774 Index

Index

Abailard (Abelard), Pierre, Dialectica 84abductive change 118–19abecedaries 71Abercrombie, D. 151abjad 43–4, 47, 54, 62, 68, 69, 72Abkhaz 24Abkhaz-Adyghe 24ablaut 225Abondolo, D. 22Aboriginal languages of Australia 527absolute synonymy 243, 249–50absolutive case 217, 340, 352–3abugida 44, 54, 62, 68, 70, 72, 80nAbe’l-Aswad ad-Du.alc 83accent

identifying by 495non-native in SLA 495

accentual meter 450accommodation 525Acehnese 28Achard, P. 576Acholi 37acoustic phonetics 4, 151, 156acquisition

of alphabetic writing systems 668automaticity and systematicity in sign

language 549–54competition model 333, 474–5, 480–1,

498–9hypothesis testing 640the logical problem of language

479–81

see also first language acquisition,second language acquisition

acquisition studies 130, 131, 147, 332–3acrophonic principle 74active articulator 165actuation problem 108, 110, 114Adamawa-Ubangi languages 35Adelaar, Willem 39Adelung, Johan Christoph 86, 93, 94adjacency pair 437adjectives

and numeral word order, attestedvs. unattested 343–4 table 14.1

similitudinal 231Adyghe 24aesthetic experience 448–9, 458, 459, 465Afar 33affixation 114, 217, 229, 262, 359affricates 176, 181Africa, languages of 31–7, 710“African Eve” 7African-American Vernacular English

657–60, 662, 711Afroasiatic languages 31–3, 124ageing, language of 644agglutinating morphology 223–31, 236agglutination 224

deviations from 224–7agglutinative languages 70, 94, 224, 228agrammatism 584, 605agreement 586

role of inflection in 220

Index 775

Aikhenvald, A. 39Ainu 25airflow

central 169glottalic egressive 162glottalic ingressive 162initiation and direction of 161–2lateral 169nasal 169oral 169pulmonic egressive 160, 162pulmonic ingressive 162velaric ingressive 162

Aitchison, J. 3, 263Akan dialect cluster 35Akkadian 31, 32, 79, 82

cuneiform 45Aksumite kingdom 47Aktionsart 233Alabama 39, 140Albanian 21, 121, 125, 528Aled, Tudur 463Aleut 38Algeria 710Algic (Algonquian-Ritwan) language

family 39, 124Algonquian languages 39, 89, 123, 124Algonquian-Ritwan (Algic) language

family 39, 124Allen, J. 616alliteration 456

Irish 447and rhyme 455–7systematic 456

allograph 66, 67allomorphy 224, 225allophones 66, 186–7, 211allophonic patterns 143, 151, 152alpha notation 205alphabets 44, 54–62, 67, 666–7, 668

Arabic-based 62with associated numerical values 72Cyrillic-based 62Greek-based Eastern Christian 72no equivalent in sound system 66–7

Altai (Oyrot) 23Altaic language families 23–4, 25, 62,

124alternation 96, 188, 201–11

Alur 37alveolar 166, 167, 181Amazonian languages 39, 147ambiguity 245– 6, 388, 395

identity test 245–6independent truth-conditions test 246in literary texts 447–8parsing structural 609, 611, 612, 613tests 245–6zeugma test 246see also scope ambiguity

“ambilingualism” 490Amele 364amelioration 259American Association for Applied

Linguistics 638American English 112–13, 171, 182, 183,

295American Indian languages

see Amerindian languagesAmerican Sign Language (ASL) 11, 41,

536–8, 539–40, 556, 557, 561ncoordination in 539in courtroom situation 691recursion and subordination in 536 –8verb signing 545–7word order 538

American Structuralism 97–8, 99Americas, languages of the 38–41Amerind language family 40Amerindian languages 135– 6, 137, 163,

580Amharic 33, 365Amish, Old Order 522, 530analogy

Kury4owicz’s fourth law of 127nin language change 118, 119

anaphoradynamic 382–5dynamic binding account 383–4see also donkey anaphora 392n

anaphoric expression 425nanaphoric relations 373anarthria 584Anatolian 22Andamanese languages 31Andean languages 39Andersen, H. 115, 118Anderson, J. 505

776 Index

Anderson, S. 147, 199, 225–6, 229animacy 220, 499

conceptual space for 349–50 figure 14.1hierarchy 350

anomic aphasia 585Anshen, Frank 216, 646, 704–13antecedent 306–7anthropology

linguistic 431–2, 440, 645and origins of language 3–6

anti-causative 232antonyms 251–4

comparative forms 252see also equipollent antonyms,

overlapping antonyms, polarantonyms

Apachean languages 38, 140Apalai 460aphasia 552, 554, 558, 675, 676, 678

classic syndromes 585 table 24.1,600–1

correlations with lesion sites 600–1in deaf signers 555mixed anterior 605subcortical 594tests 597see also Broca’s aphasia, Wernicke’s

aphasiaaphasiology 583–92apicoalveolar 167apophony 225applied linguistics 637–46

corpus-based 643defined 638–9history 638problem-based 638–9, 643

apraxia of speech 584, 600Arab grammarians 54Arabic 32, 33, 47, 113, 225, 519, 525

alphabet 62, 72, 73Classical 519, 522early script 47–9, 52Jewish dialects of 705numeral system 72, 296–7religious prestige 83, 519, 710sound inventory of 184Tunisian 522, 710vowel marking 59as a world language 532, 710

Arabic grammatical tradition 83Aramaic 32

Imperial 77Palmyrene variety of cursive script

77scripts 47, 49, 59, 70, 71, 72

Arapaho 39Arawakan language family 40arbitrary languages 12, 559, 560archaeology, and origins of language

3–6arclist models, in computational

morphology 627–9 figure 25.2arcs 624, 632argument structure 10arguments, and predicates 373,

476–7Aristotle 83, 84, 85

De interpretatione 82armchair linguistics 130, 131Armenian 21

script 55, 56, 72, 73, 74Arnauld, A., Grammaire générale et

raisonnée de Port Royal 85Aronoff, M. 216, 222, 227, 229, 233Arthur, B. 504articulation 164–72

and audition 471degree of stricture 165, 168development for speech versus sign

550double 170, 171 figure 7.4early in first language acquisition

468–9errors 677manner of 161, 181primary 170secondary 170, 171 figure 7.4, 176–7see also aspect of articulation, place of

articulationarticulatory phonetics 156, 685asemantic relatedness 232–3Asia

languages of Northern 20–5languages of Southern, Eastern and

Southeastern 25–31languages of Southwestern 31–7

ASL see American Sign LanguageAsmat of New Guinea 464

Index 777

aspect 218imperfective 218perfective 218

aspect of articulation 168–72conformational 169–70neutral 168–9topographical 170–1transitional 171–2

aspiration 172–5 figure 7.5aAssamese 22assertions 321, 411assimilation 202–6

anticipatory 176in ASL 541 figure 22.3and co-articulation 176–7linguistic 528nasal place 202, 205, 209–11perseverative 176in sound change 113, 119

Atatürk, Kemal 67Athabaskan languages 38, 123, 219Athabaskan-Eyak 38Athenaeus 74Atlantic languages 34Atlantic-Congo 34attested language types 343–4attitudes to language 572–5attribution 587audience, of literary text 448audiolingualism 640audition, and articulation 471auditory phonetics 685auditory processing, and memory 467–8Augustine, Saint 473Austen, Jane 459Austin, J. L. 411, 433, 616Australia 4, 6

Aboriginal languages 527immigrant languages 527, 531

Australian languages 30, 163Australian Sign Language 557australopithecines 4, 5, 16australopithecus afarensis (“Lucy”) 4Austro-Asiatic languages 26, 31Austro-Tai macro-family 31Austronesian languages 28–9, 31, 123,

124authorship, of written documents and

forensic linguistics 685–6

autism 473, 486automated machine learning 152automatic dictation software 702autonomist linguistics see formal

linguisticsautosegmental phonology 147, 204–5AUX 303auxiliaries 415

aspectual 219–20inversion 278–9omissions in child language

development 478Avar 24Avestan alphabet, Zoroastrian scripture

59–61 table 3.13awareness of language, in children

653–60, 663, 672Aymara 40Azeri (Azerbaijani) 23

babbling 469babies

preference for maternal speech 468vocalizations 468–9

baby-talk 503Babylonian annals 78Bach, K. 411Background 426nbackwards verbs 545Bacon, Roger 84Badha (Lendu) 37Bahasa Indonesia 705Baker, Mark C. 146, 265–94, 302Bakhtin, M. M. 655Balinese 28Balkan languages 121Balochi 22Baltic 21Balto-Finnic 22Bambara 34Bangala 35Bantu languages 35–6, 123, 124, 219Baric 27Barthélemy, Jean-Jacques 77, 78Barthes, Roland 96Barwise, J. 392nbase 223, 302Bashkir 23Basho, Matsuo 449

778 Index

Basque 20, 24–5, 31, 123, 514, 709, 710Bates, E. 333, 336Baudouin de Courtenay, Jan (Ignacy

Niecislaw) 95, 96Baule 35Bauman, Richard 448Becanus, Johannes Goropius ( Jan van

Gorp van Hilvarenbeek) 87Bedawi (Beja) 33Beeman, M. 595Behagel’s law 361behavioral potential 348behaviorism 101, 469, 489, 490, 640Behistun inscription of Darius 78, 79Beja (Bedawi) 33Belfast Irish 570Belgium, language policy 704, 706, 709Belorussian (Belarusian) 21Bemba 36Benchmark School 671Bender, M. L. 34, 36, 37Bendor-Samuel, J. 33–4, 35, 37Benedict, P. K. 31Bengali 22

script 52 table 3.7in UK 522

Benue-Congo languages 35Beowulf 449, 452Berber 32, 33Berlin, Heinrich 79Bernstein, B. 580Bhojpuri 22Bibliander, Theodor 84Bickerton, D. 10, 15, 16Big Nambas 352bigram probabilities 632–3

smoothing 633bigram tagger 633–4Bikol 28bilingual competence 509, 525–6bilingualism 488–511, 512

de facto and de jure 517definitions of 490early 508and intelligence 513without diglossia 522

bilingualityand flexibility 468, 474one system or two 508–9

binary branching 613binding principles 306–7

as referring to semantic argumentstructures 314–17

biologyand evolution of language 2, 4–6and first language acquisition 2,

648–50, 668“bioprogram” hypothesis 15bipedalism, and evolution of human

vocal tract 4–5Birdsong, D. 496, 497, 510Bislama 41Black Carib see GarifunaBlackfoot 39Blake, William 462Bland, Betty 138Bley-Vroman, R. W. 501, 502, 510Bloch, Bernard 99blocking effect 119–20Blom, J. P. 523Bloom, P. 2, 17Bloomfield, Leonard xiii, 98, 99–100,

325–6, 327, 490Blust, Robert 28Boas, Franz 94, 95, 97–8, 325

Handbook of North American IndianLanguages 98

Bodic languages 27Bolinger, D. 335Bongaerts, T. 495bonobo (Kanzi) 12–13Booij, G. 218, 220, 222Bopp, Franz 86, 94, 98, 103Borer, H. 511borrowings 121

from English into Japanese 193–4Bosnian 21bound morphemes 213, 223Bourdieu, Pierre 576boustrophedon 69Bowker, Lynne 701Boxhorn(ius), Marcus Zuerius 87Brahmi script 52 table 3.7, 54, 55brain

bilateral activation 558“brain-language coevolution” 5deficit-lesion correlational approach

582, 600–1, 604–5

Index 779

Burmese-Lolo 27Bursill-Hall, G. L. 84–5Burt, M. K. 490, 497Burundi 710Burushaski 30, 31, 123Buse, J. E. 177Bybee, J. L. 348–9, 361, 366

c-command 276cadence 451Caedmon, Hymn 105caesura 451–2Cahuilla 140California Indian languages 140, 145California Penutian 41calligraphy 76Calvin, W. H. 13, 14Cambodian script 54Cambridge Language Surveys 20Cameroon, Pidgin of 41Campbell, Lyle 38, 40, 81–104, 342Canaanite languages 32, 47Canada

French-English bilingualism 515, 516,517, 519, 524, 526

language policy 704, 706, 707–8, 709Cann, R. L. 7Cantonese (Yue) 27, 710capacity for language, status of human

102, 397, 424, 555Caplan, David 582–607Caramazza, A. 590–1, 604caretaker–child interactions 101–2,

652–3Cariban languages 40Carnap, R. 373–4Carpenter, Bob 608–36Carroll, Lewis, Alice 475Carstairs-McCarthy, Andrew 1–18, 126Carston, R. 406, 411, 412, 414case 218case filter 293Case Grammar 103case marking 323

absence or presence in differentlanguages 351–2 table 14.4

Castilian 514, 711Catalan 21, 704, 709, 711Catalan Numbers 612

distributed theories 596, 597–8equipotentiality 596grammar and control of the vocal tract

16–17and language learning 467, 483language and the 592–607localizationist theories 13, 554, 586,

596–7, 598–607mass action principle 596, 598

brain damage 13, 14, 15and control of language use 485, 554in deaf signers 554–5and disorders of sentence

comprehension 590–2and disturbances of word meanings

588–90“graceful degradation” of performance

after 597recovery after language loss 552

brain organizationfor language 5, 582, 592–6and spoken and sign languages 558–9

brain size 5uneven increase in hominid evolution

16breathy voice see whispery voiceBreen, J. G. 171Bresnan, J. 300, 313Breton 21, 515Breva-Claramonte, M. 85bridge rules, in word-boundaries 451–2Bright, W. 43British Sign Language 42, 556, 557Broadwell, George A. 146Broca, Paul 583, 601Broca’s aphasia 14, 17, 555, 584, 585,

600, 602, 604, 605Broca’s area 5, 13–14, 17, 593, 599, 600,

605, 606, 607Brody, J. 460Brugmann, Karl 92Buang, language choice for the 519, 520

figure 21.1Buginese 28Bulgarian 21, 121, 127n, 489Buriat 23Burling, R. 508Burmese 27, 200

script 53 table 3.7, 54

780 Index

categorial grammar 284, 375–81, 390“categorial signature” 229categories 300, 586

as bundles of features 304see also functional categories,

grammatical categories, lexicalcategories

Catford, J. C. 151Cathlamet 97Catullus, Gaius Valerius 697Caucasian language families 24causative constructions 232

linguistic distance in 361Cavalli-Sforza, F. 7Cavalli-Sforza, L. L. 7CED see Condition on Extraction

DomainsCeltic languages 21, 88, 363, 514

meter 453Cenderawasih Bay (Geelvink Bay) 29Central Dravidian 26Central Khoisan 37Central Malayo-Polynesian 28Central Semitic 32Central Sudanic 36, 37Central-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian 28cerebral cortex 593, 599, 603–4Chadic languages 32, 33Chafe, W. 329, 433Chagga 36Chamic languages 28Chamorro 29Chamot, A. 505Champollion, Jean-François 77–8change, language

deliberately guided 574discoveries and methods 121–5and diversity across languages

