of agricultural

scientists of Tamil Nadu state of India, had favourable (50 percent)

and most favourable (22.5 percent) attitude. However, more than one

fourth proportion of the scientists had least favourable attitude towards

privatization of agricultural extension services. Similarly, Hanchinal

(2000) carried out a research study in the Haveri district of Karnataka

state of India revealed that the majority of the farmers (76.59 percent)

and extension personnel (66.67 percent) had favourable attitude

towards privatization of extension service.

143India

Farmers Willingness to Pay

Farmers’ willingness to pay is the degree of desirability of farmersto pay for extension service. In a study conducted among 720 farmersin three states of India, Sulaiman and Sadamate (2000) found thatabout 48 percent of farmers expressed willingness to pay foragricultural information. Farmers’ willingness to pay has no uniformityacross producers. Farmers having higher total area and higher areaunder non food grains were more willing to pay for better qualityagricultural information. The demand is more for quality extensionservices in the area of plant protection and training programmes. Oneimportant condition for payment for advice is that it should be basedon visit to the respective field. Farmers as a group are also willing toshare the costs for bringing expert advice. The willingness to pay wasmore for services in non food grain crops, especially horticulture cropsand oil seeds. Ahuja and Punjabi, (2001) conducted a survey covering110 households in Gujarat have found that a large majority of farmers,even small and marginal farmers, were willing to pay for extensionservices. Farmers were willing to pay an amount of Rs. 250 – 300 perhousehold per year for extension services.

Saravanan and Veerabhadraiah, (2003) conducted a study in thethree districts of Karnataka state revealed that more than one third ofpublic extension clientele were willing to pay for public and privateextension service on an average rupees (per season) 116 and 132,respectively pay range varies from Rs. 50 to 300 for public extensionand Rs. 50 to 500 for private extension. Further, results revealed thatthree – fifth (60 per cent) of agribusiness firm’s clientele, cent percentof agricultural consultancy clientele and forty five percent of NGOsclientele were willing to pay for private extension services. The clientelewere willing to pay for cultivation practices of fruit crops, plantprotection, new varieties, post harvest technology and landdevelopment. Further results revealed that clientele satisfaction,education, annual income, farm size and extension servicescommitment had positive influence on their willingness to pay forextension services.

5.4. Concept of Private ExtensionPrivate extension involves personnel of the private sector that

delivers advisory services in the area of agriculture and is seen as asupplementary or complementary or alternative to the public extension.


Private players shoulder the responsibility of funding the extensionorganisation and also delivery of the extension services to the clientele.In private extension, clientele are expected to pay for the service fee(eg. Private Agricultural Consultancies), or extension service providedfor product promotion (eg. Agri-business firms-seed companies), orfor the procurement of farm produce (eg. Contract farming) or free ofcost extension (eg. NGOs). Generally, private extension providers arespecialised nature (crop specific or technology specific) of serviceproviders. They try to provide backward and forward linkages. Highprofessionalism and market orientation is the key features of mostprivate extension actors. The process of funding and delivering theextension services by private individual or organization is called privateextension. In India, agricultural consultants/consultancies, agri-business firms, input dealers, mass media (Radio, TV, & ICTs), farmersassociations are engaged in providing single or integrated services tothe farmers. These could deal with information, input supply,infrastructure arrangement and marketing services (Chandrashekara,2001).

5.4.1. Agricultural consultancies

Saravanan (1999) reported that the agricultural consultants andconsultancy agencies emerged after mid 90s in Coimbatore district ofTamil Nadu state of India. Most of the consultancies are non-registered,mostly run by single technical person, covering small area, mainlyconcentrating on all aspects of horticulture crops. Mostly non-agricultural sector people and few big farmers are main clients ofprivate consultancies. The PAN Horti - consultancy firm in Coimbatoredistrict of Tamil Nadu State providing consultancy services onagriculture to the commercial firms, agro-based industries andentrepreneur farmers. The Vaishnavi Farm Services: AgriculturalConsultants and Agro-Chemical Suppliers, Chitradurga of KarnatakaState of India, concentrates on agriculture and horticulture consultancy,planting material supply, agro-chemical supply, pest and diseasesmanagement, weed control and dairy consultancy. For field visit anddiagnosis, consultancy roughly charges Rs. 50 -150 (1-3 US Dollars).Agency also has registered farmers, who pay Rs. 250 (5 US Dollars)per year per acre for consultancy (Saravanan, 2003).

