IN VITRO ANTHELMINTIC ACTIVITY OF ERVATAMIA CORONARIA AGAINST HAEMONCHUS CONTORTUS
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Transcript of IN VITRO ANTHELMINTIC ACTIVITY OF ERVATAMIA CORONARIA AGAINST HAEMONCHUS CONTORTUS
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Inter. J. of Phytotherapy / Vol4 / Issue 4 / 2014 / 162-166.
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e - ISSN - 2249-7722
Print ISSN - 2249-7730
International Journal of Phytotherapy
www.phytotherapyjournal.com
USES AND COMMERCIAL PROSPECTS OF PROSOPIS
JULIFLORA, IN PUDUKKOTTAI DISTRICT, SOUTH INDIA
V. Nandagopalan*, A. Doss and S.P. Anand
PG & Research Department of Botany, National College (Autonomous), Trichirappalli 620 001, Tamil Nadu, India
INTRODUCTION
Prosopis plays a leading role in the afforestation
of arid lands. Their capability of growing on degraded
land under arid conditions has made them especially
suitable for this purpose. Being a multipurpose tree, it fits
very well into dry land agroforestry systems, controlling
soil erosion, stabilizing sand dunes, improving soil
fertility, reducing soil salinity, providing fuel energy
resources, supplying feed and forage for grazing animals,
furnishing construction timber and furniture wood,
supplementing food for humans, and promoting honey
production. Prosopis juliflora produces good quality fuel
of high quality calorific value, which burns well even
when freshly cut. It also produces high quality charcoal
and its heartwood is strong and durable. It branches are
widely used as fencing posts, while its pods which are
high in protein and sugars may be important fodder for
livestock, and / or food for humans [1]. However, the
pods have been reported to result in facial contortions,
impacted rumen and constipation among livestock. These
ill effects may sometimes result in death.
Prosopis juliflora is an evergreen tree with a large
crown and an open canopy, growing to a height of 5-10m.
stem green-brown, sinuous and twisted, with axial thorns
situated on both sides of the nodes and branches.
Bark somewhat rough; dull red. The root system includes
a deep taproot. Leaves compound; leaflets in 13-25 pairs,
oblong (3 x 1.7 mm) and dark green, bipinnate with 1 or
sometimes 2 pairs of rachis, almost pendulous. Flowers
lateral to the axis with a tubular, light greenish-yellow,
1.5 mm wide calyx with hooded teeth; corolla light
greenish-yellow, composed of 5 petals with 3 mm wide
pubescent along its edges. Fruit a non-dehiscent pod,
straight, linear, falcate to annular, with a coraceous
mesocarp in 1 segment or divided into several segments;
seeds compressed, ovoid, hard, dark brown, with
mucilaginous endosperm surrounding the embryo;
cotyledons flat, rounded, epigenous when germinating.
Larger branches and trunks yield a high quality
timber, comparable in colour, finish and physical
attributes to Indian rosewood and other commercial
hardwoods. While also used for posts and poles, the
wood, called wooden anthracite in some areas, is almost unsurpassable as a fuel. Fruit pods are high in sugar and
protein and are a rich food source for man and beast.
Prosopis honey is of the highest quality and exudates gum
Corresponding Author: V. Nandagopalan Email:[email protected]
ABSTRACT
Prosopis juliflora DC.is commonly known as "mesquite". Itis oneof the most economically and ecologically
important tree species in arid and semi-arid zones of the world. The potential of the mesquite as a source of animal
feed, health problems and activated charcoal is discussed. Mesquite was considered one of the most important food
sources to desert dwelling tribes and were also the beans eaten raw and ground (sometimes even with the whole pod)
into a flour which was made into atole (a type of hot meal resembling gruel) and bread.
Key words: Drylands, Livelihood, Fuelwood, Prosopis julifora.
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is comparable to gum arabic. Prosopis products have
added value if processed, such as a 30-fold increase by
turning firewood to finished timber, and even more if
manufactured into furniture [2].
Chemistry
Per 100 g, the flower is reported to contain
(ZMB): 21.0 g protein, 3.2 g fat, 65.8 g total
carbohydrate, 15.5 g fiber, 10.0 g ash, 1,310 mg Ca, and
400 mg P. Leaves contain 19.0 g protein, 2.9 g fat, 69.6 g
total carbohydrate, total carbohydrate, 21.6 g fiber, 8.5 g
ash, 2,080 mg Ca, and 220 g P. Fruits contain 13.9 g
protein, 3.0 g fat, 78.3 g total carbohydrate, 27.7 g fiber,
and 4.8 g ash. Seeds contain (ZMB) 65.2 g protein, 7.8 g
fat, 21.8 g total carbohydrate, 2.8 g fiber, and 5.2 g ash.