341–67examples of 113–14explanations of 117–21as a function of abstract properties of

grammars 115–16gradualness of 364, 365mechanisms of 114–17naturalness in direction of 110, 114, 125physiological factors 119, 125problems for a theory of 108–10,

125–6

psychological factors in 118–19,349–50

social factors 120–1systemic factors 119–20through time 105–29, 348–9types and spread of 111–14typological perspective 363unidirectionality 366–7and variation 564, 577–9velocity in urban and rural areas 578

figure 23.2Chaouia 33characters, in Chinese writing 49, 51

table 3.5Chaucer, Geoffrey 111, 699

Canterbury Tales 105Troilus and Creside 106–7

Chechen 24Chechen-Ingush 353Chemakum 97Chemehuevi 140Cheney, D. L. 8–9Cherokee 39, 140

syllabary 63, 65 table 3.17, 71Cheyenne 39Chibchan languages 39, 40Chicanos 526Chickasaw 39, 132–3, 139, 140, 141child language acquisition see first

language acquisitionchild–caregiver dialogue 101–2, 652–3CHILDES corpus 483children

with mental retardation 466, 486with neurological disorders 466, 486

Chimborazo Quichua 40Chimbu 30chimpanzees

acquisition of abstract concepts 10–11learning sign language 11, 477see also bonobo

China, language policy 710–11Chinese 27, 113, 284, 435

Ancient 364archaic meters 453as a world language 530writing 49–51, 68, 713n

Chinese grammatical tradition 61, 69Chinookan 41, 97

Index 781

Choctaw 39, 140, 146choice, language, in multilingual

communities 517–26Chol 39Chomsky, Noam xiii, 2, 3–4, 16, 17, 97,

98, 99, 104, 187, 199, 319, 326–7, 464,605

and generative grammar 274, 277,279, 296–305, 312, 317–18, 413, 648

on knowledge of language 397, 555on language learning 2, 312, 332, 480,

490, 640and linguistic theory 100–3, 512Minimalist program 102, 146, 511phrase structure 269–72, 305, 335“poverty of the stimulus” argument

102, 299, 300Principles and Parameters approach

102, 283, 293–4, 500–1Syntactic Structures 100, 102, 266–8The Sound Pattern of English 147, 204

Chontal of Oaxaca (Tequistlatecan) 41Christianity 57, 84Chu-Carroll, Jennifer 608–36Chukchee (Chukchi) 24, 216–17

agreement in 220–1aspectual forms 218–19, 222–3

Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages 24,25

Chumashan languages 38, 41Chuvash 23Circassian 24Clark, J. 151classification of languages 86, 94, 147,

342–3see also morphological classification;

typologyclay 44, 74clicks 162, 184clinical linguistics 646, 673–82

identifying symptoms 674–7insights 679–82role of 677–9

clinico-pathological correlation approachsee deficit-lesion correlationapproach

clitic group 451co-articulation 203

and assimilation 176–7

co-meronymy 251co-occurrence see syntagmatic relationsco-official languages, and constitutional

equality 706Cocke-Kasami-Younger parser 613–14coda 187, 190–1, 456codemixing 509codes, restricted or elaborated 580codeswitching 523–6, 575

“equivalence constraint” 506–7“free morpheme constraint” 506“government” model 507Matrix Language Framework Model

507“metaphorical” vs. “transactional”

523“non-situational” vs. “situational”

523in second language acquisition 506–7

coercion 257cognition

language and 555–6literary and linguistic 446–7, 465and meter 453–4role of language in construction of

440cognitive abilities

human compared with primates10–11

and restricted or elaborated codes580

cognitive effort vs. cognitive effect407–12

cognitive processesand brain processing of language 592in reading 664–6related to speech 146

cognitive psychology 244, 650, 664and sentence processing 615

cognitive science revolution 267–8Cohen, A. 505Cohen, P. R. 616coherence of discourse 435cohesive discourse 435Cohn, Abigail 151, 158, 180–212colonialism, language and 515, 705, 706,

710colophon 76Comanche 39

782 Index

commands see imperatives“comment” 97commissives 433communication

interactional models of 676language and 394–427literary and linguistic 447–8in literary texts 457–9

communication strategy, in SLA 506communicative dynamism (CD) 436communicative functions, of language

319, 320–5, 326–7, 328–9, 336, 648,663

communicative motivations, for theselection of linguistic forms 429–38

community interpreting 695Comorian 35comparative grammar 86, 90comparative linguistics 86comparative method

in language relatedness 122–3philosophical-psychological

approaches 93–4the rise of the 85–93typological-evolutionary approaches

93–4comparatives

committed 252impartial 252

compensatory lengthening 113, 200–1,205

competence 297–8, 312, 424bilingual 525–6native speaker’s 100semantic 370vs. performance 326–7see also pragmatic competence

competing motivations model, intypology 344–5, 363

competition modeland mutual exclusivity 333, 474–5,

480–1and transfer 498–9

complementaries 251, 252Complementizer Constraint 274, 278,

282–3complementizers 310complements 305complex predicates 234–6

compositionality, the principle of 374–5,376, 388, 390

compound bilingualism 489compounding 215–23compounds 215

distinguished from phrases 215neoclassical 223semantic transparency of 231

comprehension deficitsand aphasia 584, 675and right hemisphere lesions 558

computational linguistics 264, 313,608–36

computational morphology 622–3,626–30

continuation patterns in 629computational phonology 622–6

declarative approaches 626computer-assisted translation (CAT)

702–3computers 268, 269

and fieldwork 142and natural language technologies

317simulation of signaling systems 17

Comrie, Bernard 19–42, 324, 328–9, 337,342, 354

concatenative morphology 224concepts

brain damage affecting 588, 589, 599,601

cognitive organization of 458influence of language on 581untranslatable 701and word meanings 241, 244

conceptual categories, typologicalmarkedness 347

conceptual distance 359–60conceptual space 350–1, 363, 367

for grammaticalization 366–7figure 14.6

and hierarchies 349–55polysemy in 358

Condillac, Etienne Bonnot de 2Condition on Extraction Domains (CED)

274–5, 278, 281, 284–5, 289, 291conditional donkey sentences 387,

392–3nconditional relations 383

Index 783

conduction aphasia 584, 585, 600, 605confessions, and forensic linguistics

691configuration 656conflict talk 644conjugations 219–20conjunction 372connectionism 348–9, 483, 598–9

figure 24.2, 601connectives 371–2

but 406–7, 412conditional (if . . . then) 383truth-functional 375

connectivity 364, 365Conrad, Joseph 493–4consecutive interpreting 693–5consonants 181

length of 177marginal in the syllable 159writing 55, 69

constituents 361, 388constraints

centrality to syntax 115, 209, 273–9innate on language learning

(Chomsky) 480, 482similarities in all languages 280“super-conditions” 279

constraints problem, in language change108–9, 114, 125

contact, language 15, 92–3, 574and language change 120–1and sign languages 557

contact linguistics 513, 574contamination 116context

in discourse analysis 431–2relevance and 408–9sensitivity in reading 665and word meaning 242–3, 244–6,

413–14see also sequential context

context of situation 385, 432context-free phrase structure grammar

(CFG) 300–5, 313in computational linguistics 609–15,

635–6and filler-gap dependencies 307–10and semantic component 303–5

contextual inflection 220, 222

contextual patterns of speechsee allophonic patterns

contextualized language use 643Contrastive Analysis 489, 641contrastive discourse, in second language

teaching 644contrastive patterns of speech

see phonemic patternsconventional implicatures 407, 412conversation 439

inferential approach to 401–7the logic of (Grice) 322

Conversation Analysis 437, 439, 444conversational implicatures 402conversational maxims (Grice) 401–7,

414conversational norms, and language

disability 675converses 251, 255conversion 227, 233Cook, Vivian 488–511Cooper, R. 386–7cooperative principle (Grice) 401–7, 414coordinate bilingualism 489Coordinate Structure Constraint, in sign

languages 538–9coordination 535–6 figure 22.1Coos 41Coppieters, R. 496Coptic 33, 77–8

script 55, 56Cora 39Corder, S. Pit 489, 490, 639–40coreference 334coronal 199corpora 76, 264, 631

of child language data 483in language teaching 643linguistically annotated 633

corpus-based methods 317, 608, 631–6,643

Coulmas, Florian 62, 64, 67, 107, 151,563–81

courtroom situationinterpreting in 695power asymmetries in 690–1

cranberry morphs 227, 232–3creak 164creaky voice 164

784 Index

Cree 39syllabary 63, 65 table 3.17

Creek 138Creek-Seminole 140creoles 15, 41, 513creolization 15, 41, 575criminal cases, and forensic linguistics

686–9critical discourse analysis 655critical literacy 655critical period hypothesis (CPH)

in second language acquisition 493–4in sign language acquisition 552, 553

Croatian 21Croft, William 284, 299, 337–68cross-cultural linguistics, and second

language teaching 643–4cross-linguistic surveys, sampling

techniques 341–2Crow 140Cruse, D. A. 238–64, 358Crystal, David 642, 646, 673–82Csató, E. 23culture, and evolution of language 6Cumming, S. 460cuneiform signs 44–5 figure 3.1, 46

table 3.1, 49, 68, 74, 78cursive writing 46Curzon Language Family Descriptions

20Cushitic 32, 33Cuzco Quechua 40cynghanedd groes o gysswllt 463cynghanedd (harmony) 463Cypriote syllabary 49, 50 table 3.4Cyrillic script 55, 61, 72Czech 21, 240Czech linguists see Prague School

Daic languages 27, 31Damasio, A. 601–2Dani see Grand Valley Dani, Western

DaniDaniels, Peter T. 43–80Danish 21, 164Danish Sign Language 556, 557Dante Alighieri 86Dari 22data analysis, in fieldwork 143–5

data collection 131–8, 565, 572–3, 577database queries, generating with

parsing 615dative shift 461Davidson, D. 6, 375–81de Beaugrande, Robert 428, 435De Guignes, J. 89Deacon, T. W. 5deaf children

acquisition of ASL 552with deaf signer parents 549–50with hearing parents 552–3, 561–2n

deaf infants, babbling 469deaf people see hearing impaireddeaf sign languages see sign languagesdécalage 694decipherment 76–9declarative approaches, to computational

phonology 626declarative sentences 321–2, 371–2declensions 219–20decoding 408decontextualization 448default 230, 236, 258, 345default inference rule 403, 405defective distribution 209deference 579deficit, language see language

disabilitydeficit-lesion correlation approach 582,

600–1, 604–5definite descriptions 373DeFrancis, John 51, 68degeneration, language 575–6degenerative disease, and semantic

memory 603Delbrück, Berthold 92demographics, linguistic and national

languages 704, 705, 706, 709,712

demotic script 46, 55Dene-Caucasian language group 31denotation 371

and meaning 370–81and sense 373–4types and syntactic categories 376

dental 166, 167, 181dependency, semantic 241–2dependency grammar 615

Index 785

deprivation, language see languagedisability

derivation 215, 217–23and inflection 222–3leftmost 635parse trees and 635suppletive 232, 233transparent compositional 231

derivational affixes 262derivational morphology 231–2Derocquigny, Jules 698Derrida, Jacques 96Descartes, René 85description

in applied linguistics 639primary linguistic 97–8, 147–8

descriptive grammar 297descriptive linguistics 131, 145–7, 577,

645determinatives, use in writing systems

45, 46–7Devanagari script 52 table 3.7, 55developmental psychology 664Devine, A. M. 452devoicing 163, 173

and voicing 172–5dextrograde 69Dholuo (Luo) 37diachronic linguistics 108, 110, 128ndiachrony 95, 115, 676, 698

defined 109Diakonoff, I. M. 32dialect atlases 565dialect surveys 141dialectics 84dialectology 92–3, 147, 564, 565, 645dialects

chains of 19endangered and language maintenance

645formation of 113, 117or languages 710–11

dialogue, discourse segments of 617figure 25.1

Dickson, D. R. 163dictionaries 131, 148, 239, 257, 264Diegueño 140, 537diglossia 519–22diglossic societies 521–2

Dik, S. C. 329, 330–1Dinka-Nuer languages 37Dionysius Thrax 633diphthong, articulation of 172diplomatics 76directional opposites 251, 254–5directionality 312–13directives 433disability, language see language

disabilitydisadvantage, language see language

disabilitydisambiguation, and part-of-speech

tagging 633–5discourse 327, 381, 587, 650

use of term 428–9discourse act recognition 622discourse actions 621, 622discourse analysis 266, 428–45, 460, 580

activities and tasks 441–2computational 615–22in forensic linguistics 685, 688–9functionalist 322–4, 331–3, 336and language use in context 644and linguistics 444–5plan-based approach 433–4, 616–22and sequential organization 437–8see also critical discourse analysis

discourse level 586, 595discourse markers, in social languages

656discourse representation theory (DRT)

382–3, 392ndiscourse segmentation 622Disjoint Reference Condition (DRC)

276–7, 282, 287–9, 291dislocation 292disorder, language see language

disabilitydisplaced articulations 167 figure 7.3displacement, language 575dissimilation 206distance see conceptual distance,

linguistic distancedistinctive features 96, 97, 158, 199, 211distributed theories, of the brain for

language 597–8disturbance, language see language

disability

786 Index

diversification, linguistic 530–1diversity

cultural in classrooms 647, 657–60linguistic 148, 337–41, 514, 573

Dixon, R. M. W. 20, 30, 39, 147, 452, 454Searching for Aboriginal Languages 142

Djingili 30DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid),

mitrochondrial 6–7documents, philology of 76Dodd, A. 498, 510Dogon 34domain actions 621, 622domain configuration, congruent or

incongruent 518domains of use 518–19dominance, word order 344–5Donald, M. 10Donatus, Aelius

Ars major 83Ars minor 83, 84

donkey anaphora 392ndonkey pronouns 382–5, 392ndonkey sentences, conditional 387,

392–3nDorian, N. C. 527dorsolateral frontal cortex, left 603–4Dowland, John 455Dravidian languages 26, 31, 52, 709,

713nDRC see Disjoint Reference ConditionDryer, M. 342, 343duality of patterning 540ductus 76Dulay, H. C. 490, 492, 497Dunbar, R. 11duration of sound 161, 177

contrastive and contextual control of177

Durkheim, Émile 96, 576Dutch 21, 494, 495

in Australia 527Dutch etymologists 86–7Dyirbal 331, 336n, 528

“gama” songs 452dynamic binding 383–4, 392ndynamic programming, parsing as

613–14, 615, 634dynamic semantics 381–5, 390, 392n

dysarthria 584, 600dysfunction, language see language

disabilitydyslalia 677dyslexia 671

regularization strategy in 597

É. Kiss, K. 333E-type pronouns 384–5, 392nEarly Christian writers 84Early Modern English 105–6East Caucasian 24East Germanic 21East Papuan phylum 29East Semitic 32East Slavic 21East Sudanic 36Eastern Armenian 21Eastern Christian alphabets, Greek-based

