INDEX [assets.cambridge.org]assets.cambridge.org/97805218/76865/index/9780521876865...al-Khazraji,...

INDEX

Abadan, 82, 139Abassi, Mahmoud, 66Abba Beileh, xxii, xxiii, 122Abbas Video. See Akbar, Abbas

Abd-al-RazzaqABC’s “Nightline,” 7, 239Abd-al-Aziz, Ali, 111, 112Abd-al-Qader, Faridoun

and first Iraqi CW use against PUK, 96and negotiations with Iranian regime,

90–91, 92, 111leading PUK negotiations with Iraqi

regime, 88–89Abd-al-Rahim, Mu’ath, 159Abd-al-Rashid, Maher, 7, 37Aberdeen Proving Ground, 195, 196, 198,

263n18Abu Abbas, 214Abu Ali, 112Abu Nidal, 233Abu Zeinab, 112Achille Lauro hijacking, 214Afghanistan, 23, 148aflatoxin, 194, 200Aghaei, Taghi, 70Aghjalar, 131Ahl al-Haq, xxiAhmad Awa, 122Ahvaz, 33Akbar, Abbas Abd-al-Razaq, 104–105Akoyan valley, 130, 132Al-‘Amard, 32, 170Alaan region, 88al-Anbari, Abd-al-Amir, 7, 8, 173

Al-Bakr airbase, 179Albright, Madeleine, 243, 250n3al-Duri, Izzat Ibrahim, 225al-Duri, Sabr, 133, 180, 244al-Fakhri, Hisham, 7, 37al-Gailani, Yaser, 158, 167, 177, 187, 188Ali, Kosrat Rasoul, 114, 129, 135al-Khazraji, Nizar, 160, 179

acknowledging Iraqi role in Halabjagassing, 179

Allawi, Iyad, 159al-Majid, Ali Hassan

and fate of Anfalakan, 134, 135Ali Hassan al-Majid

standing trial for Anfal campaign,244

and Halabja gassing, 178, 179appointment of, 13, 93issuing key orders in June 1987, 99ordering chemical strikes, 180overseeing 1987 counterinsurgency

campaign, 93–101, 108threatening Kurdish doctors, 189

al-Naqib, Jawdat Mustafa, 178–179Al-Qaeda, 242Al-Qurna, 32Al-Rashid hospital, 159al-Saeidy, Abd-al-Wahhab, 25, 66, 142,

145, 159al-Samarra’i, Wafiq

and alleged VX use, 141and Arabization in Kirkuk, 134as interlocutor with DIA, 78as security advisor to Talabani, 180

293

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294 � Index

al-Samarra’i, Wafiq (cont.)aspiring to lead opposition to Saddam,

180denying role in Anfal killings, 133mum on Anfal, 179, 180not standing trial for Anfal, 244on “special” strikes, 99, 176on alleged Iranian CW use, 157on authority to order CW attacks, 180on fate of Anfalakan, 134on Halabja attack, 180on US satellite intelligence, 42questioning Iranian CW capability,

179–180relations with Saddam Hussein of, 180relationship with PUK of, 133role at Military Intelligence of, 133, 180

al-Zubeida, Muhammad Hamza, 93Amadiya, 100Amin, Jamal Aziz, 189, 225Amin, Latif, 189Amin, Neywshirwan Mustafa, 89, 92, 106,

121Amn, xxii, 93, 98, 112Amn Qawmi, 169amyl nitrite, 67, 197Anab, xxiv, 118, 121, 122Andropov, Yuri, 58Anfal campaign, 31

amnesty at end of, 133, 137, 190, 207,210, 214, 265n5

and destruction of rural Kurdistan, 245as Ali Hassan al-Majid’s brainchild, 95as counterinsurgency operation, xivas genocide, xiv, 17, 135, 205, 213, 227,

243as killing campaign, xiv, 99, 132, 133as logical conclusion to Arabization in

Kirkuk, 134CW use during, xxiii, 11, 14, 16, 17,

129–135, 173, 208, 209, 210, 224,240

final stage of, 130, 133, 136, 199, 206,207, 208, 214

fueling Kurdish quest for independence,226–227

glorified in Iraqi media, 18, 129, 135,136, 207

in Aghjalar area, 132

in Germian, 130, 131, 133, 246in new Iraqi constitution, 226in Qaradagh, 130, 131, 173in Smaquli, Balisan, and Akoyan

valleys, 130, 132long–term impact of, 227Military Intelligence role in, 180role of jahsh in, 108, 136Saddam Hussein’s rationale for, 133similarities to Barzanis massacre of, 31start of, 128survivors from killing grounds of, xiv,

xxv, 246trials of perptrators of, 244US knowledge of, 135–138victims of, 132–135, 225

Anfalakan. See Anfal campaign, victims ofAnnan, Kofi, 58Anraat, Frans van, 62Ansar al-Islam, xxi, xxii, 255n1anthrax, 222Aqaba, 49Aqaba pipeline project, 50Arab Gulf states, 64, 107, 148, 234

protected by Iraq from Iran, 219threatened by CW proliferation, 229threatened by Iran, 43

Arab League, 216Arabization, 134, 243Arbat, 102Armitage, Richard, 79, 184, 218, 239arsenic gas, 164Arvand river, 23, 70, 139Ashkohol mountain, 121Askar, 131, 132, 209Aslani, Ja’fer, xvii, 71, 142Aspin, Les, 75atropine, 3, 34, 35, 71, 120, 131, 132, 140,

142, 170, 197, 238Aun Shirikyo, 223Australia, 53Australia Group, 212, 229Aziz, Tariq, 48, 56

accusing Iran of CW use, 10, 174admitting Iraqi CW use, 14, 75, 219alleging that Iran used CW first, 261n55and loss of Halabja, 173at White House ceremony (1984), 55denouncing the UN, 73, 126






Index � 295

denying Halabja accusation, 9denying Iraqi CW use against Kurds,

219meeting with Rumsfeld, 49, 52negotiating with PUK, 89pledging compliance with the Geneva

Protocol, 209protesting CW allegations, 166suffering politically from Iran–Contra

affair, 77threatening chemical weapons use, 9warning against US policy on Iraqi CW

use, 54warning of Iraq’s breakup, 236

Azmar, 95

Ba‘ath party in Halabja, xxiiBa‘ath party’s Northern Bureau, 93, 96Ba‘ath regime, seizing power (1968), 86Baban, Heresh, 188Badinan, 87, 88, 97, 130, 132, 134, 206,

209, 235Badr Corps

fighting at Faw (1988), 140fighting at Haj Omran (1983), 29fighting in Badr offensive (1985), 65role in Halabja liberation of, xxii, 112,

115Baghdad

CW casualties in hospitals in, 10, 159,166, 174–175

Iranian air raids on, 65struck by Iranian Scud missiles, 80, 82,

107threatened by flood waters, 7

Baghdad–Basra highway, 32, 37, 65Baghyatollah hospital, xviiBakhtaran, 98Balad airbase, 177Balagjar, 130, 131, 174Balambo mountain, xxii, 115, 117, 118,

124Balisan valley, 97, 98, 130, 188, 189,

209Bandar Khomeini, 50Baneh, 83, 98, 143, 164Barzan, 86, 87Barzani revolt, collapse of (1975), 31Barzani, Idris, 29

Barzani, Masoudand Anfal, 136as KDP leader, 29as president of Kurdish region, 114labeled “offspring of treason,” 107reported to be included in amnesty, 207succeeding his father, 29, 87

Barzani, Mustafa, 86as father of Kurdish national movement,

86–87as leader of 1970s revolt, 21, 29, 207death in exile of (1979), 207facing leadership challenge, 87in cahoots with Shah of Iran, 107

Barzanis1983 disappearances of, 31, 138massacre of, in new Iraqi constitution,

226rivalry with Bradostis of, 29, 32, 88

Barzinji, Ja’far, 189Barzinji, Mahmoud, 86Basiji volunteers, 105, 109

and Halabja operation, 123fighting at Faw (1986), 70fighting in Badr offensive, 65participating in human wave attacks,

25Basra

as Iranian war objective, 25, 46, 69, 80,109, 234

battles in proximity of, 28, 166, 170CW casualties in hospitals in, 166Iranian artillery attack on, 65oil installations of, 90struck by Iranian Scud missiles, 80

