COMMUNICATING WITH SMALL FARMERS I N THE CHAPARE REGION OF BOLIVIA

L. Van Crowder, Jr. Bernard L. Dela ine

La Paz, B o l i v i a June, 1980

L. Van Crowder, J r . worked i n B o l i v i a f o r the U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a as an ex tens ion/ rura l communication spec ia l i s t (1978-80). He i s c u r r e n t l y an a s s i s t a n t pro fessor i n t h e E d i t o r i a l Department, U n i v e r s i t y o f F lo r ida . Bernard L. Dela ine was a r u r a l s o c i o l o g i s t w i t h the Proyecto Desarro l lo-- Chapare - Yungas, Bol i v i a . He now works on an A. I. D. c o n t r a c t i n Benin, A f r i ca . Th is paper i s a summary r e p o r t o f a study e n t i t l e d "Los Medios de Comunicacion en E l Chapare - Un Anal i s i s . I'

I n t roduc t ion :

A growing recogn i t i on by development planners o f the con t r ibu t ions commu- n i c a t i o n can make t o r u r a l development programs has l e d t o a concern f o r the r o l e o f communication i n the development process. While the r o l e va r ies , i t has become c l e a r t h a t communication i s n o t neu t ra l b u t instead, may r e f l e c t the soc ia l and p o l i t i c a l o r i en ta t i ons o f both i n d i v i d u a l communicators and t r a n s m i t t i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s . It has a1 so become evident , as Evere t t Rogers notes, t h a t t he e f f e c t s o f communication are f requen t l y d i f f e r e n t f o r d i f f e r e n t socioeconomic segments o f the r u r a l populat ion. - 1/

I n the past , t he t heo re t i ca l o r i en ta t i ons o f many researchers have emphasized a psychological ana lys is o f t he r e l a t i onsh ips between communication and development, the r e s u l t be ing t h a t change s t ra teg ies were o f t e n concerned w i t h t he a1 t e r i n g of i nd i v i dua l a t t i t udes , percept ion, and knowledge. More recen t l y , and p a r a l l e l i n g the concern f o r d i f f e r e n t i a l e f f e c t s on popula t ion segments, the research focus has s h i f t e d from psychological t o s t r u c t u r a l var iab les , w i t h greater emphasis on the soc i a l , p o l i t i c a l and economic context o f the communication process. Thus, Diaz-Bordenave w r i t es t h a t " i f we have learned something i n recent years, i t i s the considerable e f f e c t s o f the socioeconomic s t r uc tu re on farmers ' adoption behavior. " Re fe r r i ng t o var ious L a t i n America inves t iga t ions , i n c l ud i ng h i s own i n B r a z i l , he notes "how small i s the in f luence o f psychological f ac to r s on access t o instrumental in format ion, when compared w i t h the s t r u c t u r a l (socioeconomic) fac tors . " - 2/

While communication may no t r a p i d l y o r alone change soc ia l s t ruc tu res es tab l ished i n L a t i n America over decades, i t i s poss ib le t h a t communication can acce lera te r u r a l development and i n i t i a t e o r improve the dialogue between r u r a l people and change agencies. Communication s t r a teg ies f o r r u r a l develop- ment should, however, i n order t o be e f f e c t i v e , be based on a knowledge o f audience cha rac te r i s t i c s as w e l l as on in fo rmat ion about which media can reach r u r a l audiences w i t h change-related messages.

The study repor ted here, which was conducted i n the Chapare o f B o l i v i a i n ,,

1979, had as i t s ove ra l l purpose the inven to ry o f communication f ac to r s which can be instrumental i n the p lann ing o f a reg iona l communication s t ra tegy. More s p e c i f i c a l l y , the study sought t o i d e n t i f y 1) cha rac te r i s t i c s o f the farm popula t ion which may in f luence the e f fec t iveness o f a reg iona l communication e f f o r t ; 2) communication channels, both mass media and in terpersonal , which can be used t o disseminate in fo rmat ion t o Chapare farmers; and 3) i n fo rmat ion sources t h a t i n f l uence t he use o f improved farm pract ices.

