Incidental Learning in different Pedagogical Approaches

1. Definitions

2. Incidental Learning in language teaching

3. Incidental Learning in Computer-assisted

Learning Environments

4. Interactions between Incidental and

Intentional learning

5. Factors that influence Incidental Learning

6. Hypotheses

7. Experimentation

Definitions

Formal Learning Informal Learninginstitutionally sponsored,

classroom-based, highly structured

Cotrolled and structured by a ‘teacher’

Intentional but not highly structured,

Not classroom-based,

Controlled by the learner

Intentional learning Incidental LearningConscious,

‚intrinsically motivated‘ (?)

Unconscious, unintentioned, unplanned

Byproduct of other learning activities

Situated, contextual, social (Rogers1997)

Explicit Learning Implicit Learning

Learning ‚En-passant‘ (Reischmann 1995)

Significance of Incidental Learning

Incidental learning is the most important form of learning in every day life

-Mother tongue-Every day motor skills-Social knowledge-Use of common technical devices

Some people claim that even at school incidental learning is the main form of learning. (Rogers 1995)

Incidental Learning in language teaching

Incidental learning is the way how pre-school children learn speaking(and many other skills!)

Several studies have shown the tremendous significance of incidental learning for language-teaching in a school context

- Acquisition of vocabulary- Spelling- Grammar

rely at least as much on incidental than on explicit/formal learning

This holds for all ages from primary school children to adults and forFirst and second language learners

Review in Elley, 2005

Implicit and explicit Grammar Learning

Incidental Acquisition of vocabulary

Grade level Shared book Silent readingGrammar teaching

Grade 5 38,6 40,8 25,25

Grade 6 43,9 42,13 30,37

Mean percentage score for of the two Book Flood treatment

(shared reading and silent reading) as compared to trad. Teaching of grammar

Impressive scores for vocabulary acquisition (40%) of eight year olds were obtained when high-interrest Stories were read with brief definitions of key words (without explanations: 15%)

Incidental Learning in Computer-assisted Learning Environments

-> Animation, Incidental Learning and Continuing motivationRieber, 1991-> How seductive Details do their damage: A theory of cognitive interrest in Science learning Harp & Mayer, 1998-> Perceived Disorientation and Incidental Learning in a Web-based EnvironmentBaylor, 2001-> Incidental Learning during Information Retrieval: A Hypertext environmentJones, 2005

Animated graphics are favourable both to incidental learning and to intrinsic motivation

Incidental learning processes (Seductive Details) can negatively interfere with explicit learning

Incidental learning is inhibited by seductive details (‚detracters‘) and perceived Disorientation, and promoted by nonlinear navigation

Interactions between Incidental and Intentional learning

Different studies find contradicting evidence on whether Incidental Learningand formal learning interfere positively or negatively:

The relation between implicit and explicit Learning: Evidence for Parallel Development Willingham &Goedert-Eschmann, 1999

How seductive Details do their damage: A theory of cognitive interrest in Science learning Haarp & Mayer, 1998

Role of implicit and explicit processes in Learning From Examples: A Synergistic effect Mathews etal, 1989

Role of implicit and explicit processes in Learning From Examples: A Synergistic effect Mathews etal, 1989

Theoretical model

Explicit Learning/Thinking Implicit Learning/Thinking

Similar to conscious problem solving

They attempt to form a mental representation of the task by searching memory for knowledge of analogous systems and build/adapt mental model

alternate learning mode

more powerful than explicit thinking in discovering nonsalient covariance between task variables

Experimentation

Learning the rules of an artificial grammar (800 trials learning 4x 2.5 h) according to different tasks:

explicit implicit

Find out the rules Memorize the ‚words‘

Results

Memory-instructed subjects acquired as much tacit knowledge of the grammar as ‚rule-instructed‘ subjects

This knowledge is accessible

Implicit learning failed when a more complex grammar was

used

But also in this situation subjects which in addition to the explicit task worked‚implicitly‘ with the material outperformed the ‚purely explicit‘ subjects in ruledetection.

Factors that influence Incidental Learning

Navigation mode Baylor has shown a moderate positive effect of nonlinear Navigation mode on incidental learning

Distracters The same author also showed that ‚seductive details‘ and percieved disorientation have a negative effect on incidental learning.