Bayanjan, 163, 164Bayes, Miqdad, 91bin Laden, Osama, 104binary chemical weapons, 221biological agent, suspected attack during

Khaybar operation with, 34biological weapons, 15, 17, 152Biological Weapons Convention (1972),

230Biyara, 116, 124, 191Biyari, Ali, 112blowback problem. See Iraqi chemical

casualties, from Iraq’s own CW useBoleh, 191






296 � Index

Boteh, 132botulinum, 222Bradosti tribe, 29, 30, 31, 88Bradosti, Karim Khan, 29Brezhnev, Leonid, 23, 148Bubiyan, 63, 217Burck, Gordon, 197Bush I administration

and National Security DecisionDirective 26, 217

reaction to Kuwait invasion of, 222receiving advice from Shultz, 218relations with Iraqi regime of, 217threatening nuclear response in Gulf

War, 222, 242Bush II administration

and war in Iraq (2003), xxiv, 223, 244canceling US signature to Rome treaty,

244gutting multilateral engagement, 244

Bush, George H. W., 201, 217, 220Bush, George W., 16, 56

and Iraqi CW use against Kurds, 183announcing WMD find in Iraq, 224

Camp David accords, 41, 42, 232Carlucci, Frank, 79, 184Carter, Jimmy, 41Carus, Seth

and cyanide claim, 198as authority on Iraqi CW use, 161Congressional testimony on Iraqi CW

alpha, 237on difficulty of using hydrogen cyanide,

198on Iraqi and Iranian CW use, 161on Iranian WMD strategy, 231on US knowledge of Iraqi CW program,

239CBS’s “60 Minutes”, 243Central Intelligence Agency

alleged to be pro-Kurdish, 202alleging Iranian CW use, 161–162and evidence of Iraqi WMD programs,

183and Iran–Contra affair, 76aware of developments in Kurdistan,

100, 137aware of Iraqi CW use, 235, 238

believing “Curveball” data on IraqiWMD programs, 183

daily intelligence reports of, 203dissenting from 1990 Pentagon study,

202Foreign Broadcast Information Service

of, 136, 207monitoring war of the cities, 144on CW as force multiplier, 13on cyanide as key ingredient of tabun,

198on decreasing effectiveness of Iraqi CW

use, 236on importance of Iraqi CW use to

world, 215on Iranian aim to capture

Darbandikhan dam, 108on Iranian missile attacks on Baghdad,

107on Iranian war strategy, 107on Iraq’s blowback problem, 167on Iraq’s problem with leaking CW

munitions, 169on Khomeini, 139on limitations of Geneva Protocol,

216on role of CW in ending Iran–Iraq war,

145on routine nature of Iraqi CW use, 181on scale of Iraqi chemical warfare, 14on self-reliance of Iraqi CW program,

237predicting chemical war of the cities,

145presence in Baghdad embassy of, 74questioning efficiency of Iraqi CW use,

75replaced by DIA in Baghdad, 78sharing intelligence with Iraq, 42warning of preemptive Iraqi CW use,

101Chadergah, 118Chemi Palania, 112Chemical Agent Monitor, 67Chemical Ali. See al-Majid, Ali Hassanchemical defense training, 26chemical weapons

alleged use by Italy in Ethiopia, 12as force multiplier, 203, 236






Index � 297

as terror weapon, 13, 16, 215, 228battlefield utility of, 234different uses by Iraq of, 13–14used in World War I, xvi, xvii, 12, 14,

30, 209, 229Chemical Weapons Convention (1993),

16, 161, 216, 230challenge inspections under, 231,

242Iranian declarations under, 153signed by Iran, 230, 231trampling of, 242violations by Clinton administration of,

242chemical weapons proliferation, 75, 152,

229China

as Security Council member staying onsidelines on Iraq, 43, 57

chemical weapons arsenal of, 230Chuarta, 95, 110Clinton administration

and Kurdistan airlift (1996), 245and position on Chemical Weapons

Convention, 242and reconstruction of Kurdistan in

1990s, 245evacuating witnesses of genocide, 246signing Rome treaty, 244

Clinton, Bill, 242Cold War, 148collateral damage, 243comint. See communications intelligenceCommittee for the Defense of Anfal

Victims’ Rights, 134Commodity Credit Corporation, 45communications intelligence, 187constructive engagement, 217, 218Contras, 76Cordesman, Anthony, 162crimes against humanity, 4, 124, 151,

243CS tear gas, 27, 28, 161

alleged use at Faw of (1988), 140Curveball, 183cyanide gas

alleged use at Faw of (1986), 71alleged use at Halabja of, 5, 6, 8, 185,

186, 193–201, 205

alleged use by Iraq of, 67–68, 151, 161,228

alleged use during Badr campaign of, 67,68

alleged use near Marivan of, 144as ingredient of tabun, 197, 198causing red lips, 196, 199present in Iraqi CW arsenal, 221

cyanosis, 195, 196, 199, 200cyclosarin, 221

Daei, Ali, xviDara Rash, 118Daratu, 190Darbandi Bazian, 111Darbandikhan, 102, 111, 113, 120Darbandikhan dam, xxi, xxiii, 7, 111, 197

as Iranian target, 108–110Darbandikhan tunnel, 110Dastani Rezgari, battle of, 95Defense Intelligence Agency

alleging Iranian CW use, 161and cyanide claim, 200–204and Iraqi CW use at Faw (1988), 139,

140and photographic evidence from

Halabja, 198and relations with Iraqi military

intelligence, 78, 137, 139, 191, 195as having best analysis of Iran–Iraq war,

202assessment of Iranian CW use of, 202claiming Iranian culpability in Halabja,

186, 202, 204ignorance of Anfal of, 137on developments in Kurdistan, 137on Iran’s CW capability, 162opposing CW use against civilians, 184predicting continued Iraqi CW use, 63presence in Baghdad embassy of, 74providing satellite intelligence to Iraq,

79, 139replacing CIA in Baghdad, 78supporting Iraqi war effort, 140, 201taking Iraqi CW use for granted, 74

Defense Policy Board, 81Delamar, xxii, xxiii, 112, 113, 118, 123Denmark, 160Dibs, 133






298 � Index

Diyala river, xxi, 7, 109Dizli, 110, 114, 117, 122, 143Dohuk, 87, 100, 225Dojeileh, 5, 192, 193Domınguez Carmona, Manuel, 174Draper, Morris, 41, 42Drumheller, Tyler, 183Du Awa, 117dual containment policy, 234Dukan, 96, 132Dukan dam, 108, 111, 132Dukan lake, 96

Eagleburger, Lawrence, 47Eagleton, William, 42, 50, 51Effendi, Hamid, 112Egypt

allied with US, 217suspected of CW capability, 228

electronic intelligence, 187electronic intercepts, 185, 186–188elint. See electronic intelligenceErbil, 31, 87, 98, 100, 111, 123, 132, 134,

178, 225capture by Iraqi forces of (1996), 245

Estrella rockets, 91Euphrates river, 70European Community, 53, 127Exocet missiles, 45, 46

Fakeh, Najmaddin, 132Farajvand, Hadi, 66, 109Fathi, Munqedh, 28, 33, 158Fatma e-Zahra hospital, 71, 73Fattah, Omar, 121Faw

Iranian capture of (1986), 69–72, 73,75, 77, 80, 92, 165, 167, 176, 197

Iraqi CW use at (1986), xvii, 69–72Iraqi CW use at (1988), 11, 139–142,

238Iraqi recapture of (1988), 138, 139, 145,

169, 238Fayli Kurds, 226Finally Evaluated Intelligence, 21Fish lake, 141, 142, 264n32Ford, Gerald, 49Foreign Broadcast Information Service

(FBIS), 136, 207

Foroutan, Abbas, 30and cyanide claim, 6, 194, 196, 199and Haj Omran CW victims, 28, 30and Penjwin CW victims, 32and VX claim, 142at Faw (1986), 70–72at Halabja, 122claiming Iraq used tear gas in 1980, 28in Badr campaign, 66–67in Khaybar campaign, 33, 34–35on Iraqi CW attacks near Marivan,