1/ Evere t t M. Rogers, "Socia l S t ruc tu re and Communication St ra teg ies i n - Rural Develo~ment: The Communication Effects Gap and the Second Dimen- s ion o f ~ e v e i opment. I' I n Communication s t r a teg ies f o r Rural Devel opment, Robert H. Crawford and W i l l i am B. Ward (eds.), Proceedings o f the Cornel l - CIAT I n te rna t i ona l Symposium, Ca l i , Colombia, 1974, p.55.

2/ Juan Diaz-Bordenave, "Communication and Adopi t on o f A g r i c u l t u r a l Innovat ions - i n L a t i n America. " - 1n Communication s t r a teg ies f o r Rural Development, Robert H. Crawford and W i l l i am B. Ward (eds.), Proceedings o f the Cornel l - CIAT I n te rna t i ona l Symposium, C a l i , Colombia, 1974, p. 55.

Data were gathered by rural school teachers and area youths who were trained to administer a simple questionnaire and who spoke both Spanish and Quechua. Interviewing was done at the monthly sindicato meetings in the various communities comprising the study region. Since the majority of Chapare farmers speak Quechua as a first language, interviewers often had to translate written Spanish questions to oral Quechua. It was necessary, therefore, to standardize the interpretation of key words. A stratified random sampling procedure, using sindicatos (farmer syndicates) as the sampling frame, was employed to draw a statistically representative sample of 216 farmers.

Background to the Chapare:

The Chapare of Bolivia is a humid tropical region located in the Department of Cochabamba. The principal town, Vi 1 la Tunari , is about 160 kilometers from the city of Cochabamba and is connected to that city by a semi-paved road which winds from the Cochabamba Valley to 3,700 meters at the cumbre, or highest mountain pass, then drops precipitously to an elevation of 300 meters in Villa Tunari.

The climate, typical of the humid tropics, is characterized by high temperatures and excessive rainfall; average temperature is about 24OC and average yearly rainfall is 3,500 mm.

The Chapare is an area of recent colonization of two types: spontaneous and government-directed, with most settlers being spontaneous colonizers who seldom hold title to the land they occupy. The current population is approx- imately 10,500 farm families, most of whom are organized into sindicatos, the socio-pol i tical organizations which prevai 1 throughout Bol ivia.

Social and physical infrastructures. are deficient in the Chapare as evidenced by a recent study which found that 92% of the colonos do not have access to health services and that 47% of the communities do not have school facilities. The isolation of communities and the lack of access to markets makes the construction of roads a primary concern of area farmers. 3/

Land clearing is the slash-and-burn type traditional to the humid tropics. A farmer usually clears between one and two hectares and plants rice and corn followed by a planting of yuca. Later he will plant such tree crops as plantains, citrus, papaya, and coca, coca being the principal cash crop of the area. - 4/

3/ Gustavo Loza Montenegro and Bernard L. Delaine, "Estudio de Necesidades - Sentidas - El Chapare." Proyecto de Desarrollo Chapare - Yungas, La Paz, Bolivia, 1979.

4/ Jim Wei 1 , "Contemporary Bol ivia: National Socioeconomic Integration of - Highland Peasant Migrants to a Tropical Colonization Zone." A paper pre- pared for the symposium "Contemporary Bolivia: Current Perspectives on National Development." 1979 meeting of the American Anthropological Association, Cincinnati . Wei 1 reports that "coca directly provides two- thirds of a1 1 income" in the community he investigated.