Another analysis of the fruit shows 14.35% water
(hygroscopic), 1.64% oil, 16.36% starch, 30.25% glucose,
0.85% nitrogenous material, 5.81% tannin-like material,
3.5% mineral salts, and 27.24% cellulose. Mesquite gum
readily hydrolyses with dilute sulfuric acid to yield L-
arabinose and D-galactose and 4-o-methyl-D-glucuronic
acid at 4:2:1. Owing to the high content of arabinose, the
gum is an excellent source of sugar. Roots contain 6.7%
tannin, bark 38.4%, and dry wood 0.9%. The alkaloids 5-hydroxytryptamine and tryptamine are reported from
this species [3].
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study area
Pudukkottai District was carved out
of Tiruchirappalli and Thanjavur districts in January
1974. The district has an area of 4663 Sq. Km. with a
coast line of 39 Kms. The district lies between 78.25' and
79.15' of the Eastern Longitude and between 9.50' and
10.40' of the Northern Latitude. It is bounded by
Tiruchirappalli district in the North and West, Sivaganga
district in the South, Bay of Bengal in the East and
Thanjavur district in the North East. The mean annual
rainfall was 1033 mm and the dry season lasts for six
months (January to June), and receives less than 60 mm
rainfall on monthly average.
Methods
The field work was conducted in Pudukkottai
District during December 2009 to Aug 2010.
Ethnomedicinal data were collected following standard
methods. The questionnaire survey, field observations,
personal interviews and focus group discussion aimed at
gathering information on present and past status of this
plant and their traditional uses. A total 31 local informants
belonging to age group of 25-80 yrs were interviewed
during the survey. At the end of interview, specimen of
plant for their medicinal uses were collected and
identified. The plant specimen collection is deposited in
the department Herbarium, National College,
Tiruchirapalli, Tamilnadu. The nomenclature and
identification of the plants is carrying out of flora of
Tamilnadu and the other non-published recent literature.
RESULTS
The study shows a high degree of ethnobotanical
novelty and the use of plant sources for medicine by the
rural communities reflects the revival of interest in
traditional folk medicine, besides bringing to the fore
their esoteric knowledge. Prosopis juliflora is an
evergreen tree native to South America (Figure 1). It is a
fast growing, nitrogen-fixing and tolerant to arid
conditions and saline soils. Under the right conditions, P.
juliflora can produce a variety of valuable goods and
services: construction materials, charcoal, soil
conservation and rehabilitation of degraded and saline
soils. Concern about deforestation, desertification and fuel
wood shortages in the late 1970s and early 1980s
prompted a wave of projects across the world. P.juliflora
has survived where other tree species have failed and in
many cases become a major nuisance. P. juliflora has
invaded, and continues to invade, millions of hectares of
rangeland in South Africa, East Africa, Australia and
coastal Asia. In 2004 it was rated one of the worlds top 100 least wanted species (Invasive Species Specialist
Group of the IUCN, 2004).
Improvement of soil fertility
Prosopis juliflora has also been used to shelter
agricultural crops from wind and to reduce the movement
of soil and sand. Its leaves contain various chemicals
known to affect palability to livestock, but also suppress
the germination and growth of crops, weeds and other
trees. Empirical studies conducted in Sudan indicate that
wind speed inside a five-year-old Prosopis juliflora
plantation was reduced by an average 14 %, while
potential evaporation was reduced by 22%. There was
also considerable improvement in soil texture and soil
organic matter under the tree canopy, with soils under the
canopy having higher total nitrogen and available
phosphorus, and lower soil pH than soils in the adjacent
open field [4]. Organic carbon and total nitrogen
concentrations in soils under Prosopis juliflora were 13%
and 45% higher than in the open areas. An evaluation of
the comparative performance of Prosopis juliflora against
other tree species such as Albizia lebbeck, Azadirachta
indica, Dalbergia sissoo, Morus indica, Populus deltoids,
Syzigium cuminii and Syzigium fructicosum found that
Prosopis juliflora seedlings had the highest survival rate,
height gain, girth growth and the highest primary biomass
production. Furthermore, it can spreaded through the root
stock where the soil had loamy and loose texture.
Fodder, shade and fence
The importance of Prosopis as a dry land
resource is illustrated in India where it is considered a
valuable tree species of the desert ecosystem, particularly
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in the arid zone of the northwestern Gujarat state. There,
it constitutes a large percentage of vegetative cover,
producing about 25 to 30 tons of biomass/ha/year at a
short rotation age of 4 to 5 years [5]. Prosopis juliflora
pods are a valuable low cost fodder in the semi-arid areas
of northeastern Brazil [6], where it partly offsets fodder
scarcity during the dry season. Results of feeding trials
indicate that rations for goats, sheep, beef cattle and dairy
cattle can give very good weight gains and/or milk
production when about 60% of the diet consists of ground
Prosopis pods [7]. The remarkable economic and
physiological characteristics of Prosopis juliflora make it
a prime contributor to the development of many arid
regions, especially if its invasive habit is controlled and
the thorns that limit its widespread acceptance are
controlled [8].