143–144on Iraqi CW use in 1984–85, 62writing book about Iraqi CW use, 250n7

Franceand negotiations with Iran over

uranium enrichment, 231as post-Ottoman power, 85opposing UN CW investigation, 125possessing nerve gas stockpiles, 64supporting Iraq, 24, 41, 45

Francona, Rick, 263n18and Anfal, 137and battlefield intercepts, 187, 188and CW use at Faw (1988), 139–140and cyanide claim, 195on alleged Iranian CW use, 161present at Faw (1988), 238

Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), 3,19, 20, 248n3

Ft. Detrick, 195, 263n18Fursan, xxii, 87

Galbraith, Peter, 101and attempt to prevent genocide, 214and Halabja claim, 205and Iraq sanctions debate, 213as author of Prevention of Genocide

Act, 213reporting on Iraqi CW use, 211visiting Kurdistan in September 1988,

211Gali, Hamid Haji, 111, 112, 113, 120, 121,

122Gemayel, Amin, 241Geneva Conventions (1949), 81, 155,

156, 212, 235trampling of, 242

Geneva Protocol (1925), 15






Index � 299

and lack of investigations, 58, 59and UN failure to enforce, 60, 152applicability in Iran–Iraq war of, 98, 212arising from CW experience in World

War I, 12, 229as human rights convention, 52Iran’s registering temporary reservation

to, 152Iran’s invocation of, 56, 149, 150Iraqi pledge to comply with, 209Iraqi violation of, 212Iraqi violation of, at Halabja, 7lacking mechanism to investigate

alleged CW use, 252n46lacking provisions governing internal

armed conflict, 98need for Iraqi compliance with, 48receiving international support, 229right of retaliation under, 171, 216signed by Iran and Iraq, 126trampling of, 242violation of, as grave infringement of

international norms, 15violation of, by targeting civilians, 126

Gera, Gideon, 228Germany

and negotiations with Iran overuranium enrichment, 231

as source of precursor chemicals, 235Germian, 105, 109, 130, 131, 133, 136,

174, 246Ghotsian, Yaghoub, 84Glaspie, April, 208, 214, 217

meeting with Saddam Hussein,219–220

Goktapa, 131, 132, 209Golan, 132Goldblat, Jozef, 64Golpy, Faiq, xxiii, 130–132, 173Gorbachev, Mikhail, 148Gowra Deh, 163GRAD rockets, 91Great Britain

and negotiations with Iran overuranium enrichment, 231

and relations with Iraq after 1967, 41as post-Ottoman power, 85banning presursor exports to Iraq, 53developing VX in 1950s, 141

requesting clarification on Halabja fromUS, 126

supporting Iraq, 24Guam, 246Gulf Cooperation Council, 45Gulf War (1991), 138Gulf War Syndrome, 248n3Gulflink, 248n3

Haass, Richard, 218Haig, Alexander, 42, 43Haj Omran, xvi, 28, 33, 88, 96, 111Halabja, 104

Iranian capture of, xxi, xxii, 1, 5,106–120, 123–124, 143, 178, 185

Iranian looting of, 122, 123liberation by Kurdish rebels of, xv, xx,

xxiii, 5, 6, 106–120, 123–124, 185Halabja chemical attack, 149, 150, 209,

235acknowledged by Iraq, 175aftermath of, xxiv, 2, 6, 105, 122–123,

224alleged Iranian role in, 4, 7, 8–12, 106,

126–128, 172–181, 183–205, 236,237–240

alleged Iraqi role in, 6, 176, 177, 181,185, 192

antecedents in 1984 of, 64antecedents in 1987 of, 84, 92as act of genocide, 151as confirmed by CIA, 162as crime against humanity, 124, 243as dangerous precedent, 15as pretext for 2003 Iraq invasion, 183as turning point in escalating CW use,

230as witnessed by Ahmad Nateghi, 1–3as witnessed by Kurdish rebels, 113,

120–122compared with Serdasht attack, 84, 85fueling Kurdish quest for independence,

226–227in new Iraqi constitution, 226instilling deep fear, 224Iranians’ awareness of, 139Iraqi culpability of, 178–179, 180Kurdish survivors of, 2, 6, 104, 114, 122,

123






300 � Index

Halabja chemical attack (cont.)long-term impact of, 227media reporting on, xiii–xiv, 172, 180,

190, 193trial against perpetrators of, 244victims of, xiii, 2, 5, 126, 176, 184, 186,

189, 194Halabja demonstration effect, 17, 215, 240

and Anfal, 129–130, 135and Kurds in 1991 and 2003, 224–225and threat to gas Tehran, 144

Halabja monument, 226Halabja–Suleimaniyeh road, 112, 178Hama Saleh, Omar, xxiiHamdoon, Nizar, 39, 45, 54, 55, 61, 74, 77Hammadi, Sa’doun, 42, 45, 209Hanon, Mohamad, 142, 159Hashim, Ahmed, 161Hassan Awa, 118Hawar, 112, 190Hawara Kon, 118, 122Hawargey Boynian, 118Hawayza marshes, 33, 65, 170Hawk anti-aircraft missiles, 77, 166, 168Hay, Alastair, 172, 196, 239Haybat Sultan, 110, 111Helaleh, Ahmad Shaker Ahmad, 262n75hemo-perfusion, 200Hersh, Seymour, 55Heyndrickx, Aubin, 68

and cyanide claim, 194–195, 199–200and photographic evidence, 196visiting Halabja, 194

Hezbollah, 41, 57, 148, 149attacking US Marine barracks in Beirut,

240, 241choice of methods of, 241

Hiroshima, 15, 51, 64, 84, 152, 219, 243Hirst, David, 6Hirweh, 117Hollen, Christopher van, 211Hosseini, Ghoncheh, xviii–xixHosseini, Sheveen, xviii–xixHouse Armed Services Committee, 75Hoveyza, 33Howe, Jonathan, 47Howeizi, Sherdel Abdullah, 90, 91, 96, 97,

118Howramani, Nader Ali, 112

Hughes helicopters, 45Hughes, John, 53human intelligence, 21Human Rights Watch, xiv

Anfal study of, xivdetermining Anfal to be genocide,

135estimating number of Anfal victims,

134estimating number of CW victims in

Badinan, 210evacuating eyewitnesses to genocide,

246interviewing Halabjans, 117, 119interviewing Kurdish rebels, 188on Balisan valley gassing, 97on village destruction campaign, 94researching Iraqi secret police

documents, xiv, 247n1humint. See human intelligenceHunta, Bareq al-Haj, 91Husein, Muhammad Ali, 29Hussein, Saddam, 50, 93

affected by loss of Halabja, 178and alleged Iranian CW use, 158and fate of Anfalakan, 134and Halabja gassing, 178and human-wave assaults, 25and Mehran debacle, 75and possible CW use in, 145, 223appointing Ali Hassan al-Majid as

overlord of Kurdistan, 13as man who gassed his own people, 16,

183, 243as target of war on terrorism, 81as Wahington’s friend, 183building WMD arsenals, 218challenged over Iran invasion setbacks,

24criticized over loss of Faw, 72decision to invade Iran of (1980), 22decision to invade Kuwait of (1990), 17,

220, 222delegating war strategy to military

commanders, 79demonization of, 202deterred from using CW in Gulf War,

242killing of Barzanis of (1983), 31






Index � 301

late 1988 perception in Washington of,218

losing Washington’s support withKuwait invasion, xiv

manipulating CW evidence, 167meeting with April Glaspie, 219–220meeting with Rumsfeld, 49–50, 241meeting with Talabani, 89on Kirkuk, 89on trial for crimes, 246ordering chemical strikes, 179, 180overthrow of, as Iranian war objective,

24political survival of, thanks to Iranian

offensives, 24proclaiming amnesty at end of Anfal,

207rationale for Anfal of, 133regional ambitions of, 215relations with Bush I administration of,