Animation According to Rieber animated graphics strongly promote both motivation of learners and incidental learning

Motivation A similar effect has been shown by Elley for the incidental acquisition of vocabulary

Behavioural Tasks

Behavioural tasks promote intentional learning. At the same time they reduce incidental learning (Klauer)

Task level To some extent a higher structural complexity of the task leads to incidental learning of more complex facts of the material (Barker & Hapkievicz)

Conclusions

Incidental learning has been shown to be an essential factor in learning. It has also been shown to influence intentional learning in several fields.In spite of these evidences incidental learning has been neglected in research during the last decade and can be seen as „the forgotten dimension of learning“ (Reischmann 1986).

Hypotheses

The following experiments aim at elucidating the interaction between Pedagogical approach and incidental learning

Transmissive teaching material is less favourable to incidental learning than material based on a cognitivistic approach.

Working in groups will favour incidental learning since it favours an open cognitive attitude

Incidental learning is linked to intrinsic motivation and to a better score in intentional learning (?)

Experimentation

Four groups of (12) students pass an animated learning sequence which covers the molecular basis and concepts of Diffusion, Osmosis and Plasmolysis. The learning sequence is divided into several steps at the end of which incidental learning is measured by a number of questions.

„Pedagogy“ Transmissive Constructivistic

Work alone Group A1 Group B1

Work in pairs Group A2 Group B2

Animation 1: mouvement moléculaire

Behaviouristic ConstructivisticImplicit content Implicit content

2 sortes de balles quibougent a vitessediffertente

Vitesse des ballesCouleur des balles

Plusieurs sortes deballes (a choix) quibougent a vitessedifferente

Vitesse des ballesCouleur des balles

Animation 2: Dispersion dans l’espace(Diffusion)

2 types de balles dontune se disperse à partird’un point

Vitesse des ballesCouleur des ballesReflexion depend de lataille des balles

2 types de balles dontune se disperse à partird’un point choisi parclic

Vitesse des ballesCouleur des ballesReflexion depend de lataille des balles

Animation 3: Structure de la membraaneModèle „fluid mosaic“avec „canal pourl’eau“(Animation Flash?Construction pas àpas?)

Diamètre des pores <sucre, protéines, etc.

Cooncept de la fluidité

Modèle „fluid mosaic“avec „canal pourl’eau“(Animation Flash?Constructioninteractive dirigée parl’etu)

Diamètre des pores <sucre, protéines, etc.

Cooncept de la fluidité

Animation 4: OsmoseMembranesémiperméable:Les petites balles(H2O) passent lamembrane, les grandes(=sucre) (ne passentpasL’eau est accumuléedu coté du sucre

L’eau traverse lamembrane dans lesdeux directions

Membranesémiperméable:Les petites balles(H2O) passent lamembrane, les grandes(=sucre) ne passent pasL’eau est accumuléedu coté du sucre

L’eau traverse lamembrane dans lesdeux directions

Animation 5: Pression osmotiqueDans de l’eau: lescellules gonflentDans une solutionsalée: les cellulesrétrécissent

Pas ts les cellulesréagissent à la memeconc. de selOsmose passe pardeux membranes

Mettre les cellulesdans desconcentrations de seldifférents (choisi parl’etu)

Pas ts les cellulesréagissent à la memeconc. de selOsmose passe par deuxmembranes

Time table

Revue de la litterature Fin Janvier 2006

Concept de l‘approche experimentale Fin Fevrier 2006

Decision sur l‘environnement à utiliser (Flash, Authorware, SVG/PHP)

Mi-Mars 2006

Programmation des unités d‘apprentissage Fin Decembre 2006

Conception de l‘experimentation Janvier 2007

Déroulement de l‘experimentation Mars/Avril 2007

Evaluation des résultats Mai 2007

Ecrire le Mémoire Juillet 2007

Questions ouvertes et problèmes

Problèmes techniques

-Vitesse des animations sur Mac- Programmation de certains paramètres en Flash

Problèmes conceptuels

- Comment differencier les animations pour les deux approches pedagogiques sans trop compromettre la comparabilité des deux experimentations.