Similar type of agri-clinics to provide testing facilities, diagnosticand control services and other consultancies on a fee- for service basiswas setup by the trained agricultural graduates in large numbers, since

145India

2003. For this purpose, agricultural graduates were trained throughagri-clinics and agri-business centers scheme of central government.The trained individuals were supported to take-up individual and groupventures, which were financed by the bank loans and 25 per centcentral government subsidy. Through agri-clinics and agri-businesscentres scheme, large number of agricultural graduates were trainedand 5008 success stories were reported up to 2007(www.agriclinics.net).

5.4.2. Agri-business firms

Sulaiman (2003) states that agro input companies dealing withseeds, fertilizers, pesticides and agro- machinery perform extension asone of their function for marketing. The inputs agencies areundertaking promotional activities through advertisement, organizingdemonstrations, farmer meetings and seminars.

Sulaiman and Sadamate (2000) reported that the Indian FarmersFertilizer Co-operative Limited (IFFCO), has a strong team of 500 fieldprofessionals at the grass root level, currently engaged in its agriculturalservice activities spread across 16 states. The extension activities ofIFFCO could be broadly grouped under four heads namely,demonstrations, field programmes (seminars, visit of farmers toresearch stations, soil testing etc.,) seed multiplication and villageadoption. Co-operative Rural Development Trust (CORDET) promotedby IFFCO which has units at Kalol (Gujarat) and Phulpur (UttarPradesh), provides education and training to farmers on cropproduction, animal husbandry, farm machinery etc. Soil testing, plantprotection, fumigation, weed control, seed treatment, tree plantation,medical check up and veterinary check up were undertaken in 503villages during 1997-98 under the village adoption programme. TheKrishak Bharathi Co-operative (KRIBHCO) also undertakeseducational activities such as demonstrations, crop seminars, farmers’meetings, distribution of leaflets on scientific management of cropsand visit to agricultural universities as part of its extension and salespromotion activities. The company also implements village adoptionprogramme and several community services are provided in suchvillages. The Indo- Gulf Fertilizer and Chemicals Corporation Limited,is a private sector fertilizer company having its operations in northIndia. The company conducts crop demonstrations, farmers’ meetings,farmers’ conducted tours etc., and the company’s main promotionalactivity were the jeep campaign in villages. The company has initiated


40 Shaktiman Krishi Seva Kendras in 1995-96. The Fertilizers and

Chemicals Travancore Limited (FACT) is a major fertilizer company

having strong market presence in south India. Its field level operations

are concentrated in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra

Pradesh. The company conducts crop campaigns in important crops

during the season in select districts. The FACT organises study classes

by experts from state department of agriculture and agricultural

universities. During the campaign period, the company employs squad

boys to visit house of farmers to distribute leaflets and to explain to

them on the company, its products and its scientific use. The company

has adopted 4 tribal villages (one village in each state) in 1997-98 and

has allotted Rs. 4 lakh for each village to boost the socio-economic

infrastructure of these villages. The Nagarjuna Fertilizers and

Chemicals Limited (NFCL), Hyderabad (India) started the Farm

Management Services (FMS) in 1995, which aims to enhance farm

productivity, optimise cost of cultivation, improve economic returns

to farmers with the help of site-specific consultancy, farm guidance

and constant monitoring of farm activities. Over the years, FMS has

evolved to extend its services to 30,000 acres adopted across the 4

states, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.

Under the FMS productivity enhancement programme, over 6,000

farmers from 350 villages in the cultivation of crops such as cotton,

maize, soybean, paddy, sugarcane, sunflower, chillies, turmeric, mango

and grapes have been enrolled (Anonymous, 2000b). The Tata

chemicals limited, an agro-chemical company has initiated Tata kisan

kendras (TKKs) in 1998 with the objective to provide the farmer with

package of input and services. About 300 TTKs in the states provide

services such as soil, water and plant testing, access to credit and

insurance, post harvest management services and extension education

programs, including training of farmers and rural women. The

Mahindra Krishi Vihar (MKV) of Mahindra and Mahindra Limited,

India’s leading tractor manufacturers, provides farm advisory services,

arranges farm credit, selling farm inputs and renting farm equipments

and buy the farm produce. Similarly, Rallis Kissan Kendra of Rallis

Pvt. Limited provides farm advisory services, facilitating credit,

providing farm inputs, soil testing and market intervention (Sulaiman,

2003; Saravanan, 2003).