72Eastern Kwa 35Eastern Malayo-Polynesian 28–9Eastern Nilotic languages 37Eastern Panjabi 22Ebonics see African-American

Vernacular Englisheconomic motivation see economyeconomy 279, 334, 348

and iconicity 355–62Edmont, E. 565Edo 35, 280–3education 645, 664

bilingual for minorities 532genre approaches to 655–6and language maintenance 645and theories of language 648–52

educational linguistics 647–63Edwards Jr, Jonathan 89Efik, tone riddles 464Egyptian 32

Ancient 33, 364hieroglyphic writing 45–7 table 3.2,

69, 77Einstein, Albert 485Eisenstein, E. L. 75ejectives 162Ekari 30Ekstrand, L. H. 494Elamite 31, 45

Index 787

elicitation, in fieldwork 132, 133, 577ellipsis 415–16, 426n

vehicle change 426nEllis, R. 488elsewhere condition 230embedded clauses 287–8, 301

in sign languages 535–6, 560embedding problem 108, 109–10, 120,

125Emmerik, Wim 548–9emotion, role of language in construction

of 440Empty Category Principle (ECP) 502empty morphemes 357enculturation 648, 651–2endangered languages 104, 137, 141,

145, 645endecasillabo 451Enga 30English 21, 109, 517, 518, 522, 698, 700

changes in 105–7, 111, 113compared with Mohawk 285–94denominal verbs 233iambic pentameter 450–1, 452, 453, 455in India 706in Ireland 528irregular verb forms 225–6plural marker 202–3sound inventory of 183spelling 182, 666–7word order 342, 362, 364as a world language 530, 531, 710see also American English, Early

Modern English, Middle English,Old English

Englishization 707, 708enjambement 451entities 375epiglottal 167epigraphy 76episodes

boundaries in narrative 460–1in discourse 435

episodic culture 10epistemology, role of language in

construction of 440Epstein, S. D. 502, 510equal bilingualism 704equal multilingualism 704

equipollent antonyms 252, 253, 254equivalence sets 456ergative case 217, 340, 352–3ergativity 147Error Analysis 489errors

in child language 478–81, 640, 671in child sign language 551–2

ESF (European Science Foundation)project 491–2

Eskimo 38, 219Eskimo-Aleut 25, 40, 177Esperanto 562nEstonian 22Estrangelo 47, 48Ethiopian Semitic subgroup 33, 365Ethiopic

abugida 57–8 table 3.11, 67, 72, 73, 74Classical 74

ethnic/cultural identities, constructed bylanguage use 439

ethnicity 531, 569, 574and national languages 704

ethnography of speaking 431–2, 677ethnolinguistics 431–2ethnomethodology 576ethnomusicology 454ethnopragmatics 431–2Etruscan 25, 54, 69etymology 82, 86, 94

development of 86–7Eurasia, languages of northern 24–5Eurasiatic 25, 40Europe, languages of 20–5European Union 531EUROSLA (European Second Language

Association) 488evaluation problem 108, 110, 112–13, 120Evans, Howard 699–700Evans, James 63, 392nevent related potentials (ERPs) 558, 582,

605–6evidentials 459evolution

“brain-first” view of 5and modality 562n

evolution of language 1, 2, 11, 65–6,93–4

Ewe 35

788 Index

exclusion, opposition and relations of251–5

existential quantifier 381, 383–4“exotic languages” 325, 329, 333, 337–9expertise, role of language in construction

of 440explanatory criteria

theory-internal 333–4types of 334 table 13.1

explicatures 411, 412expressives 433extended exponence 226extended projection principle 271Extended Standard Theory 102extensions 373–5“externalized language” 294Extra, G. 531extralinguistics 151, 165Eyak 38eye, mammalian 17eye movement studies, in reading 665

Fabb, Nigel 446–65facial expressions, in sign language 542

figure 22.4factor analysis 597Faliscan 113“false friends,” in translation 698–700

defined 697diachronic interlingual 699–700diachronic intralingual 699synchronic interlingual 698synchronic intralingual 700

“family tree model” 92Fang 35Fantini, A. 508Faroese 523Fasold, R. 576featural scripts 44, 62, 63feature geometry 206feature structures, as category labels

304, 313–17features

multiple values of 304and segmenthood 198–201spreading 204–6values of 199see also phonetic features, phonological

features

feedback markers, in forensic linguistics689

feet, metrical 187, 450felicity conditions 433Ferguson, Ronnie 698Ferhardi, A. 172fiction 459field 432field linguistics 130–49, 341, 645

contribution to linguistic theory146–8

defined 130–1techniques of 131–3

fieldwork 130, 140–3methods 133–7starting 133–40technology and 142–3

Fijian 29filler-gap dependencies 307–10, 315–17,

318nfinal devoicing 173, 175 figure 7.5b,

206–7finite, and infinite 265, 296, 535–6finite-state acceptor see finite-state

automaton (FSA)finite-state automaton (FSA) 624, 626

language of 624probabilistic 632–3

finite-state transducersclosed under composition 629compiling from rewrite rules 624–6in morphology 627–30 figures 25.8

and 9in phonology 624–6 figure 25.7

Finnish 22, 88, 177, 516, 529, 666alliteration in 457nouns 228–9, 229–30, 623

Finno-Ugric languages 22, 123, 124first language acquisition 466–87

awareness of language 653–60, 663,672

and biology 2, 648–50, 668compared with second language

acquisition 492–3, 640–1, 648critical period hypothesis and signing

552, 553cues in 473–4, 479, 485delay in 678, 679, 680–1early articulation 468–9

Index 789

early semantics 472–4early stages 469–70emergentist accounts 483–5errors in 478–81, 640, 671first word combinations 476–7first words 469–72and language complexity 102, 332parent perspective 485–6plural formation in 203“poverty of stimulus” argument 102,

299, 300processes in 467, 478sign languages 533, 549–55“two-word” or “telegraphic” stage

11, 15, 16see also infants; innateness hypothesis

first-order languages 375, 390, 391nFirth, John Rupert 243, 432, 692Fishman, J. A. 518, 522, 530, 569fixation 665flapped stop 172

voiced oral alveolar retroflex 172Flege, J. E. 496, 499, 510Flemish 706–7, 712nflexional languages 94focalization 459focus 328–9, 333focus particle 422focussing rule, in discourse analysis 619Fodor, J. A. 313, 425nFoley, R. 3Foley, W. A. 3, 29, 31, 285, 320, 327,

330–1Fongbe 35For (Fur) 36For(an) branch 36forensic linguistics 646, 683–91forensic phonetics 152form

and function 324–5, 648, 653–4, 655and interpretation of narrative 460–2in literary texts 448–9and meaning 446, 447–8, 457–62,

584–5: in sign languages 556–7meaning deviations 226–7musical and linguistic 454–5shaped by contexts of use 429–38, 444shapes structure of thought 476stylistic options of linguistic 461

form–meaning correspondence 356–9figure 14.5

formal language theory 624formal linguistics 429–30, 576formal semantics 369–93formal syntax 268, 289formal writing style 46formalism vs. functional approaches to

language 319, 330, 333–5, 576formality 263, 579Formosan languages 28Foucault, Michel 96Fox, B. 435fragment reconstruction 415–16France, language policy 704Francez, N. 393nfree translation 696–7Freed, B. 503Frege, G. 371–5French 21, 113, 114, 515, 517, 518, 519,

522, 698alexandrine 449in Belgium 706–7loan translations 121negation 357teaching in primary school 494terms of address 120vowels 163as a world language 530, 531, 710see also Old French

French Revolution 120, 515French Sign Language 41–2fricatives 168, 181, 189

flat alveolar 171labialized palatoalveolar 170nasal 169voiceless alveolar central 169voiceless alveolar lateral 169

Frisian 516Fula (Fulfulde, Peul) 34Fulfulde (Fula, Peul) 34fully automatic machine translation

(FAMT) see computer-assistedtranslation (CAT)

fully devoiced segment 173function

and form 324–5, 648, 653–4, 655use of different linguistic forms for

same 460

790 Index

functional categories 218, 375–6, 390Functional Grammar (FG) 329, 330–1functional linguistics 319–36, 648–9

cross-linguistic comparison in 324–5functional magnetic resonance imaging

(fMRI) 558, 582, 601, 603functional neuroanatomy of language

theory 600functional sentence perspective, theory

of 328–9, 436functional-typological approach see

typologyfunctionalism 284, 329–33

conservative 330–2extreme 330, 331–2, 336moderate 330–1Parsonian structural 576vs. formal approaches to language

319, 330, 333–5Fur (For) 36fusion of meanings 226, 356, 357

Ga 35Ga-Dangme dialect cluster 35Gaelic 21, 527

Hebridean (of Lewis) 174Irish see Irishsongs 463

Galla (Oromo) 33Gallician 713nGamkrelidze, T. V. 72Gan 27“gapping” 464Garifuna (Black Carib) 40, 135–6, 140

verbal agreement markers in 135table 6.1

Gazdar, G. 273, 305, 313, 403, 404–5Gbaya 172Gbe 35Gê ( Je) language family 40Geach, P. 392nGee, James Paul 645, 647–63Geelvink Bay phylum 29Ge’ez 33, 365Gelb, I. J. 43, 67, 68, 79gender 222, 569, 579, 644

identities constructed by language use439, 444

and politeness 580

general phonetic theory 151, 154, 158,178

general phonological theory 151generalization

capturing 298–9of meaning 259typological 364–5universal 365–7

generalized conversational implicatures403

Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar103, 284, 615

generalized quantifiers (GQs) 379–81,385–7, 390

generation, language 575–6“generative”, use of the word 268,

296–7generative grammar 100, 125, 146, 268,

295–318, 575, 650and functionalism 332the future of 317–18phenomena studied by 305–11rules 446tenets of 297–300varieties of 311–17

generative language model 632–3generative linguistics 648–9generative metrics 452generative phonology 97, 187, 211generative semantics 103Genesee, F. 496, 508, 509, 510genetics, and origins of language 6–7genre 655–6, 663Georgian 24

script 55, 58German 21, 113, 478, 491, 492, 517, 698,

700learning gender 483–5in Pennsylvania 528Standard 574see also Swiss German

Germanic 20–1, 57, 88, 124verse 456

Geschwind, N. 584, 598, 599, 601–2Gesner, Konrad 86Gestuno 562ngesture, origins of language in 11–12Gheg 21Ghezzi, R. W. 460

Index 791

Gikuyu 36Gilbertese (Kiribati) 29Gilliéron, Jules, Atlas linguistique de la

France 92, 565Gilyak (Nivkh) 25Giraldus Cambrensis 86Givón, T. 335, 361, 435Glagolitic script 55, 56glides 181global aphasia 585global holonym 248glottal 166, 167, 181glottal fry see creakglottal stop 164glottalic airstream mechanism 162glottis 162, 163“glottonic” view of languages 86Goldin-Meadow, S. 510, 559Golding, Sir William 461Goldsmith, J. 151, 204Good Language Learner strategies 505Gothic 21, 88, 91

script 55, 56government, role of inflection in 220,

222Government and Binding Theory 102grammar

actual vs. conceivable 16–17common formal elements 238, 300–5explicit teaching of 643explicitness of 298language-specific 342psychological relevance of 299–300as a theory of language 100theory of and universal claims 2, 299,

341–67use of the word 295–6, 424nvs. meaning 325

grammars 131, 148should be maximally general 298–9teaching 85

grammatical categories 339see also parts of speech

grammatical morphemes research in L2acquisition 490, 497, 502

grammatical relations 323, 324hierarchy 351–4map of attested systems of 354–5

figure 14.4

grammatical structure, and iconicity559

grammatical traditions 81–4grammatical words 188, 214, 217, 236grammaticality judgements 510

and language disorders 591grammaticalization 103, 127n, 218

conceptual space for 366–7 figure14.6

of facial “intonation” in sign language542

grammatology 79Grand Valley Dani 30graphemes 66–7, 96, 667, 670Grassmann’s Law 91Greek 21, 88, 91, 124, 318n, 519

in Australia 527in the Balkans 121Byzantine 21changes in 111–12, 113, 116, 118, 119Classical 21, 82, 219drama 452early script 49, 52, 69, 79Medieval 125, 127nMycenean 21Pontic 127nscript 59

Greek alphabet 56, 70, 72, 73, 75letter names 74scripts derived from the 55–6 table 3.9

Greek grammatical tradition 82–3Greenberg, Joseph H. 25, 31, 33, 34–5,

36, 37, 38, 40, 103, 299, 342, 344, 346,365

“Greenbergian” approach see typologyGreenlandic 38Gregg shorthand 63Grice, H. P. 322, 397, 401–7, 414Grimes, B. F. 19, 30, 37, 42Grimes, J. E. 19, 42Grimm, Jakob, Deutsche Grammatik 86,

89, 90Grimm’s Law 88, 90–1, 124–5Grondin, N. 502Grosjean, F. 506, 509, 512Grotefend, Georg Friedrich 78Guaraní

Paraguayan 40, 349, 351, 704, 710and Spanish 521

792 Index

guessing, psycholinguistic 118–19, 485,665

Gujarati 22script 52 table 3.7in UK 518, 522

Gumperz, J. J. 523, 572, 677Gur (Voltaic) languages 34Gurmukhi script 52 table 3.7Gutenberg, Johannes 75Gutknecht, Christoph 646, 692–703Gutt, E.-A. 697Gyarmathi, Sámuel, Affinitas linguae

Hungaricae cum linguis Fennicae . . .86–90

Gypsies (Rom) 22

Haas, Mary R., Survey of CaliforniaIndian Languages 145

Haas, W. 243, 244, 249Habermas, Jürgen 576habituation effects 468Hadza 37Haida 38haiku, Japanese 449, 452, 453Haitian Creole, French-based 41, 357Hakka 27Hale, Kenneth 146, 147, 286, 451Halle, Morris 97, 115, 187, 199, 230, 231,

452The Sound Pattern of English 147, 204

Halliday, M. A. K. 329, 330, 331–2, 432,435, 461, 490, 572, 655

Hamito-Semitic languages seeAfroasiatic languages

handedness, and language 5–6, 594, 595handicap, language see language

disabilityhandshapes, in sign languages 539, 559Hannay, M. 696Hanson, K. 451, 452, 454Harari, Old and Modern 365Hardcastle, W. J. 151Harley, B. 493, 494harmony, word order 344–5, 346Harnish, R. 411Harris, A. C. 94, 103Harris, J. 169Harris, James, Hermes 85Harris, Zellig 99

Hasan, R. 432, 435, 436Hasidic Jews, in US 522Haugen, E. 490, 526Hausa 33, 162Hawaiian 29, 159, 529, 530Haya 36Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar

103, 615heads 301, 305hearing impaired, rights in courtroom

situation 690, 691Heath, Polyanna 138Hebrew 32, 83, 84, 225, 705

abjad 47, 48, 72, 73as original language 84, 86revival 522status in Israel 525vowel marking 59