217relations with Reagan administration of,

56relationship with Mukarram Talabani

of, 158relationship with Wafiq al-Samarra’i of,

133, 180seizing power (1979), 41sentenced to death in Dujeil trial,

244sounding conciliatory on Middle East

peace, 43threatening to attack Israel with CW,

184threatening to attack Tehran with CW,

10threatening to use insecticide, 39, 235using CW against Kurds, 214

hydrocyanide. See cyanide gashydrogen cyanide. See cyanide gas

Imam Riza, 114Imam Zamen, 191International Atomic Energy Agency

(IAEA), 231, 232International Committee of the Red Cross

(ICRC), 36position on CW of, 56

International Court of Justice, xiv

International Criminal Court, 244International Crisis Group, xxvinternational humanitarian law, 149, 150,

152, 154, 155, 156, 203international prohibition on targeting

civilians, 242, 243Iran

admitting CW program, 231biological weapons program of, 152commitment to multilateral

non-proliferation conventions of, 230Kurdish population of, 86nuclear quest of, 227–232receiving Kurdish refugees, 225

Iran–Contra affair, 6, 76–77, 78, 80, 166,219, 220, 234, 238

Iranian chemical attacks, 18alleged by Iraq, 9, 10, 157, 165, 166,

167, 171, 261n55alleged by Iraqi officers, 159, 160alleged by Kurdish rebels, 162–165alleged by US government, 7, 165alleged by US intelligence agencies,

161, 162alleged by US military experts, 162alleged by US officials, 160, 161, 264n32doubted by UN, 172lack of evidence of, 157–159scepticism about, 157, 181–182

Iranian chemical casualties, 142as live laboratory for study of chemical

warfare, xviat Faw (1986), 72from mustard gas, 228in European hospitals, 67, 200in Tehran hospitals, xv, xviii, 56numbers of, 13, 228visited by UN, 59

Iranian chemical defense, 82, 162involvement of doctors in, xvi, 31, 67,

98, 143, 200Iranian chemical weapons program, 152,

153, 161, 172, 203, 230as legacy of Iran–Iraq war, 231suspected illegal existence of, 231

Iranian Kurdish rebelsattacked by Iran, 110, 124, 163, 190attacked by Iraq, 132Iraqi intelligence files on, 122






302 � Index

Iranian Kurdish rebels (cont.)questioning an Iranian role in gassing

Halabja, 192role in Halabja of, 190–193

Iranian Kurdistan, as site of chemicalattacks, 83

Iranian military campaigns, 24, 25Badr (1985), 65–67, 196failure of, 146Fatah I (1986), 91Karbala V, 264n32Khaybar (1984), 33, 37–38, 51, 67,

89Val-Fajr IV (1983), 32, 164Val-Fajr VIII (1986), 69–73Val-Fajr X (1988), 4, 5, 111, 114,

115–117, 203Zafar VII (1988), 115

Iranian military forces, treating chemicalcasualties, 3

Iranian nuclear program, 152, 228,231–232

following Japanese model, 232inspired by Iran–Iraq war experience,

231Iranian POWs, 140Iran–Iraq war, 1, 18, 58

aftermath of, 201and attacks against civilians, 81–82as imposed war, 227ceasefire in, 11, 78, 147, 170, 207fueling international debate on CW

proliferation, 230human-wave assaults in, 12, 25, 26, 27,

52, 215, 219Iran’s prolongation of, 228start of (1980), xvi, 12, 22, 87

Iraqi Armed Forces Chemical CorpsDirectorate, 26

Iraqi census (1987), 100Iraqi chemical attacks, 25, 28, 75

acknowledged by Iraqi officers, 159,160

admitted by Iraq, 14airforce involvement in, 1, 5, 83, 121,

131, 132, 164, 167, 168, 177, 179,180, 181, 210, 221

and international community’s silence,228, 229, 231

as necessary in war, 157as proven by UN, 172at Faw (1986), 70–72at Faw (1988), 139, 203, 238at Haj Omran, xvii, 12, 29–31, 32,

150at Khurmal, 116at Majnoun, 33–34, 35at Penjwin, 32, 46at Serdasht, xviii–xix, 83–85, 150, 152awareness by US intelligence of, 14–15,

47, 53confirmed by State Department, 208contributing to end of war, 145, 146,

147, 221during Anfal, 4, 130–132, 135, 174,

204, 224, 240during Badr, 66–67, 196during Khaybar, 33–35, 259n21during Tawakkulna ‘ala Allah, 139–143,

153during Val-Fajr II, 29, 30during Val-Fajr IV, 32during Val-Fajr X, 5ensuring Iraq’s survival, 234expected in 1991 Gulf War, 221, 222ignored by Reagan administration, 233in 1983, 46in Badinan, 204, 206, 208, 209, 210,

235in experimental stage, 27, 28, 51, 63,

235in Iranian Kurdistan, 143–144in Iraqi Kurdistan, 94–99, 100–101,

145in Qaradagh, 261n59involving “special” munitions, 96, 99,

129, 169, 175, 188mentioned by Rumsfeld to Saddam, 50objective of, 12–13, 14operational detail about, xxvpivotal role of, 18psychological impact of, 13referred to as “special” strikes, 73, 99,

168, 175, 176, 178sporadic use of, between Khaybar and

Badr, 61spurring proliferation, 229targeting civilians, 82






Index � 303

use of helicopters in, 141, 197, 221use of Ilyushin cargo aircraft in, 141weakening US policy on CW, 229

Iraqi chemical casualties, 10, 72, 142, 159,166, 171, 181, 182, 254n5

from Iraq’s own CW use, 72, 140, 160,165, 166–168, 174–175, 178, 182,262n75

from leaking munitions, 168–170Iraqi chemical defense, 143Iraqi chemical warfare capability, 26, 27,

47, 62, 141, 153, 162, 218, 221, 237as justification for 2003 war, 223initial dependence on Soviet Union of,

230Iraqi Communist Party (ICP), 23Iraqi constitution, 226Iraqi High Tribunal, 244Iraqi Interests Section in Washington, 41,

45Iraqi Military Intelligence Directorate, 42,

133, 137, 139, 141, 157, 176, 179admitting chemical attack, 131and relations with DIA, 78, 191presence in Halabja of, xxii, 112

Iraqi National Accord, 159Iraqi nuclear weapons program, 216, 218,

222Iraqi oil fields, 33, 69, 72, 90, 91, 234Iraqi POWs, 1, 9, 56, 59, 73, 119, 156, 177

testifying to Iraqi CW use, 262n75Iraqi regime

and chemical defense training, 26and Mullah Mustafa revolt, 21condemning Soviet invasion of

Afghanistan, 23WMD capabilities of, 248

Iraqi secret police documents, 3, 175, 176,177, 180

seized by Kurdish rebels, xiv, 247n1Iraqi tribunal, 243, 246Islamic Republic News Agency (IRNA),

1, 5, 70, 115, 116Islamic revolution (1979), 12, 22, 41, 44,

45, 148, 201as target of Western containment,

233interrupting WMD development in

Iran, 230

Islamic Unity Movement of Kurdistan(IUMK), xxi, xxiv, 87, 111

role in Halabja liberation of, 112, 115,176

Israel, 53, 76, 103, 165, 215alleged to have downplayed Iranian CW

use, 203and Iran–Contra affair, 45, 76and Palestine conflict, 43, 49, 148, 242,

243and restoration of US–Iraqi diplomatic

relations, 55as US strategic asset, 40, 232Egypt’s peace treaty with, 41enjoying Western support, 41invading Lebanon (1982), 148Iron Fist policy of (1985), 148killing civilians, 242policy toward Iran–Iraq war of, 76striking Osirak nuclear reactor (1981),

42suspected of CW capability, 26, 228suspected of planning military strike

against Iraqi CW facilities, 54targeted by Scud missiles in 1991, 17,

143–144, 241threatened by CW proliferation, 229weapons of mass destruction of, 12

Israeli Military Intelligence, 146Istikhbarat, See Iraqi Military Intelligence

DirectorateItaly

alleged to have used CW in Ethiopia,12

as source of chemical rockets, 169

Ja’fari, Muhammad, 90Jabel Spi, 95Jafati valley, 104, 112, 121, 128, 129, 163

and Battle of Dastani Rezgari (1987),95

chemically attacked, 96Iraqi assault on (1988), 95, 111, 115,

209PUK headquarters in, 14, 88, 92, 106,

110PUK return to, in 1985, 89reconnoitered by Iranians, 90

Jafeir, 33, 34






304 � Index

jahshas tribal regime recruits, 87helping the PUK, 91in Halabja, xxii, 112, 118participating in village destruction

campaign, 94role in Anfal of, 130, 132, 136role in Halabja of, 190role of, played up by Iraqi media, 108,