147India

5.4.3. Agro-processing and trading firms

A number of agro-processing and trading firms often provideextension services as part of contract farming arrangement. Providingextension services help the firms in procuring adequate quantity withspecified quality and type of produce or processing or trading in highvalue markets. Quite often, these firms bring new technology to meetthese standards and provide all services and quality inputs to thecontract growers (Sulaiman, 2003). Agro-processing firms such as;PEPSICO India holdings private limited, large number of exportoriented units (EOUs) such as: Global Green Pvt. Limited, Uni cornAgro Tech Limited in “Gherkin” cultivation, the Hindustan Leverlimited, Bangalore, India, has contract farming arrangements withtomato growing farmers (Saravanan, 2003).

5.4.4. Farmers associations / co-operative societies

Sulaiman and Sadamate (2000) reported the following case studieson farmers associations and co-operative societies involved intechnology transfer. The Maharastra Grape Growers Associationestablished in 1960, with the membership of 17,000 grape growers.The association organised regular group discussions, seminars andpublishes leaflets, booklets and a monthly (Draksha Vrupa – in Marathilanguage). The association had spent about Rs. 9.8 laks in 1997-98 forits extension activities. The twenty elected members (growers) of theassociation work as extension functionaries. The Kerala MushroomGrowers Association (KMGA), Thiruvananthapuram, was establishedin 1993 with the main objective of bringing mushroom growers in thestate into a co-operative network to strengthen production andmarketing of mushrooms in Kerala. The association is organizingseveral study classes to its members and non-members, on differentaspects of mushroom cultivation and preparation of receipes. To bringawareness among farmers on mushrooms, the association participatesin exhibitions and conduct demonstrations. Several publications werebrought out including a book and video cassette on mushroomcultivation. The Malabar Regional Co-Operative Milk Producers Union(MRCMPU) Kozhicode, Kerala. The procurement and inputdepartment of the union has an extension cell, which organisesTechnical inputs, Training and Extension (TTE). Under the integratedTTE package operates four major programmes namely ArtificialInsemination Programme (AIP), Feeds and Fodder Programme (FFP),Women Cattle Care Programme (WCCP) and Co-Operative


Development Programme (CDP). Artificial insemination facilities wereprovided to farmers’ doorsteps on cost basis, through the 111 AI centresattached to the society. Insemination is done by trained self-employedyouth selected from the same village. The union was also organizingfertility clinics, where the farmers have to pay Rs. 50 per case. Thefodder project aimed at production of green fodder of good quality atfarmers level is also implemented through trained farmers called‘fodder promoters’. Trained teams were deployed to conduct classeson technical and non-technical subjects for the farmers in the village.The union also brings out a magazine, Gokula patham. In the womencattle care training programme, a lady selected among the farm familiesin the village is trained to become a promoter, who works as a changeagent in the village. She conducts regular informal meetings to discussdifferent topics related to dairy and individual/societal developmentand forms 4-5 women groups and take classes on the topics. They arepaid Rs. 50 per class and Rs. 10 per house visit. So, on an average theyearn Rs. 400-500 out of which 20 per cent is borne by the society andthe remaining by the union. At present the programme directly benefits8,000 farmwomen spread over 100 societies. The topics include cleanmilk production, calf rearing, feeding of dairy animals, diseaseprevention and control in animals, artificial insemination, familycounseling, child psychology, income generating activities, consumerrights, home management, health and hygiene. There are 158technically trained personnel available for providing extension services.The Mithila Dugdh Utpadak Sahkar Sangh Ltd., (MDUSS), Samastipuris affiliated to the Bihar State Co-operative Milk Producer Federation(COMPFED). Sangh operates in Samastipur, Darbhanga andMadhubani districts of Bihar. Its objectives include organisation ofamul pattern dairy co-operatives, providing technical input servicesfor milk production enhancement, processing and marketing. Theextension activities include training to dairy farmers on managementof dairy animals, fodder production technology, demonstrations onfodder varieties and urea straw treatment, artificial inseminationservices etc., The sangh gets financial support from the apex societyCOMPFED, National Dairy Development Board and from StateGovernment of Bihar. The Chottanagpur Adivasi Co-operativeVegetable Marketing Federation, Ltd. (VEGFED), Ranchi, wasconstituted in 1987 for the marketing of fruits and vegetables grownby the adivasis of the subplains covering 10 districts of Bihar. Itprocures vegetables from tribal farmers and sells to vegetable markets