Hebrew linguistic tradition 83–4, 87Heim, I. 392nHellenic 21Hemnesberget, Norway 523Herder, Johann Gottfried von 2, 94Herodotus 87Hervás y Panduro, Lorenzo 86, 89, 93Hervey, S. 697Hetzron, R. 32hidden Markov models (HMMs) 633–4hierarchical tag set 633, 636nhierarchies, and conceptual spaces

349–55hieratic 46hieroglyphic writing 33, 39, 49

Egyptian 45–7 table 3.2, 69, 77Higginbotham, J. 392nHiligaynon 28Hincks, Edward 78–9Hindi 22, 705–6, 708–9, 710, 712n

word order 363Hindu grammatical tradition 82Hindu legal texts 89Hinton, L. 145hiragana 51, 80 figure 3.6historical linguistics 105–29, 147, 351, 564

defined 107historiography, linguistic 81–104history of linguistics 81–104Hittite 22

script 45, 49

Index 793

Hmong 27–8Hmong Njua (Western Hmong) 28Hmong-Mien (Miao-Yao) languages

27–8, 31Hock, H. H. 108, 116Hockett, C. F. 43, 99, 324Hoefnagel-Höhle, M. 494Hoem, I. 455Hoenigswald, H. M. 86, 89Hokan 41Hokkien 522holism 242–3, 676–7Holm, A. 498, 510holonym 248home immersion, in school-related

language 651, 656, 663home language instruction 532“home sign” language model 553, 559Homer 82, 450, 452hominids 5, 16homo erectus 16homo habilis 16homo sapiens 4, 7, 16homogenization, linguistic 530–1homomorphism 376, 388, 390, 393nhomonymy 214, 226, 246, 358, 359homophony 214Hopi 39, 140Hopper, P. 331, 333Hopper, P. J. 461Hovdhaugen, E. 82, 83, 84Howard, S. 678, 680hPags pa’s script 62, 63 table 3.15, 70Huang, C.-T. J. 284, 289Huffman coding 632Huichol 39Hulstijn, J. 499human language, compared with animal

cries 8–9human language faculty 2, 4, 300, 466,

486–7, 533, 553, 555autonomous 2, 332–3evolution of the 65–6

Humboldt, Wilhelm von 89, 94, 98, 103,291, 296, 580

humor 595Hungarian 22, 88, 352, 361

preverbs 235–6Hurford, J. R. 3

Huron 39Hurrian 25, 45Hymes, D. 431–2, 460, 677hypernym 247hypometabolism, cortical 594, 606hyponymy 247–8hypothesis testing, in reading 665

iambic pentameter 450–1, 452, 453, 455Ibibio-Efik 35Ibn Janav of Cordova, Kitab al-Luma’ 83Icelandic 21, 171, 174iconicity

and economy 355–62in sign languages 12, 543, 551, 559in spoken language 562n

identitycultural and literacy 651, 660inclusion and relations of 247–51language and 518, 526linguistic construction of 439, 440

identity test 245–6ideology

language and 654–5role of language in construction of

440Igbo 35, 169Ihre, Johan 86Ijo 35Ijoid 34IlliB-SvityB, V. M. 25illocutionary acts 426n, 433Ilocano 28immersion programs 516, 529

vs. direct instruction 649–52, 656, 663immigrant languages 527, 528, 531immigration

and language death 527and multilingualism 530–2

imperative mood 219imperatives 302–3, 307, 313, 321, 371,

411and tags 298, 312

implication 372, 412implicational universals 97, 103, 185,

195, 200, 344, 347, 348in hierarchies 350and linguistic and conceptual distance

359–60

794 Index

implicational universals cont’dand sequence of word order changes

364–5implicatures

and contextual implications 411see also conventional implicatures;

conversational implicaturesimplosives 162Inca quipu 80ninchoative 232inclusion, identity and relations of 247–51incompatibility 251incorporating languages 94incorporation 146

see also noun incorporationindexical pronouns 424nIndia

language policy 704, 705–6, 708–9,709, 712n, 713n

multilingualism 517Indic languages 22, 52

scripts 52–5, 57, 67, 70, 71indigenous languages 137, 514–15

immersion programs 529and immigrants 522prestige of 709–10and school experience 657–60

individual terms 371, 375Indo-Aryan (Indic) 22, 52Indo-European 20–2, 25, 52, 87, 89, 123,

124, 146–7, 363Indo-Iranian languages 22Indo-Pacific language group 31Indonesia, language policy 704, 705Indonesian 364, 463

segment deletion in borrowings 194,197–8

Indus Valley script 76, 79infants

auditory processing in 468communication needs 476–7prelinguistic 469–70see also deaf infants, first language

acquisitioninference 401, 433

non-trivial 407, 425nand relevance 409–11

inferior parietal lobe 599, 601–2infinite, and finite 265, 296, 535–6

inflection 215, 215–23, 236and derivation 222–3polymorphemic 228–9see also contextual inflection, inherent

inflectioninflectional class 219–20inflectional morphology 217“informants” 134information retrieval, and parsing 615inherent inflection 218, 222–3inherentness in overlapping antonyms

254initial devoicing 173, 174 figure 7.5a“initial symbols” 301innateness hypothesis 2, 4, 101, 102, 555

in deaf children 553–4innovations, spread of 110, 112–13, 117,

120–1, 579Input Hypothesis theory, in SLA 504inscriptions

Aramaic and Prakrit 70Behistun of Darius 78, 79early Chinese 49Greek and Palmyrene Aramaic 77“Hittite” hieroglyphic 49Mayan hieroglyphic 39Meso-American 62“Proto-Canaanite” 47“Proto-Sinaitic” 74Sassanian 78Urartian 79

institutional discourse 430–1, 439, 444,644

institutions, social interaction in 660–2intelligence, bilingualism and 513intelligibility 19intensional semantics 375–81intensions 373–4, 375intentions, speaker’s / author’s 447–8,

458, 616, 685, 689inter-segmental coordination 172–7interdental 167interference 489, 698interlanguage hypothesis 490, 492, 510,

640interlinear translation 696“internalized language” 294International Association for Applied

Linguistics 638

Index 795

International Association of ForensicLinguistics 683

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)63, 143, 153, 159, 179 (appendix 7),182

International Phonetic Association 153,159, 182

International Sign 557, 562ninternationalization of words 699interpretation

linguistic and non-linguistic 396–401,423

in literary texts 447–8, 457–9procedural aspects of 400–1, 412

interpretingin courtroom situation 690–1modes of 693–5

interpretive rules, and transformationalrules 271–3

interrogative mood 219interrogatives 321, 371intersubjectivity 576interventions

clinical 679educational 647–8

interviews 577intimacy 579intonation 164intransitive 339, 415Inuit 515, 645Inuit-Inupiak 38Inuktitut (Inuit) 177Iranian languages 22, 365

script 59, 61, 69–70Ireland, language policy 704, 708Irish 21, 57, 305, 519, 522, 527, 708

alliteration 447relative clause construction in 309–10word order 362, 363see also Belfast Irish, Old Irish

irony 447, 458–9Iroquoian languages 39island constraints 310–11, 312, 316isolating languages 94isomorphism 356–9Israel, language policy 705Israeli Sign Language (ISL) 542, 544–5,

556, 557Issidorides, D. 499

Italian 21, 517, 666, 698, 710dialects of 711endecasillabo 451in US 527

Italian Sign Language 557Italic 21item-and-arrangement morphology

223–4, 230item-and-process approach to

morphology 229

Jackendoff, R. 555–6Jäger, Andreas 86, 87, 88Jakobson, Roman 96–7, 103, 199, 424n,

448, 463, 464James, William 467Jamiltepec Mixtec 343Japanese 23, 23–4, 305, 324–5, 489, 492

Chinese writing for 49, 51haiku 449, 452, 453syllabaries 49, 51 table 3.6syllable structure 192–4, 196, 197writing system 666

Japanese Sign Language 556, 557Japanese-Ryukyuan languages 23–4jargon, spread of 120Javanese 28, 704, 705

script 53 table 3.7, 54, 55, 80figure 3.6

Je (Gê) language family 40Jespersen, Otto xiiiJieng (Dinka) 37Johanson, L. 23Johnson, J. S. 495, 501Johnston, M. 491Jones, Sir William 86, 87–91, 93Joseph, Brian D. 105–29, 337Josephus, Flavius 87judges, language of 690Jula 34Junggrammatiker see Neogrammariansjury instructions 690Justin, Saint 87

Kabardian 24Kabyle 33Kadai 27Kado (Kadu) 34Kadugli-Krongo 34

796 Index

Kakongo 88Kalabari Ijo 35Kalam 169Kalapuyan 41Kalenjin 37Kalevala 457Kalmyk 23Kam-Sui 27Kam-Tai 27Kamba 36Kamp, H. 333, 392n, 405kana (syllabaries) 49, 498, 666kanji (Chinese characters in Japanese)

51Kannada 26, 517

script 52 table 3.7Kanuri 36, 352Karachay-Balkar 23Karamojong 37Karcevskij, Serge 96Karen 27Karlsson, F. 228Karok-Shasta 41Kartvelian (South Caucasian) 24, 124Kashmiri 22Kasper, G. 498, 499, 506katakana 51Kate, Jan Jacob Lodewijk ten 87Katyayana’s rules of interpretation 82Katz, J. 299Kaufman, T. 40Kawaiisu 140Kazakh 23Kazenin, K. I. 354Keenan, E. 342Kekchi 39Keller, Helen 466Kempson, Ruth 394–427Kent, R. D. 151Kenya 524Keresan 38Ket 25Khalaj 23al-Khalcl 83Kharia 350, 351Kharoshthi script 52 table 3.7, 54Khmer 26

script 53 table 3.7, 54Khoekhoe (Nama) 37

Khoisan 33, 37see also Central Khoisan, Northern

Khoisan, Southern KhoisanK’iche’ (Quiché) 39, 337, 338–9, 341,

342–3, 345, 350, 353, 358Kikongo 36, 88Kilwardby, Robert 84Kim-Renaud, Y.-K. 61Kintsch, W. 434, 435Kinyarwanda 36, 362Kiparsky, P. 115, 116, 451, 452, 454, 456Kipchak (Northwestern Turkic) 23Kirghiz 23Kiribati (Gilbertese) 29Kirsner, K. 509Kirundi 36, 710Kituba 36Klamath-Modoc 41Klavans, Judith 702Klein, W. 491–2, 510Klima, E. 115Knorosov, Yuri 79knowledge

and discourse analysis 442–4human compared with animal 10

knowledge about language 653–60, 672knowledge of language 394–6, 397–400,

555procedures for interpreting utterances

400–1in SLA 511

Koasati 140Kober, Alice 79Koch, G. 452, 454Koehn, E. H. 460Koessler, Maxime 698Kolokuma Ijo 35Kopitar, J. 128nKoran see Qur’anKordofanian 34Korean 23, 188, 200, 475

alphabet 62, 63 table 3.15Chinese writing for 49, 51featural script 62, 70

Koskenniemi, K. 625, 629Kosraean 343Kpelle 34, 360Krashen, S. 494, 504Krasinski, E. 508

Index 797

Kraus, Christian Jakob 86, 89Krio of Sierra Leone 41Kroeber, A. L. 98Kroll, J. F. 509Kru languages 34, 35Kruszewski, Mikolaj 96Kumyk 23Kuno, S. 325, 329, 330, 332, 335Kurdish 22, 172Kurds, in Turkey 528Kwa languages 34–5

L2 acquisition see second languageacquisition

labelingin child language acquisition 475,

652–3product 684–5

labels, in computational phonology 624labial 160, 166, 167, 181labialization 170, 171labiodental 167Labov, William 108, 109, 113, 114, 117,

428, 439, 462, 568, 570, 572, 573, 579,659

Ladefoged, P. 147, 150, 151, 155, 162,163

Laetoli, Tanzania 4Lahnda (Western Panjabi) 22Lahu 347Laka, I. 147Lakhota 140, 285, 321–2, 326, 331Lambert, W. E. 493laminodental 167Lampung 28Lancelot, C., Grammaire générale et

raisonnée de Port Royal 85Langdon, Margaret 145Lango 37language

as an art form 548–9complexity of 466, 486definition of 19essential nature and sign languages

533–4neural specialization for 555rule-governed nature of xivthe similarity of all human 279–85as a social fact 96, 563–6, 575–6

theories of 648–52universal core 466–7, 547and writing 65–75

language acquisition see acquisitionstudies, first language acquisition,second language acquisition (SLA)

language awareness, and consciouscontrol 653–60, 663, 672

language contact see contact, languagelanguage death 526–30language disability 673–82

assessment 679, 681causes 673–4clarification 677–8description 678, 680–1diagnosis 676, 678, 679, 681grading 680, 681intervention 679, 680, 681tests of 676

language disorders see aphasiologylanguage families 20, 122–4, 126, 363–4

core of frequently used sounds 153–4criteria for establishing 86, 87

language groups 123language identification 152language impairment 485–6language isolates 123language loyalty 515language maintenance see maintenance,

languagelanguage modeling, via corpus-based

methods 631–2language pathology 676language planning 514, 646, 704–13language policy 514, 574

explicit 704–5language shift 522, 526–30language socialization 440language universals see universalslanguages

classification and listing 86common properties of all 3–4distribution of 19genetically related 19–20, 122–4legal equality of 708–9origins of differences in 93–4use of different forms for same

function 460see also diversity, linguistic

798 Index

languages of wider communication713n

languages of the world 19–42sound inventories 182–3

langue 96, 325, 327Lao 27

script 53 table 3.7, 54Laongo 88LaPolla, R. J. 330, 333Lapp 88Lappin, Shalom 369–93Lappish (Saamic) 22laryngealization 164, 171larynx 159, 160, 162, 163

position in humans 4–5Lascaux cave paintings 6Lashley, K. S. 596Lasnik, H. 272, 274, 276lateralization, and language 558, 594–5Latin 15, 21, 47, 85, 88, 124, 226, 519,

699alphabet see Roman alphabetchanges in 113, 114, 115–16, 118consonant deletion in 200–1

Latvian 21, 352songs 454

Lauttamus, T. 177Laver, John 150–79law, and language 683–91lax 173learnability 300, 312learning

to read 668–70to spell 670–1

learning algorithm 484learning language 466–7

as habit formation 640leather 74Lee, Felicia A. 146left anterior negativity (LAN) 606leftmost derivation 635Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm 86, 87, 89,