136under peshmerga pressure (1987), 93witnessing Balisan CW attack, 97

Jalileh, xxivJalilei, Khaled, 112Janbazan Bunyad, xviiiJapan, 53Jasem river, 168Jasem, Latif, 77Jewish settlements, 148Johnson, Douglas, 186, 188, 202Joint Chiefs of Staff

aware of events in Kurdistan, 100on CW use at Halabja, 181on fate of Anfal detainees, 136

Jordan, 69, 136allied with US, 217supporting Iraqi war effort, 23

Jwan Roh, 113

Kaka’i, xxiKam, Ephraim, 146Kani Ashqan, xxii, 108Kani Dinar, 144Kani Khiyaran, 117Karargeh Ramazan, 90, 109, 117, 118Karbala, 119Karim, Jamal Hama, 95Karimi Vahed, Pervin, xviii–xixKarimi, Hashemi, 163, 192Karoun river, 168Katyusha rockets, 91KDP-PUK rivalry, 31–32, 87–88, 245Kermanshah. See Bakhtaran, p. 295Khabur river, 245Khairallah Tulfah, Adnan

acknowledging Iraqi role in Halabjagassing, 179

comparing Iraq to US in WWII, 219ordering chemical strikes, 179

Khalilzad, Zalmay, 218Khamene’i, Ali, 76Kharrazi, Kamal, 4Khateh, 132Khatimat al-Anfal, See Anfal campaign,

final stage ofKheli Hama, 118Khomeini regime

agreeing to ceasefire, 156protesting Iraqi CW attacks, 36, 56, 149relationship with PUK of, 88standing at UN of, 149stating refusal to use chemical weapons,

152taking Western hostages, 149threatening chemical retaliation, 153threatening Iraq, 43

Khomeini, Ruhollah, 12, 76, 145, 234agreeing to ceasefire, 146as target of Reagan administration, 40death of (1989), 25denying permission to blow up

Darbandikhan dam, 109invoked by Pasdaran entering Halabja,

119keeping low profile after loss of Faw

(1988), 139rise to power of (1979), 22seeking international response to Iraqi

CW use, 57Khorramshahr, 82Khoshnaw, 188Khurmal, 5, 112, 117, 118, 122, 191, 193

alleged Iranian CW attack on, 192Iranian capture of, xxii, 115–116, 123,

173Iranian looting of, 122, 123Iraqi CW attack on, 116, 175Kurdish liberation of, 112, 124victims from CW attack on, 5, 193

Khuzestan, 23, 24King Hussein of Jordan, 26Kirkpatrick, Jeanne, 60, 61Kirkuk, 102, 105, 130, 132, 133

and the prospect of civl strife, 227Arabization of, 134as key point of contention, 32, 86, 89,

109as seat of Northern Bureau, 93, 99






Index � 305

as target of Kurdish territorialambitions, 90, 93, 100, 111, 227

Iranian–PUK attack on (1986), 90–92oil fields of, 90, 91, 109, 227

Kirkuk airbase, xxiii, 173, 177, 179Kittani, Ismat

admitting Iraqi CW use, 51, 60alleging Iranian CW use, 158and restoration of US–Iraqi diplomatic

relations, 55introducing Hamdoon to official

Washington, 45meeting with Shultz, 52swearing in Javier Perez de Cuellar, 57

KLM, 53Komala, 92, 110, 122, 132

targeted in Halabja battle (1988), 190,191

Koppel, Ted, 7, 173, 239Koysanjaq, 188Kurdish army deserters, 93, 99Kurdish autonomous region, 89Kurdish backing forces, 93Kurdish chemical casualties, xvi, 32, 84,

98, 131, 132, 143denied medical care, 189in Iranian Kurdistan, 163, 164

Kurdish chemical defense, 97Kurdish draft dodgers, 93, 99Kurdish insurgency, 4, 13, 18, 21Kurdish national movement, 85–87, 138

quest for independence of, 226–227Kurdish rebels, xxii, 13, 87

accusing Iran of gassing Halabja, 185,188–193

Kurdish uprising (1991), xiv, 247n1Kurdish Workers Party (PKK), 210Kurdistan Communist Party (KCP), 87Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP), 107,

111, 136as a Barzani family affair, 87bases in Badinan of, 130, 132, 210breakup of (1976), 87during Final Anfal, 206founded by Mullah Mustafa Barzani,

86growing revolt of, 100guiding Iranian forces in Haj Omran

battle (1983), xvi, 29

headquarters of, attacked with chemicalweapons, 13

role in Halabja liberation of, 112, 115,117, 122, 123

siding with Saddam Hussein regimeagainst PUK, xx, 245

Kurdistan Democratic Party of Iran(KDP-I), 88, 163

and Anfal, 136claiming Iranian CW attacks, 163, 164,

165office in Baghdad of, 192presence in Nowsud of, 116targeted in Haj Omran battle (1983),

29targeted in Halabja battle (1988), 110,

122, 190, 191–193targeted in Penjwin battle (1983), 32ties with PUK of, 31, 88, 92

Kurdistan Front, 92, 111Kurdistan Popular Democratic Party

(KPDP), 87Kurdistan Socialist Party (KSP), 87, 109,

111role in Halabja liberation of, 112, 120,

122, 123Kurmanji dialect, 87Kuwait

accused of aggression, 220as ally of the West, 232as US proxy, 220facing Iranian onslaught, 69, 72facing Iraqi pressure, 184facing Iraqi territorial claims, 63, 217Iraqi invasion of (1990), xiv, 17, 19, 56,

78, 102, 152, 155, 183, 201, 202, 214,216, 218, 220, 222, 240

liberation of (1991), 14, 221, 243protected by Iraq from Iran, 233ships of, attacked by Iran, 80supporting Iraqi war effort, 23, 24, 63

Kuzlu, 131

Lang, Walter P., 187and Anfal, 137and Iraqi CW use at Faw (1988),

139and use of VX, 141as source of Halabja claim, 203






306 � Index

Lang, Walter P., (cont.)claiming Iraq could win battles without

using CW, 236justifying Iraqi CW use, 184on Iraqi capabilities, 146on Stephen Pelletiere, 202opposing CW use against civilians, 203pressing Iranian culpability in Halabja,

186, 202–204talking to media, 202, 203

laws of war. See internationalhumanitarian law

Lebanonbombings in (1983), 41, 65, 233, 240multinational peacekeeping force in,

241US military presence in, 241Western hostages in, 233

Lesser Zab, 96, 131Libya

as potential CW user, 211facing US pressure, 217suspected of CW capability, 228

Mafarez Khaseh, 177Mahabad Republic, xix, 86Mahmoud Beg, Hassan, 112Mahmoud, Muhammad Haji, 109, 111,

112, 120Majnoun islands, 33–34, 63, 65, 141, 142,

194malband, 97Mam Hadi, xxi, xxii, 117, 118, 124Mam Jalal. See Talabani, JalalMama Risha, 89Mamanda mountain, 83Mared, 82Marivan, 110, 113, 143, 144Mawat, 95, 163McFarlane, Robert, 76Medecins sans Frontieres (MSF), 194,

199Medical Association for Victims of

Chemical Warfare, 28Mehran, 75, 79, 92, 141, 142Mergasur, 110Mikulak, Robert, 161Milliano, Jacques de, 199

and cyanide claim, 194

Minoui, Delphine, 254n6miosis, 197Mirawa, 163Mitterand, Francois, 229Mohammadian, Hossein, 255n9Mohtashemi, Ali Akbar, 122Moreels, Reginald, 199

and cyanide claim, 194Mossad, 228Mosul, 133Mowlani, Ali, 111Muhammad, Barzan Qader, 98Muhammara, 168Mujahedin Khalq, 122mujamma’at, 89, 99, 102, 133Murphy, Richard, 47, 50, 68, 76, 78, 210,