149India

in Ranchi and Calcutta. The extension activities include trainingprogrammes on mushroom production and marketing demonstrationon newer hybrids of tomato and organising vegetable growers’ groups.VEGFED supplies seeds and fertilizers to vegetable growers on paymentbasis. Bihar State Co-operative Lac Marketing Federation, (BSCLMF)Ranchi, was established primarily to purchase Lac from farmers at afair price. It organises training and demonstration programmes in Laccultivation. Rajendran and Santhoshkumar (2000) reported that inParuthikkaru Nellu Patada Padasekhara Samithy-farmers organisationin Kerala state, group of farmers have organized to successfully runtheir agriculture as a profitable and sustainable model for the state asan example. Further, in recent years, farmers organisations haveemerged in Kerala state to provide and support extension services tovillage community. The estimate indicates that there is around 60farmers organisations performing activities such as facilitatingagricultural extension activities, mobilizing local group action inprocurement of inputs and agricultural operations.

The farmers associations/co-operatives in agricultural generallyperform awareness creation among the members, extension service tothe members (encouraging farmer to farmer communication- informingand empowering members-organising seminar, group discussion etc.,(eg. MAHAGRAPES, Maharashtra, India), dissemination ofproduction and market information, collective bargaining (lobbyingfor getting services, grants, etc), facilitating research (eg. UnitedPlantation Association of South India), providing guidance andleadership to its members, co-ordination, partnership, monitoring andsupervision, maintaining industrial relations, taxation and finance,data management & statistical analysis, legal issues, publications,public relations, representing members and policy advocacy.

5.4.5. Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs)

Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and voluntary actionhave been part of the historical legacy in India. Some scholars tracethe history of voluntarism in India back to Vedic times. In the 19th and20th centuries, several voluntary efforts were started in the field ofrural development including education, agriculture, health etc. During1860s to 1920, the Christian missionaries aiming at all rounddevelopment of their coverts, followed by during 1920 – 1947, quasi-missionaries, social service organisations, enlighted princes, individualphilanthropists and social reformers, initiated the scattered


development projects (Pandey, 1986). Some of the pioneeringdevelopment efforts are Tagore’s Shantiniketan (1901), Sir DanialHamilton’s scheme of rural reconstruction (1903) and Sriniketan (1918),Gandhi’s experiments, Gurgaon experiment (1927), Marthandamproject (1921), Firka development scheme (1946), Albert Mayer’sEtawah piolat project (1947), and Nilokheri experiment by S.K. Dey,which are some of the developmental efforts, mostly individualinitiatives, isolated, uneven and discontinuous.

The NGOs became prominent after independence, especially after1970s. This was partly because of the limited success of pastdevelopment policies pursued by the Goverenment. The realisation ofneed for micro-level institutions to involve the people in formulation,implementation and monitoring of the programmes is stressed inseveral quarters. Development practitioners, Government officials andforeign donors consider that NGOs, by virtue of being small scale,flexible, innovation and participatory are more successful in reachingthe rural people. This consideration has resulted in the rapid growthof NGOs involved in initiating and implementing the developmentprogrammes. In India, rapid growth of NGOs took place in the 1980sand the early 1990s. Scholars and activists working in the NGO sectorhave arrived at an estimate of about 30,000 NGOs in India (Rajasekhar,2000).

Saravanan (2003) documented case studies of NGOs working inagriculture sector in Karnataka state, India, reported that thePRAYOG: Centre for Agriculture and Rural Development (CARD),concentrates on creating agricultural awareness among farmers,transferring need based farm technologies, organic farming, vermi-culture and silt application. The NGO works with 77 farm familiesand 90 Self Help Groups (SHGs) in 90 villages. The NGO links therural people with the financial institutions, concentrates on landless,marginal, and small farmers. Also undertakes tank renovationprogrammes and dry land agriculture through state departmentfunding. The organisaton conducts demonstrations and developmentalprogrammes in close association with the department of agriculture.Another NGO, Bharatiya Agro Industries Foundation - BAIF Instituteof Rural Development – Karnataka, (BIRD-K), works in the areas ofpromotion of tree based farming systems, dairy cattle productionprogramme, tribal rehabilitation programme, watershed development,energy conservation, poverty elimination, promotion of peoplesorganizations and self-help, farm training cum research and farm

151India

publications. Similarly, the MYRADA, a NGO, works in 12 backwarddistricts of three south Indian states, and at any point of time it workswith one million rural people, on average 4700 training programmesare conducted annually. It promotes SHGs as a micro-credit institutions,women empowerment, management of micro watershed and providestraining. The OUTREACH: Volunteers for Rural Development, a NGO,works in South India for the improvement of quality of life of poorcommunities through forming SHGs, enabling them to restore andmanage the natural resources and stabilize their livelihood systems.