93Lemnian 25Lendu (Badha) 37Lenneberg, Eric H. 101, 466, 493, 553Leopold, W. 508Lepcha of Sikkim script 70Leskien, August 92

letter names 72–5 table 3.18letter order 71–2letters

correspondence with phonemes666–7

inventories of 52used as numerals 72

Lëtzebuergesch 574levels of representation

in language processing 586and locality conditions 413–14

Levelt, W. J. M. 505Lévi-Strauss, Claude 96Levinson, S. 322, 403, 405lexeme 214, 236, 239

the structure of the 231–6lexeme concept 213–14

and Item-and-Arrangement theory 224lexical categories 267, 301lexical entry 214lexical fields see word-fieldslexical forms 239lexical groups, in child language

acquisition 481–3lexical heads see headslexical hierarchies 259–62

branching 259–60non-branching 259, 260

lexical integrity 213, 234–6lexical items see wordslexical level 586lexical parallelism 462, 463, 464lexical relatedness, four types of 232–3lexical semantics 242–4

componential/localistic approach243–4

conceptual approach 244contextual/holistic approach 242–3see also word meanings

lexical units 239Lexical-Functional Grammar 103, 615“Lexicalist Hypothesis” 102lexicography 245, 264lexicon 238–64, 301, 426n

one or two in bilingualism 509in second language teaching 654

“lexigrams” 12Li, C. N. 325, 435Libya 710

Index 799

Lichtheim, L. 584, 600, 601Liddell, S. K. 536–8Lieber, R. 228–9Lieberman, P. 4, 493Lieberson, S. 527Lightbown, P. 491Lillo-Martin, Diane 533–62Linear A 49, 76Linear B 49, 50 table 3.4, 79Lingala 36lingua franca 41, 574“lingual” mechanism see velaric

airstream mechanism“linguistic areas” (Sprachbund) 97linguistic distance 359–60linguistic engineering, imperfections in

17linguistic parallelism 464linguistic phonetics 150–79

the coverage of a theory of 153–4and general phonetic theory 151the scope of 151–3

linguistic relativity 97, 580–1linguistic resources for doing and being

439–44Linguistic Society of Paris 2linguistic theory

development in twentieth century325–9

as formal 576(since 1957), and Chomsky 100–3

linguistics 295as a discipline xiv, 150history of 81–104and literature 446–65as Naturwissenschaft or Geisteswissenschaft

93–4and reading 664–72role of theory in 335as a science xiv, 99semiotics and writing 79–80

linguolabial 167linking vowel 220liquids 181literacy 75, 148, 486

“academic” 654, 656and direct phonics instruction 650–1early 653–4the effects of 672

literacy studies, “Toronto school” 75literal meaning 257–8, 397, 458literal translation 696–7literary linguistics 446–8literary rules 446–7, 448, 465literary texts

linguistics and 448–9and literary rules 446–7parallelism in 462–5sources of interpretive difficulty in

457–9literary tradition 710literature

linguistics and 446–65as a special kind of verbal behavior

448–9, 460–2, 464Lithuanian 21Lluyd, Edward 86, 88loan translations 121loan-words, as prestige markers 526localism, in lexical semantics 243–4locality 306–7, 314

restriction on pronouns 413–14localizationist theories of the brain for

language 596–7, 598–601Locastro, V. 499Locke, John, Essay Concerning Human

Understanding 85locutionary acts 426n, 433logic 82, 84, 425–6n

compared with ordinary language404

first-order 371–5, 391nlogical form 399, 458, 650

and phonological form 447–8logical theory see semantic analysislogograms, phonetic complements in 47logographic readers 669–70logographic script 43, 45, 67logosyllabaries 43, 69

of the New World 61–5old world 44–51

Lombard 711, 713nLomwe 36London Cockney 164Long, M. 504Lopez, Felipe 144Loprieno, A. 33Lottner, Carl 124

800 Index

loudness 161Lower Chinook 97Luba-Kasai 36Luba-Shaba 36“Lucy” see australopithecus afarensis

(“Lucy”)Luganda 36

songs 455Lugbara (High Lugbara) 37Luiseño 140lungs 159, 162Luo (Dholuo) 37Luo (Lwo) 37Luvale 36Luvian 49Luyia 36Lwidakho 524Lwo (Luo) 37Lyons, J. 242, 244

Maasai 37McCarthy, J. 194, 206, 225McCloskey, J. 309–10McDonough, S. 505Macedonian 21, 121machine translation 317, 702

and parsing 615machine-aided human translation

(MAHT) see machine translationMacNeilage, Peter 469, 562nmacro-sociolinguistics 572–5macrostructure 434MacWhinney, Brian 333, 466–87, 498Maddieson, I. 147, 151, 162, 163, 183,

185Madurese 28magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) 13,

582magnetoencephalography 582Maidu 41maintenance, language 530, 645Maipurean languages 40Maithili 22Major, R. 498, 509Makassarese 28Makonde 36Makua 36Malagasy 28Malay 460, 516, 522, 526, 705

Malay-Indonesian 28Malayalam 26, 517

script 53 table 3.7Malayo-Polynesian languages 28Malinowski, B. 432Maltese 32, 574Manchu 23

alphabet 61 table 3.14, 62, 70Mandaic abjad 47, 48Mandarin Chinese 23, 26, 27, 324–5,

349, 351, 352, 355, 362, 522, 710, 711Mande languages 34Mangbetu 37Manichean script 59, 60 table 3.13Maninka 34Manipuri (Meithei) 27Maori 29

immersion program 529, 530Rarotongan 177

Marathi 22Margany 171Maricopa 138, 140markedness 97

universal 347–9see also typological markedness

markers, non-manual grammatical insign language 537, 561n

Markov property 633–4Martha’s Vineyard 117, 573Martin, Robert 139–40, 591–2Marxist models of social class 567Masica, C. P. 22Mathesius, V. 328–9, 436Matisoff, James 25matres lectionis 47Mauritius, French-based creoles 41Maya hieroglyphs 62, 79Maya syllabary 64 table 3.16Mayan languages 39, 68, 653Mbundu see Northern Mbundu,

Southern Mbundumeaning

arbitrary relationship between wordsand 12

assignment of more than one 389–90encoded 342, 396, 400extensions and change 257–9and form 356–9, 446, 447–8, 457–62,

584–5: in sign languages 556–7

Index 801

grammar vs. 325and language universals 346–62possible language-world connections

369properties of 650specialization of 259and use 394–6

meaningscumulation of 226and denotations 370–81fusion of 226, 356, 357and situations 385–8

medial phase 165Medlpa 30Meier, Richard 551Meillet, Antoine 96, 103Meisel, J. M. 491, 502, 508Meithei (Manipuri) 27Mekeo 360memory

and auditory processing 467–8interpreter’s in simultaneous

interpreting 694see also semantic memory, short-term

memory, working memoryMende 34mental lexicon 263, 458, 666mentalism 100Meroitic 37meronymy 248, 260, 261–2Meso-America, languages of 39Mesopotamian cuneiform 44–5, 46

table 3.1, 66, 68, 74, 78meta-description, in narrative 461, 465metalanguages 335, 653–6, 660, 672metaphor 258, 395, 447, 458, 595

as an enrichment process 414–15stereotyped meaning 458

metaphorical extension 258meter 446, 448, 449–51

and cognition 453–4and phonological parallelism 463rhythmic 449role in songs 455see also accentual meter, quantitative

metermetonymy 258–9metrical foot (feet) 187, 450metrical lines 449, 451

metrical rulesin metrical traditions 452–3and phonological rules 450, 453–4

metrical strength, and phonologicalstrength 449–50

metrical structure, and phonologicalstructure 449–54

metrical systems, distribution of 455metrical theory, methodological and

conceptual problems for a 452–3metrical traditions, metrical rules in

452–3Mexican-Americans 526Miao-Yao (Hmong-Mien) languages

27–8micro-sociolinguistics 567Micronesian languages 29Middle English 105–6, 113, 114Mien 27–8Milan, Carlo 699Milberg, W. 589–90, 602Milroy, James 569–70Milroy, Lesley 569–70, 573mimetic culture 10Min see Northern Min, Southern MinMinangkabau 28minimal pairs 186

in ASL 540 figure 22.2Minimalist program 102, 146, 511minority languages 516–17, 518–19, 530mirror writing 671misarticulation 677Mitterrand, François 515Miwok-Costanoan 38, 41Mixe-Zoquean languages 39mixed categories 234Mixtec 39modality

iconicity and grammatical structure559, 560

and point of view 459mode, in discourse 432modification 587

Davidson and Montague’s analysescompared 376–8

modifiers 287–8order of 343–4

Modistae 84–5modus significandi 84–5

802 Index

Mohawk 39, 146compared with English 285–94

Mojave 140, 142Mon 26Mon-Khmer 26Monboddo, J. B., Lord 89Mongolian 23, 70, 711

script 61 table 3.14, 62, 70Mongolic languages 23monolingualism 704, 706

de jure or de facto regionally defined709

imposed 707, 709–10monolinguality 468, 488monophthong, articulation of 172monosemy 358, 359Montague grammar 375–81, 388–9, 390monumental writing style 46mood 219Moore 34mora 449Morocco 710morph 223

one and no meaning 227one and two meanings 226two and one meaning 226

morpheme 66, 96, 213, 327concept 223–31defined 214null 226–7order 228–9

morpheme theory, classical 233, 236morphological classification 98, 477morphological level 586morphological representation, and

typological markedness 346–9morphology 82, 213–37, 266, 543

see also agglutinating morphology,computational morphology,concatenative morphology,derivational morphology, non-concatenative morphology,processual morphology

morphosyllabary see logosyllabarymorphotactics 224Moscow Linguistic Circle 96mother

inheritance of mitochondrial DNAfrom 6–7

preference in babies for voice of 468“mother tongue,” in historical and

biological senses 7motivated sign languages 12motivation 334, 341

communicative for the selection oflinguistic forms 429–38

competing in typology 344–5, 363iconic see iconicitysee also economy

motor strip, proximity to Broca’s area14, 17

Mountford, J. 43mouth 159, 160Moutier, François 600Mueller, Max xivMüller, Friedrich 94, 98Müller, N. 502multilingualism 512–32

individual vs. societal 516–17modern 530–2origins of 513–16role in language change 128n

multivariate analysis 577Munda 26Mundari 26Munro, Pamela 130–49, 341Murdoch, Rupert 514murmur see whispery voiceMurtha, S. 604musical form, and phonological form

454–5musicology, linguistically sensitive

454–5Muskogean language family 39, 225–6mutual exclusivity, and competition

474–5Muysken, Pieter 40, 507Myers-Scotton, C. 507, 523mythic culture 10

Na-Dene 31, 38, 40Naadh (Nuer) 37Nabatean script 47, 49Nahali (Nihali) 30–1Nahuatl 39, 176, 291Nakh-Daghestanian 24Nama (Khoekhoe) 37, 162naming problems 584, 588

Index 803

Naoi, K. 501narrative 444, 460–2

boundary-markers in 461episodes in 460“evaluation” in a 462interpretation of 460–2vernacular in school 657–60, 662

nasal stop 169complex oral 169post-occluded 169pre-occluded 169

nasalization 170anticipatory 177

nasals 169, 181syllabic 212n

Nation, I. S. P. 505nation-state, and language 514–15, 574national languages 574, 704–6

of administration 705factors in selection of 704, 708–11and official languages 707–9

national/regional language systems704, 709–10

nationalism 704, 710–11Native American languages 75, 97, 98,

528, 645natural language technologies 317, 622natural languages

complexity of 269formal truth definitions for 375, 392n

natural selection 17natural sign languages 533–62Navajo (Navaho) 38, 140, 475–6, 545,

556, 557Ndo 37Neanderthals 4near synonymy 249, 250–1needs

communication in infants 476–7communicative and discourse 429–38

negation 372sentential 372

negative transfer 698Nemser, W. 490, 492Neogrammarians 92–3, 94, 125Neopolitan 711Nepali 22Netherlands, Sign Language of the

557

Nettle, D. 20Neufeld, G. 495neural net models see parallel

distributed processing (PDP)models

neural networks model 348–9, 481,483

neural system, processing language555, 593–4

neurobiology, and origins of language13–15, 17

neuroimaging, functional 467, 486, 582,600, 606–7

neurolinguistics 582–607and sign languages 533, 554–5

neurophysiology 477, 486neutral articulations 166, 167 figures 7.2

and 3neutralization 206–7New York, Puerto Ricans in 518, 568Newmeyer, F. J. 2, 17, 312Newport, Elissa 495, 501, 503, 556Ngambay (Sara-Ngambay) 37Ngbandi 35, 41Nicaragua, sign language 553–4,

559–60Nichols, J. 20, 330Niger-Congo languages 33–6, 37, 124Niger-Kordofanian 34Nigeria

language policy 709–10Pidgin of 41

Nihali (Nahali) 30–1Nikolayev, S. L. 24Nilo-Saharan language families 34,

36–7Nilotic languages 33, 37

see also Eastern Nilotic languages,Southern Nilotic languages

Nivkh (Gilyak) 25Nobiin 37nominalization 461, 656

deverbal 234non-alphabetic societies 75non-communicative verbal behavior

321non-compositional semantics 215,

389–90, 393nnon-concatenative morphology 224

804 Index

non-configurational languages 146, 286non-literate societies 76non-native speakers, rights in courtroom

situation 690–1non-transformational analyses 313–17non-verbal communication 676, 677Nootka 38, 146North America, languages of 38–9North Caucasian family 24, 31North Germanic 21Northeast Caucasian 24Northeastern Turkic (Siberian) 23Northern Dravidian 26Northern Hokan (Yana) 41Northern Khoisan 37Northern Mbundu 36Northern Min 27Northern Ndebele 36Northern Sotho (Pedi) 36Northern Uto-Aztecan languages 39Northwest Caucasian 24Northwest Semitic 32

script 67–8, 69, 72Northwestern Turkic (Kipchak) 23Norwegian 21, 523, 526Norwich 568Nostratic proposal 25, 31, 124noun incorporation 216–17, 235, 462noun phrase (NP) 301

copy referential index onto a pronoun272–3

Davidson and Montague’s analysescompared 378–80

topic 324–5, 328Nubian languages 36–7nucleus 187, 191, 455null morpheme 226–7Number 228–9, 346–7numeral and adjective word order,

attested vs. unattested 343–4table 14.1

numerals, characters for 68–9, 72Nung (Rung) 27Nunggubuyu 337, 338–9, 341, 343Nupe 35Nyakyusa-Ngonde 36Nyamwezi 36Nyanja 36Nyankore 36

Oakland School, Ebonics War 711object 271, 339“object concept,” in child development

470“oblique” 351obstruents 189, 200Occam’s razor see economyOceania, languages of 25–31Oceanic languages 28–9Ochs, E. 429, 437, 439, 440, 445Ocracoke Island dialect 645official languages 516, 706, 707offset phase 165Ogham 57 table 3.10, 74Oghuz (Southwestern Turkic) 23Ohala, J. 119, 153Ojibwa (Ojibwe) 39, 460Oksaar, E. 508Old Chinese 27Old Church Slavonic 55

analogical change to modern Polish349 table 14.3

Old Cyrillic script 56Old English 105–6, 113, 449Old French 699Old Irish 113Old Persian 78, 88

syllabary 49, 50 table 3.4Old Slavic 73, 74Old-Babylonian grammatical tradition

81–2O’Malley, J. 505Omotic languages 32, 33onset 187, 190, 191, 455onset phase 165O’odham (Pima-Papago) 39operant conditioning 101opposites 251–5opposition, relations of and exclusion