218Mushir, Shawqat Haji, 111

and ambition to create free Kurdisharea, 111

and Iranian designs on Darbandikhandam, 109

and KDP-I in Halabja, 190, 191and Komala in Halabja, 191and written agreement with Iran to

liberate Suleimaniyeh region, 110justifying his actions in Halabja, 106,

120–124killed by Ansar al-Islam, 255n1on Iranian role in Halabja, 113, 114role in Halabja liberation of, 118, 119,

120–124mustard gas, 26, 131, 141, 142, 151, 161,

162alleged Iranian use of, 165, 170, 171,

175, 261n55, 264n32as persistent agent, 27civilian casualties of, 83description in literature of, xviiearly use of, 28early use of, in artillery shells, 26early use of, in RPGs, 29Iranian victims of, 13, 69, 200, 228Iraqi casualties of, 159, 166, 174long–term effects of exposure to, xvi,

xvii, 13, 15, 226nonlethality of, 13present in Iraqi CW arsenal, 221purchase from Soviet Union of, 27






Index � 307

reducing Iranian mobility, 27requiring full bodysuits, 167routine use of, 56used against Iranian Kurdish civilians,

164used against Iranian staging areas, 35,

67, 167used against PUK (1987), 96used at Faw (1986), 72used at Faw (1988), 140used at Serdasht (1987), 84used during Khaybar operation, 33, 59,

89used during Tawakkulna ‘ala Allah

operations, 168used in 1983, 32, 40used in Haj Omran, 12used in Halabja, 5, 11, 104, 194,

195used in World War I, xvi, xvii, 12, 30used to counter Iranian human-wave

assaults, 31mustashars, 29, 87, 93, 95, 112mutually assured destruction paradigm,

230mycotoxins, 194, 200

alleged use in Halabja of, 195myosis, 34

Nagasaki, 15, 51, 84, 152, 219Najaf, 119Namdar, Hama Reza, 112napalm, 164, 167Naser al-Din, Ibrahim, 112Nateghi, Ahmad, 1–3, 70National Defense University, 161, 198National Security Agency (NSA), 20,

187National Security Archive, 248n3National Security Decision Directive 114

(1983), 48National Security Decision Directive 139

(1984), 52National Security Decision Directive 26

(1989), 217Nazanin, 132nerve gas, 64, 67, 141, 142, 144, 151, 152,

161, 210alleged use at Serdasht of (1987), 84

as quick–acting highly lethal agent,178

causing blue lips, 196first recorded battlefield use of, 12, 14,

15, 32–36Iranian victims of, 228Iraqi casualties of, 174quickly dissipating character of, 151requiring gas masks, 167search for precursors of, 27, 53use of, marking escalation in Iran–Iraq

war, 56used along front lines, 167used at Faw (1986), 71used at Faw (1988), 140used during Anfal, 131used during Badr operation, 65used during Khaybar operation, 89used in Halabja, 5, 11, 195, 196, 199victims of, treated with atropine, 3,

140New Zealand, 53Newton, David

alleging Iranian CW use, 158, 160aware of Anfal, 136aware of Iraqi counterinsurgency

campaign, 102, 138meeting with KDP-I, 136on courting Iraq, 233on CW discussions with Iraqi regime,

55, 74on Iran–Contra fallout, 77, 78on Iranian threat to Kurdish dams, 108on travel restrictions for diplomats in

Iraq, 19reporting disappearance of anti-US

floats in Baghdad, 51Nijmar, 144Nowroli, 118Nowsud, 113, 114, 116, 124Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT),

230, 231nuclear weapons, 17, 18, 51, 63, 75, 152,

228Nugrat Salman, 132

Oberdorfer, Don, 38, 39Oil Protection Forces, 91Operation Staunch, 44, 50, 76, 78, 79






308 � Index

Organization for Defending the Victims ofChemical Weapons in Serdasht,255n9

Organization for the Prohibition ofChemical Weapons, 231

Orumiyeh, 30Oshnaviyeh, 143Osirak nuclear reactor, 42, 55Ottoman Empire, 85

Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO),148

Palestine question, 217Palme, Olof, 59Paris Conference on the Prohibition of

Chemical Weapons (1989), 216,229

Pasdaran. See Revolutionary Guard CorpsPatriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK), 4,

129, 207and Anfal dead, 134and Komala in Halabja, 190–191attacked in Anfal, 136bases in Qaradagh of, 121, 130, 174bases of, attacked with chemical

weapons, 13, 130, 131called “Iranian agents,” 107, 175defeat of (1988), 129, 132fighting Iraqi troops near Jafati valley,

89, 95fighting KDP in internecine conflict, xx,

245fighting near Serdasht in 1987, 83, 144founding of (1976), 87growing revolt of, 89, 100headquarters of, 14, 95, 97, 106, 110,

129, 173intercepting battlefield

communications, 188losing men in Halabja, 129, 175negotiations with Saddam Hussein of,

88–89regional command in Erbil region of, 97relations with Bradostis of, 31, 88relations with Iran of, 88, 90–92relations with Iranian Kurdish parties

of, 31, 190role in Halabja liberation of, xxii,

106–124

role in saving KDP-I of, 191, 192urban base of, 87, 88

Paveh, 113Pell, Claiborne, 101, 211, 219Pelletiere, Stephen, 137, 139

and US Army War College study, 188on Walter P. Lang, 202, 204pressing Iranian culpability in Halabja,

185, 186, 202–203Penjwin, 32, 46, 83, 96, 110, 114, 164Pentagon. See US Department of DefensePeres, Shimon, 55Perez de Cuellar, Javier, 57, 236

and Anfal, 136brokering ceasefire in Iran–Iraq war, 125identifying Iraq as aggressor in war, 155incurring Iraq’s wrath, 126, 155on Halabja, 8ordering investigation of CW

allegations, 9, 15, 58, 73, 82, 125,150, 155

receptive to Iranian complaints, 154saving UN’s reputation, 149visiting Iran and Iraq (1985), 68

Perle, Richard, 81Perry Robinson, Julian, 32, 64, 172, 230Persian Gulf, 100peshmergas. See Kurdish rebelsPhalange militia, 241Phantom bombers, 76phosgene, 166, 170

alleged Iranian use of, 165, 261n55,264n32

alleged Iraqi casualties of, 166alleged use in Halabja of, 195present in Iraqi CW arsenal, 221used in World War I, 165

phosphorus, 71, 96, 164, 225Picco, Giandomenico, 58, 61, 100Pilatus planes, 91Piranshahr, xvi, 163Placke, James, 61

and export ban on precursor chemicals,54, 61

and Operation Staunch, 44and tilt toward Iraq, 43, 54on alleged Iranian CW use, 160on Iraqi need for CW to win war, 236

poison gas. See chemical weapons






Index � 309

Popular Army, 132Portugal, 127potassium fluoride, 53Powell, Colin, 183, 184precursor chemicals

export restrictions on, 53, 54sale of, banned to Iran and Iraq, 229,

236, 237supplied by East Bloc, 236supplied by Western companies, 16, 27,

39, 47, 48, 53, 62, 219, 222, 230, 235,236, 237

Prees, 118Prevention of Genocide Act, 213prisoners of war (POWs), 59, 155pro-Iran lobby, 204

Qader Karam, 131Qal’a Saleh, 170Qala Dizeh, 110, 111, 191Qala’ji, 143Qalaga, 143Qandil mountain, 130, 132, 191Qaradagh, xxiii, 109, 121, 130, 131, 135,

173, 174, 175Qasemlou, Abd-al-Rahman, 29, 31, 88

alleging Iranian CW attacks, 163, 165assassination of, 163residence in Baghdad of, 89

Qasr al-Shirin, xix

Radio Free Iraq, 178Radio Monte Carlo, 173Rafsanjani, Ali Akbar Hashemi, 40, 76,

92advocating chemical and biological

weapons, 230Rajaie Khorassani, Sa’id, 57–58, 61, 63,

156rajima, 141Ramadan, Taha Yasin, 77Rankin, Haywood, 101Ranya, 111Rassam, Omar, 105Reagan administration

and cyanide claim, 200–201and information about Iraqi CW use,

238and Iran–Contra affair, 77

and Iraq sanctions debate, 211–214,217, 229

and Iraq’s counterinsurgency campaign,103, 206–208

and norm against CW use, 237anti-Iranian animus of, 234concerned about CW proliferation, 62,