Sulaiman and Sadamate (2000) documented the following casestudies of NGOs, mostly concentrating on agricultural extensionservices in Kerala, Rajasthan, Bihar and Maharastra. The Society forRural Industrialisation (SRI) operates in Ranchi, Bihar State, with theobjective of agricultural and rural development. The subject matterareas include energy and environment, watershed development, agro-forestry, processing farm and non-farm production and conductingtraining programmes for farmers in these areas. The major objectiveof Mahila Bal Yuva Kendra, Patna, is development of agriculture andallied activities for improving economic status. The subject matter areasinclude dairy management, mushroom cultivation, bio-gas, vegetablecultivation etc., It provides training and arranges demonstrations onthe above topics. Professional Assistance for Development Action(PRADAN) is a NGO working primarily in agriculture. In Bihar, thescheme is operating in 8 districts. PRADAN provides services to othervoluntary agencies and small village groups in the technical andmanagement aspects of programme design and implementation.Subject matter areas include micro lift irrigation, sericulture, waterharvesting and management. PRADAN has been organising farmersgroups (Self Help Groups (SHGs) for savings and credit, lift irrigation,micro watersheds, sericulture etc. Social Policy Research Institute(SPRI), Jaipur, Rajasthan State, was sanctioned the agriculturalextension project for AAO circle Sivadaspura in July 1995, for anannual cost of Rs. 4,63,500. The Government extended the project.The NGO selected and appointed one AAO and 7 agriculturalsupervisors. Since than the NGO has been doing the extension projectat Sivadaspura and implementing all the programmes of thedepartment of agriculture. The AAO works under the administrativecontrol of the Assistant Director of Agriculture. Kurlakose Elias ServiceSociety (KESS), Trichur, Kerala State was established in the year 1974,by the Catholic Church. The society has a 13 acre model agriculturalfarm at Trichur, supplying good planting materials and two


agricultural experts guide farmers who come for specific advice.Changanacherry Social Service Society, Kottayam, Kerala State, wasestablished in 1966. Its objectives are the integrated development ofthe people with the special emphasis on the needs of the poor andmarginalised. It operates in five southern districts of Kerala and onedistrict of Tamil Nadu. The subject areas include vegetable cultivation,flower cultivation, bee keeping, back yard poultry and fish farming.The society provides training, conducts demonstrations and providesfree consultancy to rural people in these areas. The society has onesubject matter expert for each of these areas. Planting materials, chicks,bee colonies and fish seedlings are also provided by the society.

Similar to above case studies, there are large numbers of NGOsworking in India for agricultural technology transfer. The density ofNGOs varies from state to state. Considerable numbers of NGOs arespecialized in the areas like watershed development, dry landagriculture, natural resource management, participatorymethodologies and promotion of micro-credit. Some of the stategovernments are also “contracting out” their extension activities tothe NGOs. The size of operational area, subject matter coverage andnumber of clientele concentration depends upon nature and type ofNGO. Generally, most of the NGOs concentrates on smallergeographical area, with flexible approach and participatorymethodologies, works for upliftment of resource poor farmers,disseminates low cost and location specific technologies, predominantlyfollows Self-Help and group approach, develops rural leadership andempowers farm women, works with accountability and ensures clientsatisfaction, aims for integrated development of community(Saravanan, 2003).

5.4.6. Mass media

The all India radio and the Doordarshan (state run radio andtelevision respectively) transmit programs on agriculture. E-TV alsotelecast agricultural programs in Telugu, Kannada and Marathilanguages every day, Teja TV in Andra Pradesh state telecast on line(live) phone in program in collaboration with department of agricultureand agricultural university to answer farmers’ questions everyday.Farm information units of the central ministry of agriculture and thestate department of agriculture have also developed several videoprograms to facilitate the transfer of technology to farmers. Newsspaces (especially local language dailies) and farm magazines are

153India

important sources of information for farmer. The newspapers provideat least one page every week for news and articles on different aspectsof agriculture.