251–5optative mood 219optimal relevance 409–11, 414, 421–2,

425nOptimality Theory 115, 128n, 194–5,

206, 626oral 160oral culture 75oral performance 448Oregon Penutian 41

Index 805

origins of language 1–18, 126, 128nChristian theories 84Greek theories of 82, 85, 86linguistic evidence for 15–17, 88

Oriya 22script 52 table 3.7, 55

Oromo (Galla) 33orthographic rimes 667orthography

phonemic in transcription 144see also spelling

Osthoff, Hermann 92ostraca 74Otomanguean languages 39Otomí 39Otsu, Y. 501overgeneralization, in child language

acquisition 472–3, 479–81, 485overlapping antonyms 252, 253, 254overlapping phase in articulation 165Oyrot (Altai) 23Ozog, A. C. K. 526

P600 (syntactic positive shift (SPS) ) 606Padden, C. A. 538, 539Pahlavi script 59, 60 table 3.13palatal 166, 167, 181palatalization 170, 171, 220palatoalveolar 170, 181Palauan 29Paleoasiatic 25paleography 76Paleosiberian 25Pali 22Pallas, Peter Simon 86Pama-Nyungan language family 30Pampangan 28Pangasinan 28Pawini grammatical tradition 70, 82, 93Panjabi

in UK 524, 526see also Eastern Panjabi, Western Panjabi

Panoan languages 40Panoan-Tacanan language family 40paper 75Papuan language families 29–30, 31papyrus 46, 74paradigm 218

change 115–16

paradigmatic isomorphism 358–9table 14.7

paradigmatic sense relations 247–55,325–6, 327

Paradis, J. 509Paraguay, language policy 521–2, 704,

710paralinguistics 151, 165parallel distributed processing (PDP)

models 596, 597parallelism 446, 448

“canonic” 463in a literary text 462–5requirement (Chomsky) 464

parameter 100, 293–4parameterization, and Universal

Grammar (UG) 285–94parchment 74parent language see proto-languageparents, and child language acquisition

473, 485–6, 487Parkinson, S. 172parole 96, 325, 326–7parse tree 631, 634–5parsing 313, 396–7, 608–15, 622

bottom-up 609–11as dynamic programming 613–14recursive-descent 611–12scaling up 614–15as search 609–13sequential 426nshift-reduce 610–11top-down 609, 611–12

Parsons, Talcott 567, 576part-of-speech (POS) tagging 622, 631,

633–4part-whole relation 248, 261–2Parthian script 59, 60 table 3.13partial representation 389–90, 391participant observation 141–2, 577participles 234partonymy see meronymyparts of speech

origins of 82–3see also grammatical categories

Pashto 22passive articulator 165passives 327–8passivization 461

806 Index

Patañjali’s commentary 82Paul, Hermann 92, 94“paused” speech, for computer-assisted

translation 702Pawley, A. K. 29, 169pedagogy

“process writing” 649progressive 648–9“whole language” 647, 648, 649, 668,

669, 670Pedersen, Holgar 86–90, 94Pedi (Northern Sotho) 36pejoration 259Penn Treebank 614–15Pennsylvania Dutch see Amish, Old

OrderPentlach 97Penutian 41perception, how knowledge and

experience affect 664perceptual level of description of speech

156Percival, W. K. 84percolation 224Perdue, C. 491–2, 510performance 298, 424

and applied linguistics 642“graceful degradation” after brain

damage 597literary text as context of 448vs. competence 326–7

periodic meter 450perisylvian association cortex,

organization for language 593figure 24.1, 594, 595, 596–7, 601

Perkins, M. 678, 680perlocutionary acts 426n, 433Permic 22Perrault, C. R. 616Perry, J. 392nPersian 22, 89, 113

see also Old Persianperspectives, and discourse analysis

442–4, 461Peul (Fula, Fulfulde) 34pharyngeal 166, 167, 184pharyngealization 170, 171, 184pharynx 4, 159, 160phases of a segment 165

Philippines 712nphilology 76philosophical grammar 84–5Phoenician 32

abjad 47, 48, 54, 67script 77

phonationmodes of 163type 163–4

phoneme 66, 95, 96, 98, 156, 327, 586,670

defined 186realization in different contexts

201–22phonemic awareness 669, 670–1phonemic patterns 151, 152phonemic translation 697phones 186phonetic complements, in logograms

47phonetic description, and phonological

analysis 676phonetic equivalence 155–6phonetic features

and phonological features 157–8relationship with phonetic segments

157, 164–5universal set of 157–8

phonetic handicap 677phonetic quality of sounds 161phonetic segments see segments,

phoneticphonetic similarity 155–6phonetics 126, 150, 685

linguistic 150–79phonics instruction 650–1, 668, 669phonological awareness 650–1, 672phonological constituents 449, 451–2phonological development,

simplifications in child 471–2phonological features

natural classes of 158, 200and phonetic features 157–8and segmenthood 198–201

phonological feet 449phonological form

and logical form 447–8in metrical texts 449–51and musical form 454–5

Index 807

Plateau Penutian 41Plato 85, 480

Cratylus 82, 83, 106, 107pleonastic extensions 472plural inflection, in different languages

349–51 figure 14.2Pochutec 97poetic traditions 455–7, 659, 660poetry, sign language 548–9point of view, communication of 457, 459“pointing” 59polar antonyms 242, 253polarity (negation) 219Polish 21, 318n

analogical change from Old ChurchSlavonic to 349 table 14.3

Final Devoicing 206–9Vowel Raising 208–9

politeness 579–80political consciousness, and attitudes to

languages 526, 574Pollard, C. 313polyglossia 522Polynesian languages 29polysemy 214, 236, 246, 358, 359

see also systematic polysemypolysynthesis 146, 149nPomo 41Poplack, S. 506Port Royal grammarians 85Portugal, language policy 706Portuguese 21, 172, 710Poser, W. J. 452positron emission tomography (PET)

13, 558, 582, 603, 606, 607Posner, M. L. 603possession

alienable 360inalienable 360linguistic distance in expressions of

360–1 table 14.8possible worlds 374Postal, P. 298, 299, 302Potter, Brian C. 146Poulisse, N. 506“poverty of the stimulus” argument

(Chomsky) 102, 299, 300power, role of language in construction

of 440

phonological parallelism 462, 463phonological rimes 667phonological rules

changes in 115–16computational modeling of 624–5and metrical rules 453–4

phonological strength 449phonological structure, and metrical

structure 449–54phonological transfer in SLA 498, 499, 508phonology 147, 150, 180–212, 424n,

622–6defined 181as a system 211

phrasal category labels 301phrase structure 269–71, 335phrase structure grammars, parsing 609phrase structure rules 269–71, 283–4,

301, 305phrases 300

distinguished from compounds 215hierarchical structure and left-to-right

ordering 305as projections of lexical heads 305

“phyla” 29Piaget, Jean 470pictograms 74pictographs 49, 68pidginization 575pidgins 15, 41, 513Piedmontese 711Pienemann, M. 491Pijin of the Solomon Islands 41Pilipino 712nPiltdown Man 5Pima 140Pima-Papago (O’odham) 39Pinker, Steven xiii, 2, 17, 100pitch 161, 164Pitman shorthand 63place of articulation 161, 166–8, 181

co-articulatory anticipations of 177displaced articulation 167 figure 7.3homorganic 169multiple 170–1neutral 166, 167 figures 7.2 and 3

place nodes 206plan-based approach, to discourse

analysis 433–4, 616–22

808 Index

power asymmetries 576–7in courtroom situation 690–1

practice, and theory in language teaching639–42

pragmatic competence, in secondlanguage acquisition 644

pragmatic speech functions, transfer in498

pragmatics 322, 330–1, 334, 394–427,677, 685

as the application of conversationalprinciples to sentence meanings396–401

defined 395–6and literary texts 447–8as meaning minus truth conditions

404–5of mutual cooperation 475

Prague School 328–9, 346, 436and its antecedents 96–7, 103

Prakrit 54, 59, 70pre-aspiration 174, 175 figure 7.5bpredicates 371

and arguments in syntacticdevelopment 476–7

k-place 375true-in-L 375see also complex predicates

predication 320predictiveness 334, 351prepositional phrase (PP) 301

parsing a string 612–13, 614prescriptive grammar 295, 446prestige 519, 710–11

in language policies 709–11, 712of variants 120, 363women and norms 579

Price, B. 494primary social language 652primates

cognitive abilities 10–11and genetics 6sign language experiments 11–13vocabularies 8–9vocal call systems 8–9

primatology, and origins of language7–13

Prince, A. 194, 195, 225, 450Prince, E. 330, 435

principal exponent 226principles 100, 293Principles and Parameters approach

102, 283and SLA 500–3, 504

printing from movable type 75Priscian, Institutiones grammaticae 83,

84pro-drop languages 500probabilistic context-free grammar

(PCFG) 635–6probability theory 577problem-solving actions 621–2procedural knowledge 10“process writing” pedagogy 649Processability theory 491processing

brain damage and language 586, 589conscious and unconscious aphasic

disturbances 589–90, 602–3interaction between linguistic and

general 413–23, 555, 593–4language 341, 345

processual morphology 225–6product liability 684–5production

complementary with reception 676disorders of language 675

productivity 216, 458in child language acquisition 478–9

profiling, linguistic 686projection principle (extended) 271pronominalization, sentence-internal

334–5pronouns

binding principles 306–7context-dependence of 424ngender and number of 323, 324,

348locality conditions 413–14resumptive use of 420–1, 422and truth-conditional semantics

405–6see also E-type pronouns, relative

pronounspronunciation disturbance 674, 677proposition 399, 412, 425n, 458, 656propositional attitudes 458–9propositional knowledge 10

Index 809

propositional structure 396order of expressions in 426–7nsyntax as building 413–14, 415–23tree structure 416–19

propositional synonymy 249, 250prosodic declarative analysis 623prosodic word (PWd) 187–8prosody, in sign language 541–2“Proto-Canaanite” inscriptions 47Proto-Germanic 90Proto-Indo-European 90–1, 114, 123proto-language 122, 124

and “true” language 15–16Proto-Semitic script 47–9“Proto-Sinaitic” inscriptions 74“proto-world” 126, 128nProyart, Abbé Lievin Bonaventure,

Histoire de Loango, Kakongo . . . 88psycholinguistics 68, 130, 131, 313,

650–1, 674–5psychology

and language learning 467, 483–5,505, 643, 676

relevance of grammar to 299–300, 312Pullum, G. 63, 305pulmonic mechanism 162Pulvermüller, F. 496“pure word deafness” 584, 600purpose clauses 354

Qiang 27Qimvi David, Sepher mikhlol 83quantifier storage 389quantifiers 371

every and same 372–3, 375, 379–81as second-order functions 372usually 387–8see also existential quantifier,

generalized quantifiers (GQs),universal quantifier

quantitative meter 450Quebec, language policy 707–8Quechua 40Quechumaran 40questionnaires 577questions see interrogativesQuiché see K’iche’Quine, W. V. 473Qur’an 32, 59, 83, 519

Radcliffe-Brown, A. R. 569Rajasthani 22Ramoni, C. 591–2Raphelengius (Ravlenghien) 87Rask, Rasmus 86, 88, 90, 93, 124Rawlinson, H. C. 79Read, C. 151reading

bottom-up processing 664–6comparison of good and poor 665eye movement studies 665hypothesis testing 665intensive program for dyslexics 671learning 668–70and linguistics 645, 664–72and meta-awareness of the

phonological code 651phonics instruction 650–1, 668, 669and sequential parsing 426nsounding out 668top-down processing 664–6whole language approach 668, 669,

670readings

established 257literal 257–8non-literal 257–8nonce 257

reasoning processes 397, 401–12and knowledge of language 397–400

rebus principle 45, 68Received Pronunciation (RP) 163recipes, generic in discourse analysis

618–20 figures 25.3 and 5reconstruction, by comparative method

92, 107, 123recursive descent in parsing 611–12recursive function 266–7recursive rules 267, 296–7, 301, 370, 391nrecursiveness

in sign languages 535–6, 560vs. subordination 536–8

reduplication 225Rees-Miller, Janie 637–46reference 320

ambiguity in criminal cases 688broadening of 114

reference tracking in discourse 322–4,332, 333

810 Index

referential dependence 381referentiality, and discourse analysis

434–5reflexives 306–7

and language disorders 591Regan, V. 495, 510regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) 558,

582, 598, 603register 509, 652regular languages, set of 624regular relations, set in computational

phonology 624–5reinforcement theory, babbling and 469Relander, Adriaan (Hadrianus Relandus)

86Relational Grammar 103relative clauses 277–8, 318n, 354

interpretation of 419–23relative pronouns 419–23relativism, linguistic 580–1relevance

principle 407–9principle in translation 697and the recovery of what is “said”

409–11and speech acts 411–12

relevance theory 400, 407–12, 457reliability, and human language 9religion

and language 519, 710and origin of language 2

repair organization 437repair trajectory 437repetition, lexical and syntactic 659representation

surface and underlying 204–11see also levels of representation;

morphological representationrepresentationalism 425nrepresentations, underspecified 388–90research methods, from social sciences

577resonants 168

back 168central 168close-mid 168front 168labial velar 170nasal 169

open 168open-mid 168palatalized voiced alveolar lateral 170rounded 168unrounded 168velarized voiced alveolar lateral 170voiced alveolar lateral 169

restriction of function 114retroflex stop, voiced postalveolar 171Reuchlin, Johannes, De rudimentis

Hebraicis 83–4Réunion, French-based creoles 41reversibility, in computational phonology

624, 625reversives 254–5rewrite-rules, string-based 623–5, 634–5Reyle, U. 333Rhaetian 25rheme 328–9rhetoric 82rhetorical effects 395, 397, 414rhetorical goal, in discourse analysis

432–3rhetorical management 433rhetorical structures 433rhyme 456

and alliteration 455–7systematic 456

Richelieu, Cardinal 711Rigveda, Sanskrit 451rime 191, 455, 667Rindi, Indonesian 463Ritwan languages 39Ritwan-Algonquian family 98Rogoff, B. 652–3Role and Reference Grammar (RRG)

330–1roles

grammatical representation ofparticipant 10

linguistic construction of 440Rölle, L. J. 701Rom (Gypsies) 22Romaine, Suzanne 507, 512–32, 576Roman alphabet 52, 55, 57, 61, 67, 69,

337Roman linguistics 83, 84Romance languages 21, 219Romani languages 22

Index 811

Romanian 21, 121Romanies, in Finland 516Romantsch 517root 262

bound 223root nodes 200–1, 206Rosetta Stone 77–8Ross, J. 277, 310Rotokas, sound inventory of 185Rousseau, Jean-Jacques 2Routledge Language Family Descriptions