211, 215, 216concerned about Halabja fallout, 239demarches to Western allies of, 236opposing CW investigation by UN, 125organizing the Paris Conference (1989),

229policy toward Iran–Iraq war of, 40, 41,

42, 43, 76, 79, 100, 204, 239policy toward Iraqi CW use of, 39, 63,

206–218, 234–240, 241, 243policy toward revolutionary Iran of, 234position on Halabja attack of, 7, 8, 126,

128, 181, 205, 237–239restoring diplomatic relations with Iraq,

45, 51–56, 74, 237, 241sharing intelligence with Iraq, 43, 79,

238, 239siding with Phalangists in Lebanon, 241silence on Iraqi CW use of, enabling

genocide, 17strategic objectives in Gulf of, 234tilting toward Iraq, 6, 39, 40–46, 74, 80,

128, 138, 201, 206, 208, 214–218,232, 233

understanding of Anfal of, 135–138,206, 207

Reagan, Ronald, 41, 49, 56, 240meeting with Kittani, 45

Redman, Charles, 7, 173, 201Republican Palace, 178Revolutionary Command Council, 93,

265n5Revolutionary Guard Corps (Pasdaran),

105and Halabja operation, 6, 109, 111, 115,

116, 118, 119, 121, 123and Karargeh Ramazan, 90fighting in Badr offensive, 65founding of, 23involved in Kirkuk attack (1986), 90–91participating in human–wave attacks, 25subject to chemical attacks, 141






310 � Index

Reza, Ali, 113, 122Reza’ie, Mahmoud, 113Reza’ie, Mohsen, 109, 111, 116Ricciardone, Francis, 250n3

and policy toward Iraqi CW use, 39,47–48, 55, 61

on alleged Iranian CW use, 161on arms transfers to Iran and Iraq, 45

Riza, Iqbaland UN CW investigations, 58–59,

172informing Jeanne Kirkpatrick of Iraqi

CW use evidence, 60on Iraqi response to US pressure to halt

CW use, 62on victims of Balisan attack, 98

Romberg, Alan, 39Rome treaty, 244Rostam Beg, xxv, 65, 112, 240

Rumsfeld, Donaldand Lebanon bombingsand war on terrorism, 240–242announcing alleged WMD find in Iraq,

224expressing concern over potential Iraqi

CW use in, 104, 125, 145first Baghdad visit of (1983), 49–51,

237, 241second Baghdad visit of (1984), 51–52,

237Russell, Mark, 224

Sa’id, Hama Hama, xxii, xxiii, 83, 109,110, 117, 118

offering Halabja interpretation,120–124

Saddam airbase, 179Saddam Hussein regime

accused of wanting to annihilate Kurds,129

acknowledging Anfal, 136admitting chemical attacks, 38, 60, 75and human-wave assaults, 26and Iranian capture of Halabja, 7biological weapons program of, 183,

216, 218, 221, 222concessions on the Israeli–Arab conflict

of, 233

harboring territorial designs, 63, 217launching Anfal campaign, xivnegotiations with PUK of, 32, 88–89ouster of (2003), xiv, xxiv, 240quest for power in Gulf of, 41relations with Arab Gulf states of, 64relations with Reagan administration of,

78, 201, 206, 214, 219, 220responsibility for Halabja CW attack of,

177restoring diplomatic relations with US,

51–56strengthened by Iran–Iraq war, 25threatened by Iranian capture of

Darbandikhan dam, 108threatening to attack Iranian cities with

CW, 9, 14, 144, 145, 146threatening to attack Tehran with CW,

144–145, 153, 241WMD programs of, 52

Salamiyeh, 133Salih, Barham, xxiSalim Pirak, 108SAM rockets, 91Samawa, 133Sandinista government, 76Saqqez, 163sarin, 64

alleged use at Faw of (1986), 71alleged use in Halabja of, 195, 199characteristics of, 71, 199destructive potential of, 64found in Iraqi soil samples, 199, 210greater lethality than tabun of, 71precursor chemicals of, 53present in Iraqi CW arsenal, 74, 199,

221unlikely Iranian production of, 199used along front lines, 12used at Faw (1988), 140used in Tokyo subway attack, 223

Saudi Arabia, 69, 136allied with US, 217as ally of the West, 232facing Iranian onslaught, 69, 72protected by Iraq from Iran, 219,

233supporting Iraqi war effort, 23, 24






Index � 311

targeted by Scud missiles in, 17,143–144

threatened by CW proliferation,229

Sayed Sadeq, xxi, 113, 114, 120, 191Schifter, Richard, 211Scowcroft, Brent, 217Scud missiles, 17, 80, 144, 146, 241Seif Sa’at, 159Senate Foreign Relations Committee, 101,

211, 247n1Sengaw, 131September 11 attacks, 227, 240Serdasht, xviii, 83–85, 88, 143, 150, 163,

254n6commemorating chemical attack, 255n9

Seyw Senan, 130, 131Shah of Iran, 21, 22, 40, 44, 86, 107

as West’s guardian of Gulf wealth,232

overthrow of, 234starting WMD research, 230

Shakala, 163Shaker, Ahmad, 177Shakh Shemiran, 109, 112, 197Shamir, Yitzhak, 55Shamkhani, Ali, 113Shaqlawa, 132Shatt al-Arab, 23, 70, 168Shatt-e Ali, 33Shaweis, Tahsin, 89Sheikh Mowla, 109, 140Sheikh Wasanan, 97, 104, 188, 189Shinirweh mountain, xxii, xxiii, 117, 118,

124, 192Shirawandi, Shirwan, 111Shouf mountains, 241Shultz, George

accusing both Iran and Iraq of CW use,103

advising Bush I administration on Iraq,218

alleging Iranian CW use, 165, 171and CW proliferation, 241and US policy on Iraqi CW use, 56,

208, 214–218and US policy toward Iran–Iraq war, 43,

44, 79

and US tilt toward Iraq, 44, 215, 218and Zalmay Khalilzad, 218aware of Iraqi CW use, 22, 46, 215condemning Iraqi CW use, 209, 215extracting Iraqi pledge to halt CW use,

209meeting with Iraqi officials, 45, 52on Halabja, 127on restoring diplomatic relations with

Iraq, 55, 56view of Iraqi regime of, 206, 214, 215

Sick, Gary, 204Sidell, Frederick, 196, 198sigint, See signals intelligencesignals intelligence, 186Sirwan, 115, 116, 192, 193Sirwan lake, xxi, xxii, 1, 7, 108, 114, 115,

190, 191Sirwan river, xxi, 122Slivana, 87Smaquli valley, 130, 132Sohrabpour, Hamid, xvi, xvii, xix, 6, 28,

145soman, 64

alleged use in Halabja of, 195Sosan hospital, xvi, xvii, xviiiSoviet Union, 62

Afghanistan invasion by, 23, 41aiding Iraqi CW program, 16, 26, 230and Afghanistan quagmire, 148and threatened arms embargo against

Iran, 125and Treaty of Friendship and

Cooperation with Iraq, 41as Iraqi ally, 24, 41, 42, 43, 54, 77, 233chemical weapons arsenal of, 230possessing nerve gas stockpiles, 64possible use of mycotoxins in Cambodia

of, 194relations with Iraq of, 23

Stahl, Leslie, 243Studeman, William O., 20Suleimaniyeh, 32, 88, 89, 97, 100, 105,

110, 173arrival of Balisan victims in, 189as base of Kurdish national movement,

86as post-1991 oasis of tranquility, xx






312 � Index

Suleimaniyeh (cont.)as PUK domain, 87set to be liberated by Kurdish rebels and

Iranians, 110, 111threatened with destruction, 129

Suleimaniyeh Health Department, 189Suleimaniyeh–Baghdad road, xxiii, 102,

109, 110Suleimaniyeh–Dukan road, 95Suleimaniyeh–Erbil road, 110Suleimaniyeh–Kirkuk road, 102, 111, 131Sultani, Bahman, 143Supreme Council for the Islamic