Coca i s the p l a n t source f o r t he manufacture o f cocaine and both the B o l i v i a n and the Uni ted States governments are at tempt ing t o reduce coca product ion through programs o f crop subs t i t u t i on . 5/ The Chapare, the major coca-growing reg ion o f Bol i v i a , i s thought t; produce about 12,282 met r i c tons o f the coca l e a f annual ly. By comparison, the Yungas o f La Paz, t he t r a d i t i o n a l coca region, produces on ly about 3,128 met r i c tons per year. O f the t o t a l coca produced i n B o l i v i a (approximately 15,410 me t r i c tons), i t i s est imated t h a t about 6,000 tons are used f o r l ega l purposes - l e g a l l y exported f o r medicines o r consumed (chewed) by the indigenous populat ion. The balance (9,410 me t r i c tons) presumably goes f o r the manufacture o f cocaine. - 6/

Many o f the small- farmer problems which impede r u r a l , and i n p a r t i c u l a r , a g r i c u l t u r a l development o f the Chapare r equ i r e techn ica l so lu t ions , and i n the case o f coca s u b s t i t u t i o n w i l l i n vo l ve developing crop a l t e rna t i ves which can be grown i n the area a t comparable cash re tu rns f o r farmers. I n add i t i on , the p rov i s i on o f bas ic phys ica l and soc ia l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e w i l l be necessary t o support crop development programs. It would be a mistake, however, t o view the development o f t he Chapare as j u s t a techn ica l problem and f a i l thereby t o recognize the problems o f i n fo rmat ion and communication. I f new crop technologies are t o be adopted by farmers, i t w i l l r e s u l t from the i n t e r a c t i o n o f two f ac to r s -- " r e c e p t i v i t y t o new ideas ( In format ion Po ten t i a l ) and a b i l i t y t o c a r r y ou t these ideas i n p r a c t i c e (Act ion Poten- t i a l ) . " - 7/ A t present, both p o t e n t i a l s a re g r e a t l y l a ck i ng i n the Chapare.

Charac te r i s t i cs o f the Farmer Audience:

The farmer ( adu l t male) popu la t ion o f the Chapare i s r e l a t i v e l y young, w i t h 64.82% o f the farmers being between the ages o f 20 and 39 years. The average age f o r a farmer i s about 35 years. Intense co l on i za t i on o f the reg ion has taken p lace on l y over the l a s t 20 t o 30 years (83.80% o f the farmers s e t t l e d i n the l a s t 24 years), and most colonos are young men who t y p i c a l l y migrate alone leav ing t h e i r f am i l i e s i n the v i l l a g e o f o r i g i n u n t i l land i s cleared, the f i r s t crop sown, and a hu t i s b u i l t . There i s a l so a tendency f o r o l de r men t o leave t he Chapare r e tu rn i ng t o t h e i r p lace o f b i r t h and leav ing the farm t o a son o r nephew.

5/ A t the t ime o f t h i s w r i t i n g both authors worked on a U.S. - B o l i v i a coca - s u b s t i t u t i o n program. Subsequent p o l i t i c a l events i n B o l i v i a (a m i l i t a r y takeover) have l e d t o a reduc t ion o f techn ica l assistance and a h a l t i n g o f j o i n t coca con t ro l e f f o r t s .

6/ The f i gu res presented here are est imates provided by the personnel o f the - Proyecto de Desarro l lo Chapare - Yungas (PRODES).

7/ Linwood L. Hodqdon, "The Adoption o f New A g r i c u l t u r a l Inputs and Prac- - t i c e s by 1ndian ~armers . I' 1n Small Farm ~ g r i c u l t u r a l Development Prob- lems, Huntley H. Biggs and R. L. Tinnermeir (eds.), Colorado Sta te Uni- - v e r s i t y , Ft . Co l l i n s , Colorado, 1974, p. 83.

The educational level of Chapare farmers i s surprisingly high, 73.61% having completed c i c lo basico or four years of formal schooling. A l i t e r acy measure (self-defined) revealed tha t 82.41% of the farmers are able t o read. Both the educational and the l i t e racy levels in the Chapare a re higher than the national average. 8/ The majority of Chapare colonizers or iginate in the Cochabamba Val 1 ey. 1t-is not surpris ing, therefore, t ha t 85.65% speak Quechua, the native language spoken by Valley dwellers; only .93% reported speaking Aymara, the predominate language of the Bolivian al t iplano. Although Quechua i s the preferred language in the home and w i t h f r iends , 87.04% of the farmers a l so speak Spanish. Spanish i s the language commonly used by government o f f i c i a l s , extension agents and commercial dealers.