20Ruhlen, M. 7, 20, 31rule function morphology 229–31, 236rules xiv, 100, 115–16, 209

cognitive and cultural 446grammatical 296of impoverishment 231internalization of 369linguistic and social norms 572optionality of 273ordering of 209recursive 266–7of referral 230–1

runes 55, 57 table 3.10, 74Rung (Nung) 27Russell, Bertrand 300, 493–4Russian 21, 113, 218, 328–9, 494

adjective agreement 221–2case system 226noun classes 219, 226–7participles 234script 56verb classes 220, 232–3

Russian metrical theory 452Ryukyuan languages 23–4

Saadya ben Joseph al-Fayyemc (a.k.a.Saadya Gaon) 83

Saamic (Lappish) 22Sabean abjad 47, 48, 58saccade 665Sacy, Antoine Isaac Sylvestre de 78Sag, I. A. 312, 313Sahaptin 41Sajnovics, Johannis ( János) 86, 88, 90Sakha (Yakut) 23Salinan 41Salishan 38

Salmasius, Claudius (Claude Saumaise)87

Sami, in Finland 515, 516, 529, 530Samoan 29Samoyedic languages 22, 124sampling techniques

in cross-linguistic surveys 341–2proportional sample 342variety sample 342

Sampson, G. 61, 68Samuelson, Christer 608–36Sánchez, Francisco de las Brozas,

Minerva 85Sanctius see Sánchez, Francisco de las

BrozasSandawe 37Sandler, Wendy 533–62Sands, B. 37Sango 35, 41Sankoff, G. 519Sanskrit 22, 52, 82, 87–8, 89, 91, 95, 113,

124, 364, 450, 517, 521meters 450, 451, 453, 454see also Prakrit

Santali 26Sapir, Edward xiii, 94, 98–9, 144, 580

“The psychological reality ofphonemes” 146

Sapir–Whorf hypothesis 99Sarcee 146Sassanian inscriptions 78Saussure, Ferdinand de 95–6, 99,

325–6, 327, 559, 563–4, 676Cours de linguistique générale 95–6

Savitch, W. J. 302Savory, T. H. 696scaffolding 649Scaliger, J. J. 86Scaliger, Julius Caesar (L’Escale), De

causis linguae latinae 85Scandinavian languages 21Schieffelin, B. 440, 445Schiffrin, D. 429Schlegel, Friedrich von 89, 90, 93, 94,

98, 103Schleicher, August 92, 93, 98, 103

Compendium der vergleichenden Grammatikder indogermanischen Sprachen 94

Schmandt-Besserat, D. 68

812 Index

Schmidt, Johannes 92Schnitzer, M. L. 508school

language differences in 657–60, 663question-answer-evaluation activities

661–2social interaction in 660–2

schoolinghome language instruction 532native language 528–9

Schuchardt, Hugo 92Schumann, J. 496Schütz, A. 576schwa [@] 184Schwartz, B. 492scope ambiguity

alternative readings 389–90narrow 388–9wide 388–9

Scottish Gaelic see Gaelicscribal traditions 76Scrieckius 86script

direction 69–70“motivated” canonical orders of 80

figure 3.6transmission 70–1

scripts/plansand discourse analysis 433–4invented by persons who cannot read

68Scythae 87Scythian hypothesis 87, 89Searle, J. 320, 322, 411, 426n, 433, 616second language acquisition 488–511

additive 493age and 484, 493–6codeswitching in 506–7compared with first language

acquisition 492–3, 640–1, 648critical period hypothesis 493–4fossilization in 493interactional modification 504Multidimensional Model 491negative evidence in 504–5one language or two 508–9pragmatic competence in 644proficiency compared with native

speakers 496–7

role of language input 503–5sequence of 490–2strategies 505–6subtractive 493transfer in 489, 497–500and Universal Grammar 500–3

second language learners“approximative system” 490cognitive deficit 503“transitional competence” 490

second language teachingaudio-lingual method 640best age for 494–5communicative method 641comprehension-base approach 640–1content-based instruction 643and cross-cultural linguistics 643–4Focus on Form 643lexicon in 654production approach 640–1theory and practice in 637, 639–42

segmental classification of speech sounds161

segmenthood, and phonological features198–201

segments 198–9equivalence sets 456featural phases of the structure of 165see also inter-segmental coordination

segments, phonetic, relationship withphonetic features 157, 164–5

selection 257selectional frame 228–9self-reference, and the liar paradox

392nSelinker, L. 490, 493semantic analysis 84semantic change 114semantic memory

and degenerative disease 603disorders of retrieval and storage 589localization of 601–4verbal and visual 588, 589

semantic priming effects 589–90semantic relatedness 232semantic roles, conceptual space for

354–5 figure 14.3semantic theory, Tarski’s truth definition

as the paradigm for a 375

Index 813

semantic-pragmatic disorder syndrome682

semantics 236, 396, 424n, 682, 685and syntax 266, 312, 330, 334, 370see also dynamic semantics, formal

semantics, intensional semantics,lexical semantics, situationsemantics, structural semantics

“semasiographic systems” 68Seminole 39semiotics 676

linguistics and writing 79–80Semitic 32, 123, 124, 225

script 52, 57, 72vowel marking 58–9

Sena 36Seneca 39Senegal 710sense 239, 245

and denotation 373–4sense relations 246–56

paradigmatic 247–55syntagmatic 255–6

sentence comprehension, disorders of590–2

sentence probability 636sentence structure

problems in language disability 675in sign languages 534–9

sentences 327connection with the world 375–81propositional content 586–7, 590stylistic differences 461

sentential level 586separatism, political and language 515Sepik-Ramu phylum 29Septuagint 72, 74, 80nsequential organization, and discourse

analysis 437–8Sequoyah, syllabary order 63, 71 figure

3.5Serbian 21, 110, 119, 127nSerbo-Croatian 21Seri 41Serto 47, 48setting 165Seychelles, French-based creoles 41Seyfarth, R. M. 8–9S’gaw Karen (White Karen) 27

Shakespeare, William 450, 451Othello 105

Shanghai 27shared reference 473–4shift-reduce 610–11shifters 424nShilha, Northern, Southern and Central

33Shona 36short-term memory, disturbances in

584, 591–2“shortest move” constraint 278–9shorthand systems 63Shoshone 39Shuy, Roger W. 646, 683–91Sibawayhi 83Siberian (Northeastern Turkic) 23Sicilian 710, 711Sidamo 33Sierra Leone, Krio of 41sign 214, 236, 342, 676

Saussure’s theory of the 95–6, 325–6sign language experiments, with

primates 11–13, 477sign language poetry 548–9sign languages 41–2, 533–62

and Broca’s area 14change in 127nchild language acquisition 549–54complex word formation 543, 560control in left hemisphere 555, 558handshapes, locations and movements

in 539–40iconicity of 12, 543, 551, 559linguistic structure of 534–47morphology 542–7neural control of 554–5neurological differences 534, 558–9origin of 128nphonology 539–42, 557similarities among 556–8syntax 534–9, 557typological traits of 556–8

Signed English 534Signed Hebrew 534signed languages see sign languagessignified (signifié) 95–6, 325signifier (significant) 95–6, 325Silverstein, M. 320

814 Index

Simmons, D. 464simplification

in child phonological development471–2, 478

and language shift 128n, 528simultaneous interpreting 693–5

standard phrases in 694–5syntactic anticipation in 695

Sindhi 22, 164, 174Singapore, multilingualism 516, 522Singleton, D. 494, 495singular/plural, attested and unattested

inflectional types 346–7 table 14.2Sinhala 22, 707

script 52 table 3.7sinistrograde 69Sinitic 27Sino-Tibetan Etymological Dictionary

and Thesaurus project 26Sino-Tibetan languages 26–7, 31, 40,

123, 124, 163Siouan languages 38–9Sioux 169situated language use, discourse as 429situation, context of see context of

situationsituation semantics 385–8, 390, 392nsituations

individual 387and meanings 385–8quantificational 387relations between sets of 387–8resource 386–7

Skehan, P. 493Skinner, B. F., Verbal Behavior 101Skjaervø, P. O. 59, 60SLA see second language acquisitionslang, spread of 120Slavic functional linguistics 325Slavic (Slavonic) languages 21, 218,

328–9, 436see also Old Church Slavonic

Slovak 21Slovenian 21smiling 126nSmith, Henry Lee 99Snow, C. 494social class 567–9social domain 569

social evolution 94social indicators 567–8social languages 652–5social mobility, and language change

571–2social network analysis 569–70social relationships, in language

evolution 11socialization 648, 651–2

and language use 440sociolinguistics 130, 131, 141, 147, 151,

152, 178, 428, 563–81, 645, 677discourse work 439and language change 110, 126micro–macro distinction 566and narrative 460quantitative 107

sociology of language 566, 574Socrates 106, 107soft palate see velumSoga 36Sogdian script 59, 60 table 3.13, 62,

70solidarity, language and social 570,

579Solomon Islands, Pijin of the 41Somali 33Songay 36songs 452, 454–5

music and meter in 453sonorants 158, 189, 200

nasal 190oral 190

sonority 189–90Sotho see Northern Sotho (Pedi),

Southern Sothosound changes 90–2, 564

explanations for 115–16regularity of 122, 124–5role of physiology in 119

sound patternsrule formalism 204systematic 456–7

sound substitutions, in languagedisability 674

sounding out, in learning to read 668sounds

contrast 185–7inventories 181–5, 211

Index 815

phonetic quality of 161relationship with symbols 182restricted number of types 153–4sequence of 187sonority hierarchy 189–90structure above the level of the

segment 187–98and their sign language equivalents

539–42source language, in translation 693South Africa, Republic of, language

policy 712nSouth America, languages of 39–40South Arabian languages 33, 47, 72South Asian, Brahmi-derived scripts of

52–3 table 3.7, 55South Bolivian Quechua 40South Caucasian (Kartvelian) 24South Halmahera-West New Guinea

28–9South Semitic 32, 33South Slavic 21South-Central Dravidian 26Southeast Asia, Brahmi-derived scripts of

52–3 table 3.7, 55Southeastern Turkic (Uyghur) 23Southern Dravidian 26Southern Khoisan 37Southern Mbundu 36Southern Min 27Southern Nilotic languages 37Southern Paiute 144, 146Southern Sotho 36Southern Uto-Aztecan languages 39Southwestern Turkic (Oghuz) 23Soviet Union, former, language policy

709Spain, language policy 704, 709Spanish 21, 291, 352, 518, 704, 709,

710changes in 113, 116and Guaraní 521in US 527, 531–2verbal morphology 626–30as a world language 532

spatial functioning, and damage to righthemisphere 554, 555

speaker identification, and forensiclinguistics 685

speaker recognition 152speakers

acoustic variation between 155–6displaced 140–1finding for fieldwork 137–8

speakingprocessing in 587and writing 66–7

SPEAKING acronym 431–2speaking rights, negotiation of 437speaking-turns 157specialization of meaning 259specialized language 690specific language abilities tests 597specifier 305spectographic analysis, in voice

identification 685speculative grammar 84–5speech 150

articulatory, acoustic and perceptuallevels of description of 4, 156

fluidity of 565habits and ways of thinking 581linear and non-linear units of

organization 156–9loss of 674organic and phonetic aspects of

154–6relative priority of vocal and gestural

channels for 13–14structures and environments of

152–3temporal organization of 177

speech act theory 411, 426n, 433, 643speech acts 320, 322, 327–8, 431, 433,

691and relevance 411–12

speech chain model 676speech communities 572

language choice in multilingual517–26, 573

speech events 431roles and identities 439see also discourse

speech pathology 152, 646speech production

the componential organization of159–61

processes 161–77

816 Index

speech recognition 152corpus-based methods in 631–2and parsing in automatic 615technology 152, 702

speech synthesis, and parsing 615speech therapy 486spelling

correlation with reading ability 670English 182, 666–7learning 670–1transfer in 498

spelling-to-sound translation process667

Spencer, Andrew 213–37Sperber, D. 395, 400, 407–12, 413, 414,

457–9split brain studies 595spoken language

differs from written language 67influence of written language on 672origins of 3and sign language 533, 558–9see also interpreting

Sprachlisten tradition 86Sproat, Richard 608–36Sprouse, R. 492Sranan 41Sri Lanka, language policy 706, 707Sridhar, K. K. 497Sridhar, S. N. 497stability, and change in language 111,

117, 126, 363Standard Theory (Chomsky) 102Starostin, S. A. 24state languages 708–9statements see assertionsstates, in computational phonology 624status, in-group or out-group 120Steever, S. B. 26Steinthal 94, 98stem 217

bound 223Stephens, L. D. 452Stevens, K. N. 151, 153Stewart, O. T. 280Stiernhielm, Georg 86, 87stochastic context-free grammar (SCFG)

635–6Stoics 82, 83

Stokoe, William 539–40stop release 175–6stops 160, 168, 181, 189

affricated 176central release 176labial velar 170lateral release 176nasal release 176oral release 169, 176post-nasal 169pre-nasal 169unreleased 175

storytelling see narrativeStrabo 87stress

patterns 187, 240primary 187relationship of syllable structure with

192–8secondary 187

strictureclose approximation 168complete articulatory closure 168degree of 165, 168open approximation 168single versus multiple 169

strokes, effect on language ability600–1, 602

structural coding 347–8structural linguistics 325–7, 563–4structural semantics 242structuralism 95–100, 342, 490, 640structure

convergence in language 121determined by use and historical

factors 345–6the nature of linguistic 336

structure-dependency 500–1Stump, G. T. 231stuttering 674style, and social class 568–9stylistic analysis 686stylus 44, 74Suárez, J. A. 39, 176subcategorization 228–9subjacency 501subject 271, 339subject nominals 217subjunctive mood 219

Index 817

submersion programs 528subordination 535–6 figure 22.1subordination vs. recursiveness 536–8subsaharan Africa, monolingualism in

706subsegmental structure 198–211substitution see paradigmatic relationssubtractive morphology 225–6Sudanic 163, see also Central Sudanic,

East SudanicSukuma 36Sumerian 31, 79, 81–2, 123, 364

script 44–5, 62, 68Summer Institute of Linguistics 147Sundanese 28

vowel nasalization 203–4Supalla, E. 545, 557Supalla, S. J. 560superordinate 247suppletion 356–7

derivational 232, 233total and partial 217

suprasegmental level 161surface structure, changes in 114–15survey sampling 577Susanne corpus 633Swahili 35, 524, 544, 556, 574Swati 36Sweden, language policy 706Swedes, in Finland 516, 517Swedish 21Swedish Sign Language 556, 557Swinney, D. 590Swiss German 523

Kerenzen dialect 93Switzerland, federal multilingualism

517“swooping vs. looping” controversy

309, 316syllabaries 43, 67, 68

Japanese 49–51of the modern world 62–5, 71

syllable structure 188–98relationship with stress 192–8

syllables 187, 455, 586boundary markers 70heavy and light 450input/output constraints 195markedness constraints 195–8

neural mechanisms for 17open and closed 159phonological 159sign language equivalent of 541stressed in meter 449–50in writing 67, 68, 69

symbolic 12synchronic linguistics 108–9, 110, 126synchronic variation 107, 112–13synchrony 95, 676, 698syncretism 220, 230synonyms, in poetry 464synonymy 214, 226, 249–51, 358, 359

see also absolute synonymy; nearsynonymy; propositional synonymy

syntactic categories, and semantic types376

syntactic comprehension, localization inthe brain 604–7

syntactic parallelism 462–3, 659syntactic positive shift (SPS) (P600) 606syntactic research 268–85syntactic structures

and meanings of constituents 388parsing 608–15and partial representations 389–90and propositional content of sentences