Revolution in Iraq (SCIRI), xxii, 29,110, 111

role in Halabja liberation of, 112,115

subjected to chemical attack, 197Suran, 87Surani dialect, 87Swara, Mowloud, 163Syria

facing US pressure, 217Kurdish population of, 86suspected of CW capability, 228

Tabatabaei, S. R., 153tabun, 67, 71, 162, 197

alleged use in Halabja of, 195containing cyanide as key ingredient,

197description in literature of, 34, 35first recorded battlefield use of, 12,

32–36, 64greater lethality than mustard gas of, 67Iraqi rationale for use of, 35Iraqi use of, confirmed by UN, 34potential blowback effects from use of,

35precursor chemicals of, 53present in Iraqi CW arsenal, 221production in World War II of, 35used during Badr operation, 66used during Khaybar operation, 59,

259n21victims of, 34, 35

Takiyeh, 174Talabani, Jalal, 15, 180, 207

calling for talks with Iraqi regime, 96

challenging Mustafa Barzani’sleadership, 87

claiming 2,000 dead in Halabja, 5claiming Iraqi CW attacks, 135collaborating with Iran, 7excluded from amnesty at end of Anfal,

207, 265friendship with Qasemlou of, 88leadership of PUK of, undisputed, 87meeting with Iranians, 90, 92negotiating with Saddam Hussein, 32,

89present at CW attack on headquarters,

96pressed by Iran to fight KDP-I, 88, 92traveling in Europe at time of Halabja

attack, 4, 106Talabani, Mukarram, 158, 193Tallil airbase, 238Tanjro river, xxitanker wars, 25targeted assassinations, 242Tawakkulna ‘ala Allah campaign (1988),

128, 139, 158, 159, 160, 169, 236Tawela, 112, 116, 122, 124Tazashar, 131Tehran, 59, 82Tehrani, Muhammad, 113, 121, 122thio-sulphate, 84, 197Tigris river, xxi, 7, 70, 96Tokyo subway attack, 71, 223Topzawa, 132TOW missiles, 76, 77Trainor, Bernard, 222Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation

(1972), 23, 41Turkey, 17, 69, 88, 130, 132

as US ally, 210assisting US in Kurdistan, 246blocking access to refugees, 211denying Iraqi CW use, 210Kurdish population of, 86policy toward its Kurdish population of,

210receiving Kurdish refugees (1988), 206,

207, 208, 210, 211, 213receiving Kurdish refugees (1991), 225

Tuz Khurmatu, 131Tyler, Patrick, 184






Index � 313

and Pentagon study on Halabja,185–186, 202

casting doubt on Iraqi CW use atHalabja, 184

claiming Iraq accused Iran of CW use inHalabja, 10

covering Halabja story, 184questioning evidence of August 1988

CW use, 209visiting Halabja in March, 1988, 144,

184

Um Rsas, 168UN Charter, 154, 155, 156UN Committee on Disarmament, 62UN Conference on Disarmament, 230UN General Assembly, 252n46UN General Secretariat, 98UN High Commissioner for Refugees, 225UN Human Rights Commission, 52UN Security Council, 98

and investigations of CW claims, 58,59

and Resolution (1987), 43, 78, 80, 100,103, 125, 127, 128

calling for ceasefire, 72condemning CW use, 53, 83condemning targeting of civilians, 46considering arms embargo against Iran,

6, 78, 107, 125, 152deaf to Iranian protests, 149, 150, 151,

154distrusted by Iranian regime, 57, 58failure to condemn Iraqi CW use of, 82,

84, 151Halabja resolution of, 4, 11, 128, 148,

204identifying aggressor in Iran–Iraq war,

155policy on Iran–Iraq war of, 23, 41position on Iraqi CW use of, 16, 156presidential statements of, 61, 69, 73,

127, 128receiving CW report, 11, 60resolutions of, 73, 154, 156resolutions of, favoring Iraq, 154resolutions of, ignored by Iran, 149role in international armed conflicts of,

154

tilting toward Iraq, 58, 73, 151, 154tolerating Iraq’s CW use, 156

UN Special Commission on Iraq(UNSCOM), 102, 198, 199, 218,228

dismantlement of Iraq’s WMD programsby

United Arab Emirates, 220United Nations

championing human rights, 149credibility of, 17CW expert reports of, 3, 11, 15, 59–61,

73, 83, 98, 125, 143, 150, 166,170–171, 172, 175, 176, 181, 197

CW experts teams of, See, 9, 10, 11, 15,33, 34, 57, 58–59, 67, 73, 82, 98, 142,150, 151, 155, 156, 166, 171, 174,195, 212

experts team of (1983), 81failure to halt Iraqi CW use of, 149position on CW use of, 60, 61, 68–69undermining of, 242

United Statesaccused of using gas in Vietnam, 219as guarantor of Kurdish rights and

security, 226declaiming virtues of democracy and

human rights, 243developing VX in 1950s, 141hostages in Lebanon of, 76Interests Section in Baghdad of, 41, 42invading Iraq (2003), 223killing civilians, 241, 242possessing nerve agent stockpiles, 64promoting comprehensive chemical

weapons ban, 230propping up authoritarian regimes, 243supporting Iraq, 24supporting Israeli military occupation,

243Tehran embassy seizure of, 36, 40war on terrorism of, 240–244

University of Ghent, 194uranium enrichment, 231US Air Force Intelligence Agency, 175US Army Medical Research Institute,

196US Army War College, 137, 202, 207

study of Iran–Iraq war of, 185, 186, 202






314 � Index

US Congress, 17US Department of Agriculture, 45, 233US Department of Commerce, 53, 78US Department of Defense

and attempt to frame Iran for Halabjagas attack, 183–205

response to Halabja attack by, 4study of Iran–Iraq war of, 185

US Department of State, 7, 17accusing Iran of CW use, 204acknowledging Iraqi CW use, 39, 208,

211alleged to be pro-Kurdish, 202analyzing Barzani revolt, 21annual human rights report of, 102Bureau of Intelligence and Research of,

208calling Iraqi CW use against Kurds

“convenience use,” 212claiming CW key to Iraq’s survival,

236determining Anfal to be genocide, 213interest in Kurds of, 137interest–based argument against CW

use of, 235labeling the PKK a terrorist

organization, 210Legal Office of, 135on CW proliferation, 229on export ban on precursor chemicals,

49, 62policy on Iraqi CW use of, 39, 46–49,

51, 53, 54, 56, 217policy toward Iran–Iraq war of, 44referring to Anfal, 136response to Halabja attack by, 3,

126–129reviewing Iraq policy before Saddam

trial, 243US Export Import Bank, 45, 50, 78, 217US National Archives, 247n1US National Security Council (NSC), 20,

47, 76, 78, 235US New Jersey, 241

Valley of the Parties. See Jafati valleyVelayati, Ali Akbar, 82, 84

on Iranian chemical casualties, 228

village destruction campaign, 93, 100, 101,102, 106, 108, 111, 136, 138, 205,211, 213

Viorst, Milton, 209VX, 64

alleged use in 1988 of, 141–143alleged use in Iranian Kurdistan of, 144alleged use of, 15as a quick–acting highly lethal agent,

141predicted Iraqi use of, 101present in Iraqi CW arsenal, 152, 221present in Western arsenals, 141

war crimes, 4, 15, 59, 81, 82, 151, 155, 243Warba, 63, 217Wareh, 132wars of the cities, 25, 26, 59, 80, 107, 144,

145, 150, 173Warta, 132weapons of mass destruction, 17, 26, 223,

224, 231Weinberger, Caspar, 139Weizman Institute of Science, 165West Germany, 62Willems, Jan, 200WMD proliferation, 17, 39, 75, 153

and international efforts to combat,229–230

in the Middle East, 228Wolfowitz, Paul, 79, 239World War I, 85

CW use in, xvi, xvii, 30, 38, 165, 209World War II, 35

as impetus for human rights norms, 244

yellow rain, 194yperite. See mustard gas

Zahidi, Muhammad, 114, 124Zalm bridge, 112, 114, 116, 118, 122, 123Zalm river, xxi, xxiii, 1, 114, 115, 118, 122Zammaki, 112, 116Zarif, Javad, 231Zarza, Sadeq, 163Zeibari, Babaker, 111Zerda mountain, 174Ziveh, 87






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