Special farm magazines also reach a large number of farm households (Sulaiman, 2003). Government of India and ICAR publishingfarm journals such as: Indian farming, intensive agriculture, agriculturalextension review besides releasing several research and technical andextension bulletin in English and Hindi. Farmers monthly magazinessuch as “Annadata” in Telegu language of Andhrapradesh State,Adike patrike, Krishiloka in Kannada language of Karnataka Statewere very successful in communicating farm information.

5.4.7. ICT initiatives

The widespread availability and convergence of Information andCommunication Technologies in India, in recent years, have led tounprecedented capacity for dissemination of knowledge andinformation to the rural population. The experiences of ICT projectsin rural India indicated encouraging results in providing agriculturalinformation, education, health and e-governance to the ruralpopulation. The ICT projects like e-Choupal, Akshaya, Bhoomi,Drishtee, N-Logue and Krishi Vigyan Kendras of Indian Council ofAgricultural Research (ICAR) have shown some promise towardsscaling up. The Info-Village Project in Pondicherry facilitatedempowerment of rural community. All the projects clearly demonstratethat irrespective of the type of information kiosk, the value addition inthe services for rural consumers is the key to the success in scaling upthe project. It has been also shown that an appropriate managementmodel in the line of e-Choupal, milk collection centers of Gujaratdefining government role in supportive policy environment,institutionalizing the public-private-community partnership model atthe grass root level, appropriate and affordable technologies that canbe adopted by the end users and increased functional literacy level ofrural people can give lead to significant economic activity in largescale. The effective awareness campaign on ICT use, involvement oflocal self governments, value added information and combination ofservices provision proved as strategic factors behind success of ICTinitiatives. A large number of initiatives taken by various stakeholdersin dissemination of agricultural technology are compiled by theNational Institute of Rural Development (NIRD), ICTs for RuralDevelopment portal (www.ict4rd.net.in). Among ICTs for agricultural


extension, e-Sagu (www.esagu.in), e-Arik (www.earik.in), Indiadevelopment gateway (www.indg.in) and e-aAqua (www.aaqua.org)are notable examples.

5.4.8. Kisan Call Centres (KCCs)

The ministry of agriculture, Government of India, has launched akisan (farmer) call centres (KCCs) scheme during 2004 to provideagricultural information to the farming community through toll freetelephone lines. A country wide common four digit number 1551 hasbeen allocated for kisan call centres. The replies to the queries of thefarming community are being given through fourteen KCCs in 21languages covering all states and union territories calls are attendedfrom 6.00 am to 10.00 pm on all 7 days of the week.

6. PUBLIC-PRIVATE PARTNERSHIPThe Dhanuka, a leading pesticide company, has entered into

partnership with the department of agriculture in Madhy Pradesh toprovide wide range of services to the farmers in Hoshangabad district.Services such as, soil testing, training, farmer’s tours, demonstration,transfer of technology, agriculture fortnight, establishment of marketsand credit facilities to the farmers, since 2001. Public - privatepartnership for funding and implementation of extension programmeprovide them (private sector) an opportunity to reach new customers.For the government participation with the group provides access tofunds to supplement its limited operational budget and there-byimproving the programme coverage.

7. INNOVATIONS IN EXTENSION7.1. Group Approach

The public, private and NGO extension moving from individualto group approaches, which facilitates extension planning andimplementation. It makes the system more farmer accountable,involvement of groups in decision making, access to credit, valueaddition, marketing lead to sustainability (Sulaiman, 2003).

7.2. Farmers Contact Centre at Grassroot LevelFarmers contact centers by department of agriculture at grass root

level facilitates high access for wide range of services such as: farmadvisory services, training, market information, weather etc., e.g DoA

155India

at Kerala, Maharastra, Karnataka and Rajasthan.

7.3. Women Specific ExtensionInformation and technology access to farm women also provides

entrepreneurship development training, village based institutionaltraining mostly on technologies related to production of crops andgenerally women self-help groups are formed (Sulaiman, 2003).

7.4. Participatory ApproachesFor planning of extension interventions, participatory approaches

have been widely used for need assessment, implementation, andimpact assessment. In the last two decades, application of PRA methodsat grass root level was noteworthy.