Prosopis juliflora is considered to be a valuable
tree species of the desert ecosystem. The collection,
processing and marketing of various minor forest
products obtained from different parts of Prosopis
juliflora. The following forest products have been
collected from different parts of the northwestern arid
zone of Gujarat: pods, gum, honey, and wood for charcoal
production. Prosopis has also been used to combat
desertification. Pods collection for livestock feed
Prosopis juliflora trees have a tremendous potential for
pod production. Because of the high carbohydrate content
and good amount of protein, the spongy walls of ripe pods
are highly nutritive and used in making meal for humans
(pinole) and alcoholic beverages (Mesquitabole, mesquite
wines, etc.). The husk of pods is used for dying; they
contain tannin (1.9%). Raizada and Chatterjee [9] have
noticed that the ripe pods are said to have high nutritive
value, i.e., rich in sugar and nitrogen and are greedily
eaten by most of the herbivorous animals and livestock.
Further, the pods may yield a substitute for wood
shavings used in various industries for thermal insulation
and acoustic control [10].
Gum production
Gum production Prosopis juliflora exudes gum
from the sap wood. On average, about 40 g of gum is
produced from one plant. However, under drought
conditions more gum is exuded. During 1991-1992, the
maximum production of more than 1000 metric tons was
obtained. This compares to the normal yield of about of
about 300 metric tons/year (GSFDC, Vadodara*s
records). The gum forms adhesive mucilage, with
favourable physical and chemical properties, that can be
used as an emulsifying agent. Prosopis gum also finds use
in confectionery, mending pottery, and as an adulterant
and substitute for gum Arabic [11]. Owing to the high
content of arabinose, which is easily separable, the gum
has proved to be an excellent source of this sugar.
Moreover, the gum is used in industries, etc. If additional
utilization of this gum can be found, it would further
enhance the value of this already economically important
tree [12]. Furthermore, the gum contains: D-galactose
45%; L-arabinose 24%; L-rhamnose 13% and glucuromic
acid 13.7%. It possesses fairly good adhesive strength and
can be used as paper adhesive for brown paper and wall
paper. The gum has also been used in treating eye
infections [13].
Firewood and charcoal
Charcoal is prepared by burning thick stems and
roots of trees under anaerobic conditions. Only one third
of the total quantity of fuel wood processed becomes
charcoal. The wood is hard and heavy (specific gravity
0.70). It is excellent firewood (calorific value is 4800 k
cal/kg) that burns slowly and evenly and holds heat well.
Because of its superior quality, it is considered to be one
of the best charcoals. Dry wood, on destructive distillation
gives 33.9% charcoal, 1.24 methanol and 124.8 litre/kg of
gas. Prosopis wood, together with rice husk and other
agro-wastes, can be briquetted to form a good quality
white coal (Figure 2 &3). Other forms of charcoal can be
used for household purposes. In addition, the Gujarat
Agricultural University manufactures charcoal from
Prosopis juliflora for the government of Gujarat. Between
1990- 1995, it manufactured about 300,000 bags of
charcoal and generated about 300,000 mandays of labor
demand. In Mexico, Argentina, and Brazil, Prosopis pods
are an important source of animal feed [14].
CONCLUSION
Health Problems
The thorn of Prosopis on penetrating the eye or
skin of human and animals causes more inflammation
than expected from the physical injury. An injury from
the thorn of this species does not heal easily despite
intensive medical treatments (personal communication
with the pastoralists). The irritation may be due to waxes
[15]. The local inhabitants are severely affected by injury
from the thorns of Prosopis and are complaining about its
rapid colonization of the area. Using the wood in a
fireplace can also cause dermatitis [16]. The available
reports on cattle toxicity vary. According to reports by
local Afar pastoralists, the ingestion of the pod over long
periods of time will result in death of cattle. Stomach
poisoning by the pod may induce a permanent impairment
of the ability to digest cellulose. This might be due to the
high sugar content of the pod that depresses the rumen
bacterial cellulose activity and finally killing the animal.
Other uses
Prosopis juliflora flowers profusely twice a year
and produces sweet nectar that gives excellent honey
(Figure 4). In the last five years, about 300 metric tons of
honey has been collected, processed, and marketed and
Apisfloriea, that is found in large numbers in Kachchh
district due to its peculiar climatic and environmental
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conditions. The honey produced by Apisfloriea is
regarded as one of the best quality of honey from the
medicinal point of view, with an A grade by researchers
at the Central Bee Research & Training Institute (CBRTI)
in Pune.
Figure 1. Prosopis juliflora
Figure 2. View of initial process of the stem is
geometrically arranged in the conical form of structure
Figure 3. Final stages of charcoal making
Figure 4. View of honey comb in-between the Prosopis tree
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