ReferencesLP Rieber 1991, J of educational Psychology Vol 83/3 318 – 328Animation, incidental Learning and continuing motivation

LPRieber 1991, ETR&D Vol. 44 1996, 43-58Seriously considering play: Designing Interactive learning environments based on the blending of microworlds, simulations and games

SF Harp & REMayer, J of educational Psychology 1998, Vol. 90/3 414-434How seductive details do their damage: A theory of cognitive interest in science learning

RCSchank & ChCleary, Engines for Education, Lawrence Erlbaum Ass. Publishers Hillsdale NJ, 1995 95-105Incidental learning

Jones, T. Incidental learning during information retrieval: a hypertext experiment

Mathews, RC, Buss, RR, Stanley, WB, Blanchard-Fields, F, Cho, JR and Druhan,B. J of experimental psychology:Learning, Memory and Cognition Vol. 15/6 1083-1100: 1989

Rude, B.D. 2004, The case against incidental learning

Elley, W.B. http//cela.albany.edu/reports/inpraise/main.html (Dez 2005)In praise of incidental learning: Lessons from some empirical findings on language acquisition: 1997

Elley, WB Vocabulary acquisition from listening to stories read aloud. Reading research Quarterly 24, 174-187: 1989

Elley, WB, Barham, I,Lamb, H & Wyllie,M The role of grammar in a secondary school curriculum New Zealand Council for Educational Research 1982

SKerka 2000, Trends and Issues 2000 Alert No.18Incidental learning

Baylor, A.L. Percieved disorientation and incidental learning in a Web-based environment: Internal and external factors J of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia Vol. 10/3 227-251:2001

VJMarsick & KJWatkins 2001, New directions for adult and continuing education 89 25-34Informal and incidentaal learning

Marsick, V.J. and Watkins, K. Informal and incidental learning in the workplace. London and NewYork:Routledge, 1990

Robert C. Mathews, Ray R. Buss, William B. Stanley, Fredda Blanchard-Fields, Jeung Ryeul Cho, and Barry Druhan. Role of Implicit and Explicit Processes in Learning From Examples: A Synergistic EffectJournal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 1989, Vol. 15, No. 6, 1083-1100

Wstangl. Latentes, passives, implizites, inzidentelles oder informelles Lernen, 2004

Rogers, A Learning:Can we change the discourse? Adults learning 8, no.5 (Jan 1997): 116-117

Reischmann, J. Learning “en paassant”: The forgotten dimension Paper presented at the American Association of Adult and Continuing Education Conference: 1986

Hillocks, G. What works in teaching composition: A Meta-analysis of experimental treatment studies American Journal of Education 93, 133-170: 1984

Harris, R. An experimental inquiry into the functions and value of formal grammar in the teaching of English. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of London: 1962

B Blandin, B Are E-learning standards neutral ? Proceedings CALIE 04: International Conference on Computer …, 2004

Hobbs, D.L. Aconstructivist approach to web course design : A review of the literature International Journal on E-Learning 60 – 65 : April/June 2002

Reiser, R.A. A history of Instructional Design and technology : Hisstory of Instructional Design ETR&D No.2 pp57-67 : 2001

Mayer, R.E. The promise of multimedia learning : using the same instructional design methods across different media Learning and Instruction 13 pp125-139 : 2003

Mayer, R.E., Heiser, J. & Lonn,S. Cognitive constraints on multimedia learning :when presenting more material results in less understanding Journal of educational psychology, 93 pp.187-198 : 2001

Milheim, W.D. How to use animation in computer assisted learning British Journal of Educational technology Vol 24, pp. 171-178 : 1993

Klauer, K.J. Intentional and Incidental Learning with Instructional Texts: A Meta-Analysis for 1970-1980 American Educational Research Journal, Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 323-339 : 1984

Reber,A.S. Implicit learning of artificial languages. The role of innstructional set. J of experimental psychology. Human learning and memory,2 pp. 88-94 : 1976

Schacter,D. Implicit memory : History and current status J of experimental psychology. Learning, Memory and Cognition, 13, pp. 501-518 : 1987