7.5. Single Window Delivery ApproachThe approach considers individual family as a unit for

development and designs appropriate intervention strategies forsustainable agricultural development. The multidisciplinary team ofprofessionals based in the villages undertake systematic microplanningexercises for understanding development needs of the family. Herethe family members participate in designing and implementation ofthe development plan for the family e.g. BAIF institute of ruraldevelopment (BIRD)

7.6. Self-Help Groups (Peoples Institutions) Decentralized decision making in extension programme planning

and implementation encourages formation of peoples’ organizations.These self help groups, farmers associations, societies, co-operatives,groups are used as platforms for promoting decentralized planning,decision making and implementation of projects.

7.7. Farmer to Farmer CommunicationThe Adike pathrike, a farm monthly started by all India areca

growers association to encourage farmer to farmer communicationwas one of the success stories of farmer to farmer communication (selfhelp journalism) for more than 15 years of existence in agriculturalknowledge dissemination. The uniqueness of the publication is thatstarting from writing articles, editing, publishing and distribution aremainly shouldered by practicing farmers (Shreepadre, 2000).


7.8. Para extension workersPara extension workers selected from the agricultural committee

of the village or self-help group or farmer interest group. They will actas a facilitators to disseminate the farm information among fellowfarmers.

8. CLIENT ACCOUNTABILITY AND CLIENT

SATISFACTIONRecent year’s institutional pluralism in agricultural extension has

been increasingly recognized in India. National level extension reformsare directed towards establishing and strengthening public and privateextension partnership. In this existing scenario, extension expertsopined that “Client Accountability” of extension personnel and “ClientSatisfaction” will act as a crucial factor of determining survivability ofextension systems. Research report of Saravanan (2003); Saravananand Veerabhadraih (2003) indicated that agriculture consultancies andNGOs extension personnel had high accountability than their counter

parts in public and agri-buisness firms extension. Similarly, they also

reported that more than two-fifths of clientele of NGOs and agricultural

consultancies clientele had high level of satisfaction. Where as majority

of agri-buisness firm’s clientele and more than two-fifths of public

extension clientele had low level of satisfaction on relevancy, quality,

usefulness and customer service.

9. THE WAY FORWARD

1. Redefining the Role of Public Extension: There is urgent need to

redefine the role of public extension system. Because, private

extension providers such as: consultancies, agri-business and

processing firms are increasingly concentrating on select

geographical area, crops and clientele. Hence, public extension

need to concentrate on resource poor farmers, food security

issues, environmental extension and monitoring and regulatory

role of extension services.

2. Introducing Cost-Recovery Approaches: Reports indicated that

farmers are willing to pay for better services, hence cost-recovery

approaches introduced for the selected technologies to ensure

the financial sustainability of the extension system and it also

157India

increases the commitment of farmers.

3. Promoting Public-Private and NGO Partnership: Pluralistic

extension actors encouraged for partnership programmes.

Further, appropriate “contracting-in” and ‘contracting-out”

models need to be worked out based on the competency of the

extension providers.

4. Integration of Innovations: Successful innovations in technology

dissemination need to be integrated into a larger system.

5. Scaling-up of ICT Initiatives: Appropriate ICT models for

agricultural extension need to be replicated and extensively used

for farm information dissemination.

6. Beyond Technology Transfer Role: Apart from farm information

and technology dissemination, extension providers should

concentrate on wider role including input supply, market

intervention, and linking farmers for farm credit.

REFERENCES

Ahuja, V and Punjabi, Neeta. 2001. In search of a new paradigm for agriculturalextension in India, CMA monograph series No. 195, Centre for Managementin Agriculture, Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad.

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AUTHOR INFORMATION

Dr. R. SaravananAssistant Professor

Department of Extension Education and Rural Sociology

College of Horticulture and Forestry

Central Agricultural University (CAU)

Pasighat – 791 102

East Siang District, Arunachal Pradesh

India

Phone No. (O): +91-0368-2004647; (M): +91-9436054939;

Fax No.: +91-368-2225066

e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

URL: www.saravananraj.net

Dr. R. Saravanan is an Assistant Professor (Extension Education and RuralSociology), the College of Horticulture and Forestry, Central AgriculturalUniversity (CAU), Pasighat, Arunachal Pradesh, India, since 2002. He isundertaking teaching, research and extension in agriculture. His publicationsinclude 30 articles in the referred scientific international and national journals,books and proceedings. He prepared two manuals, three multimedia CDs onExperiential Learning Programme and Participatory Rural Appraisal. He iscurrently undertaking research project on “ICTs for Agricultural Extension”.

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