586–7, 590–2syntagmatic isomorphism 356–7

table 14.6syntagmatic sense relations 247, 255–6,

325–6, 327syntax 265–94, 424n

as the building of propositionalstructure 415–23

Chomskyan perspective 102, 266–8defined 265the domain of 265–6evolution as a specialized

development 12, 13, 14and literary texts 447–8and semantics 266, 312, 330, 334, 370thesis of the autonomy of 334the vastness of 269–73

Syriac script 47, 58–9, 69–70vowel marking 59

systematic polysemy 232, 233Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG)

330, 331–2, 432, 436

818 Index

Szechuanese, Chengtu 173Szíj, E. 235–6

Tabbert von Strahlenberg, Philip Johan86

tableaux 195–8Tacanan languages 40Tachelhit 33tag bigram model 633–4tag questions 298–9, 302–3Tagalog 28, 225, 331, 336n, 712ntagmeme 66Tahitian 29Tai languages 27Tai-Kadai 27Taiwan Sign Language 557Taiwanese 27Tajik 22talk-in-interaction see conversationTamashek 33Tamazight 33Tamil 26, 516, 517, 522, 707

script 53 table 3.7Tannen, Deborah 439, 644tape recorders

and fieldwork 142use in criminal cases 686–9

tapped stops 171voiced alveolar 171

target language, in translation 693Tarifit 33Tarlinskaja, M. 452Tarone, E. E. 506, 510Tarski, A. 375, 392nTasmanian languages 30, 31, 527Tatar 23, 337, 338–9, 341, 342, 346–7taxonomies 260, 261teacher training, and applied

linguistics 638, 642, 662, 663, 670“teacher-research” 659teachers, as reflective practitioners 642teaching grammars 85technical terms 263, 654, 656Telugu 26, 517

script 53 table 3.7temporal lobe location, for word

meanings 602, 603, 604tenor 432tense 218

tense (articulation) 173Teodorsson, S.-T. 106, 107Tequistlatecan (Chontal of Oaxaca) 41terminology databases, multilingual

695, 702Teso 37test suite 631text compression, corpus-based methods

in 631–2text linguistics 435text retrieval, computational morphology

and 622text-to-speech synthesis, computational

morphology and 622Thai 27, 186

script 53 table 3.7, 54thematic roles 587thematic structure 10

new neural connections linking speechand 16

theme, in discourse 328–9, 435–7theory, and practice in language teaching

639–42theory-internal criteria 333–4theta criterion 271Thody, Philip 699–700Thompson, H. 536–8Thompson, S. 325, 435Thompson, S. A. 461thought

language of 425nlanguage and 581

Tiberian system 59Tibetan 27, 70, 711

script 53 table 3.7, 54–5, 61, 63table 3.15, 70

Tibeto-Burman 27Tigré 33, 365Tigrinya 33, 365timing units 200–1, 211Tiv 35Tiwi 30, 350, 351Tlingit 38Toba Batak 28Tocharian 22Tojolabal 460Tok Pisin 41, 507, 519, 527Tokelau, songs 454–5token frequency 353–4

Index 819

Toma, C. 652–3Tonga 36Tongan 29, 353tongue 162

grooved 171retroflexion 171shape in articulation 170–1

topic 97, 328, 333in discourse 435–7introduction and recycling in forensic

linguistics 688–9topic NPs 324–5, 328topic-prominent languages 435topicalization 416–19, 461

in sign languages 539topoi 458Toronto school of literacy studies 75Torricelli phylum 29Tosk 21“touristese” 15Trace Theory 102traces, inability to co-index 605trade names

arbitrary 684suggestive 684

trademark infringement 683–4traditional grammar 295Trager, George 43, 99Trahey, M. 504Trans New Guinea phylum 29transcortical motor aphasia 584, 585,

600transcortical sensory aphasia 584, 586,

600transcription 134, 136, 143–4

of conversations in criminal cases687–9, 691

in language pathology 676phonetic 143–4, 153, 157, 182

transferin SLA 489, 492, 497–500in spelling 498see also negative transfer

transformational grammar 102, 302–3,615

historical development 312–13see also generative grammar

transformational rules 205and interpretive rules 271–3

transformations 100, 302transition problem in language change

108, 109transition-relevant-place in conversation

437transitive 339, 415transitivity in narrative 461translation 646, 692–703

blocking factors 701change factors 701as a communicative device 692–3invariance factors 701principles 696–7revision factor 695, 701target factors 702terminological accuracy in 695used as courtroom evidence 691

translation memory, in CAT 702translation studies 692translatology 696, 700transparency, cline of 231–2transposition 227tree bank 635tree diagram 223–4, 300–1tree sequence 302tree structure

for dialogue 617–18 figure 25.2partial trees 418–19of sentence proposition 416–19

tree-adjoining grammar parsers 615Treiman, Rebecca 645, 664–72trilinguals 78–9trilled stop 171

voiced oral alveolar 172triphthong, articulation of 172trochaic inversion 451Trubetzkoy, Prince Nicholai S. 96–7,

199, 346Trudgill, P. 568, 573truth values 370–2, 373, 374, 375

in possible worlds 374truth-conditional semantics 246, 404–7truth-relations 404–5Tsetsaut 97Tsimshian 41Tsonga 36Tswana 36Tübatulabal 140Tucanoan languages 40

820 Index

Tumbuka 36Tungusic languages 23Tunisia 710

diglossia in 522Tupian languages 40Turkana 37Turkic languages 23, 219Turkish 23, 113, 356–7, 492

use of Roman alphabet 67Turkmen 23turn taking 437Tuscarora 39Tuvaluan 29Tuvan 23Twain, Mark 106Twi-Fante 35type–token distinction 327typological markedness, and

morphological representation346–9

typology 94, 103, 147, 324, 337–68,556

competing motivations model 344–5,363

diachronic 363, 365–6synchronic 363

Tzutujil 353

Ubangi subgroup 35Ugaritic abjad 47, 48, 71, 72, 73, 74Ugric 22Ukrainian 21unattested language types 343–4undergeneralization, in child language

acquisition 472–3underspecification 304–5, 388–90, 414understanding, processing in 587–8ungrammaticality 265Uniformitarian Principle 108, 364, 365United Kingdom, language policy 708United States

immigrants in 518, 527, 568language policy 704, 706unstable bilingualism 527

Universal Grammar (UG) 2, 17, 84–5,299, 300, 312

constraints 538and language acquisition 4, 101,

482

and Principles and Parametersapproach 283, 285–94

and second language acquisition500–3 figure 20.1, 504

and sign languages 557–8and transfer 499

universal pragmatics (Habermas) 576universal quantifier, dynamic 384universals 324

Chomsky on 100–1cognitive basis for 119, 487the dynamic approach to 362–7and the formal encoding of meaning

346–62identifying as goal of synchronic

linguistics 108–9the nature of 341–6in sign language 539, 556–8, 560transparent 299see also implicational universals

unwritten languages 75Uralic languages 20, 22, 25, 124Urartian 25

inscription 79script 45

Urdu 22, 517, 710Uruk 44US Federal Court Interpreters Act (1978)

690US Food and Drug Administration 684usage frequency

and conceptual encoding 348–9and language change 112–13

useabnormal language 673–82in context, discourse analysis 644determines language structure 345–6domains of 518–19interpretive 414and knowledge of language 394–6motivated by communicative needs

429–38non-literal of language 257–8, 397real-world language 642social nature of language 320, 332,

363and social structure 566theory of language in 448

Ute 39

Index 821

Uto-Aztecan language family 39, 98, 123utterance 157, 451, 458

recognizing as part of discoursestructure 618, 620–2

sequential context 437–8uvular 166, 167, 184Uyghur (Southeastern Turkic) 23

alphabet 61 table 3.14, 62, 70Uzbek 23

Vainikka, A. 502Vallduví, E. 333van Dijk, T. 429, 434, 435, 440van Driem, G. 27van Summeren, C. 495Van Valin Jr, Robert D. 285, 319–36variables, correlation of linguistic with

social 567variation

and language change 564–5, 577–9regional and social 578within and across languages 365–7,

575variation linguistics 566, 568, 577–8varieties 19, 710–11

choice of 523–4, 572–5, 581high or low 519–22, 570

Varro, Marcus Terentius 83Vata 283Vater 89Vedas 82, 454velar 166, 167, 181velaric airstream mechanism 162velarization 170, 171velum 160Venda 36Ventris, Michael 79verb agreement

direct form 350distribution across languages 352–4

table 14.5inverse form 350in sign languages 543–5 figure 22.5,

557, 559verb phrase (VP) 270, 301“verbal art” 448, 464verbs of motion and location, in ASL

545–7 figure 22.6, 559Verhoeven, L. 531

vernacular languages 85Verner, Karl 91, 124Verner’s law 91, 124Versteegh, K. 59vervet monkeys, vocal call systems 8–9,

12video tape recorders, and fieldwork 142Vietnamese 26, 561nvirtual bilingual 78–9Viterbi search 634vocabularies 263–4vocabulary

differences in 337domain-specific 262–3layers of 263primate and human compared 8in SLA 505, 506

vocal call systems, of vervet monkeys8–9, 12

vocal folds 163vocal fry see creakvocal grooming 11vocal organs 159–60 figure 7.1vocal tract

human L-shaped 4–5neutral configuration 166

vocalization, initiating in cerebral cortex593

voice 323, 324voice identification 685Voice Onset Time (VOT) 499, 509voiced 160, 163, 182voiced aspiration 173–4voiced implosive 162Voiced Stop Deletion 210voiceless sound 163voicing 157, 158

and devoicing 172–5Volgaic 22Volta-Congo 34Voltaic (Gur) languages 34Voorhoeve, C. L. 464vowel harmony 206, 217, 623vowel-sounds, acoustic characterization

155vowel-space 168vowels 181

chain shifts in long 119front, central or back 181

822 Index

vowels cont’dhigh, mid or low 181length of 177loss of unaccented 119nuclear in the syllable 159script for 47, 52, 55, 57–9sonority 189

Vygotsky, Lev 653, 655

Wakashan 38Waletzky, J. 462Walter, Theodor 87Wang, W. 493Waray-Waray 28Ward, I. C. 172Warlpiri, verse 451Warrgamay 360Washo 41Wasow, Thomas 295–318Watkin’s Law 127nWatson, I. 509“wave theory” 92–3Webb, R. 557Weber, Max 567, 576Webster, Noah 67Weihun He, Agnes 428–45Weinreich, Uriel 93, 108, 489, 499, 508,

513, 574well-formedness 248, 296Welsh 21, 514, 528

Medieval poetry 463North 169

Wernicke’s aphasia 14, 555, 584, 585,600, 601, 602, 605

Wernicke’s area 14, 593, 599, 600West Caucasian 24West Germanic 21West Papuan phylum 29West Semitic 32

abjads 48 table 3.3, 59West Slavic 21Westermann, D. 172Western Apache 146Western Armenian 21Western Dani 30Western Hmong (Hmong Njua) 28Western Kwa 35Western Malayo-Polynesian 28Western Panjabi 22

wh-phrases, island constraint 310–11wh-questions 620–1

and filler-gap dependencies 307–9wh-words, movement rules 271–2,

273–4, 278–9whisper 163whispery voice 164White, L. 496, 502, 504, 510White Karen (S’gaw Karen) 27white matter tracts, lesions of 593–4, 599Whitney, William Dwight xiii“whole language” pedagogy 647, 648,

649, 668, 670Whorf, Benjamin L. 94, 99, 475–6, 580Wieden, W. 492Williams, G. 576Willmond, Catherine 132–3, 139, 141Wilson, Bob 483Wilson, D. 395, 400, 407–12, 413, 414,

457–9Wilss, W. 694Winteler, Jost 93Wittgenstein, Ludwig 238, 243Wiyot 39, 124Wolaytta 33Wolfe Quintero, K. 492Wolof 34, 710Woodbury, A. C. 460word

notion of 236see also grammatical word, prosodic

wordword bigram model 632–3word families 262word forms 214, 236

analysis in computational morphologyand 622–3

individuating by graphic and phoneticclues 240

word meaningsconstraints on 241contextual variability of 244–6,

413–14disturbances of 588–90, 601mutual exclusivity and competition

474–5normality profile 243overextension of 675as a set of procedures 414–15

Index 823

word orderclassification of languages in terms of

342–3harmony 344–5, 346language universals 341–6, 362–5and typological analysis 147

word recognition 666–7word structure

in sign languages 542–7see also morphology

word-collections, for language comparison86

word-fields 259–62word-pair grammar 632word-picture matching 588words 238–42, 327, 451

boundaries 240, 451–2“classifier sets” of 464grammatical properties of 240number known by average speaker

263semantic properties of 240–2see also compounds

working memory, in SLA 503world languages 530–2writing

defined 68earliest evidence of 3and history 44–65integration of reading and 668, 670and language 65–75linguistics and semiotics 79–80materials 74–5mechanical aids for 75origin of 68–9processing in 587and scholarship 75–80and speaking 66–7theory of 43

writing systems 43–80alphabetic see alphabetsChinese-derived 62conscious construction of 66different from spoken languages

66–7meaning-based and sound-based

497–8Semitic-derived 62speech-based 666

spread of 47types of 43–4

written documents, authorship andforensic linguistics 685–6

written languagediffers from spoken language 67influence on spoken language 672reading 664–72see also translation

Wu 27, 711Wundt, Wilhelm 98, 103Wurm, S. A. 29

X-bar theory (Chomsky) 305Xhosa 36, 162Xiang 27

Yabem 519Yakonan 41Yakut (Sakha) 23Yallop, C. 151Yana (Northern Hokan) 41Yao 36Yavapai 140Yeniseian languages 25, 31Yiddish 21, 705Yoruba 35, 170, 337–8, 339, 341, 342Young, Thomas 77Young-Scholten, M. 502Yucatec 39Yue (Cantonese) 27Yukaghir 25Yuman 38, 41Yupik (Yup’ik) 38, 140, 353Yurok 39, 124Yuwaalaraay 340

Zadrozny, W. 393nZaenen, A. 309Zaliznjak, Grammatical Dictionary of

Russian 233Zande 36Zapotec 39, 140

San Lucas Quiaviní 144, 146Zeps, V. J. 454zero marking 230, 356zero morpheme 227zeugma test 246Zhuang 27

824 Index

Zulu 36, 162, 346–7, 355Zuni 38Zurif, E. 590–1, 604–5Zwicky, A. 237

ZISA project 491Zoroastrian scripture, Avesta 59–61Zukovsky, Celia 697Zukovsky, Louis 697