The average landholding in the Chapare was found to be 15 hectares with 43.50% of the farmers holding between 10 and 19 hectares. However, because of labor l imitat ions a farmer usually operates only 3 to 6 hectares.

The following tab le summarizes the principal demographic charac ter i s t ics of the farmer audience:

TABLE I

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FARMER AUDIENCE

Audience Characteristics Absolute Frequency Relative Frequency (%)

Age (20-39 years) 140 64.82

tclucati on (4 years of School ing)

Literacy 178 82.41

Quechua S~eak ina ( ~ i r s t ~ a n ~ u a ~ e j 185 85.65

Spanish Speaking . (Second Language) 188 87.04

Land Holdina

8/ Hernan Zeballos-Hurtado, "From the Uplands t o the Lowlands: An Economic - Analysis of Bolivian Rural - Rural Migration." Unpublished Ph.D. t hes i s , University of Wisconsin, 1975. Zeballos notes t h a t colonizers in general are a "priveledged group" in terms of education, having a l i te racy ra te higher than the national average.

Mass Communication Channels

Radio: It is probably not an exaggeration to say, as Rogers has, that " r a d i o t h e single mass media channel that most effectively reaches the widest audience of villagers at present." 9/ In the Chapare, 90.28% of the farmers l isten to radio and 72.69% have a receiver in the home (Table 11).

Table I1

RADIO LISTENING AND RECEIVER OWNERSHIP

Listen to Radio Have Radio in the Home A. F. R.F. % A. F. R.F. %

Yes 195 90.28 157 72.69 No 2 1 9.72 5 9 27.31

Total 216 100. 00 216 100.00

The majority of the farmers (76.29%) listen to radio everyday, but Saturday and Sunday (traditional rest days) are when most farmers listen (60.5% and 80% respectively). The hours of heaviest 1 istening are 7 to 8 a.m. and 6 to 7 p.m. These are also the broadcast hours that farmers indicate would be best for technical assistance (development) radio broadcasts. These hours and days of prime radio time are largely determined by farmers' work schedules.

The radio stations farmers most frequently listen to are urban stations transmitting from La Paz, Cochabamba, and Oruro. Nevertheless , 28.71% report listening to Radio San Rafael, a member of Radio Schools of Bolivia (ERBOL), which broadcasts rural development programs. There are not, however, any radio schools formed in the Chapare.

t

The radio programs of greatest interest are news (92.82%), music (81.53%) and sports (48.71%). Farmers receive very limited agricultural information from radio, and a serious doubt exists whether their information needs are met by the urban stations they listen to. It may be that the large proportion of content is " frivolous , irrelevant and even negative for rural development. - 10/

9/ Everett M. Rogers and Juan R. Braun with Mark A. Vermilion, "Radio Forums: - A Strategy foF Rural Development." In Radio for ducati ion-and Development: Case Studies, Vol. 11. World Bank Staff Working Paper No. 266, May, 1977, p. 370.

10/ Juan Diaz-Bordenave, "Communication and Adoption of Agricultural Innova- - tions in Latin America. In Communication Strategies for Rural Develop- ment, Robert H. Crawford and Wi 1 1 iam 0 . Ward (Eds. ), Proceedings of the - Cornell - CIAT International Symposium, Cali, Colombia, 1974, p. 207.

Farmers were unanimous i n t h e i r des i res f o r a l o c a l s t a t i o n which would broadcast i n fo rmat ion o f reg iona l relevance such as market p r i ces , road cond i t i ons and soc ia l a c t i v i t i e s . Radio i s a l so perceived by farmers as a means o f group expression whereby community needs can be voiced, as w e l l as a r a p i d channel f o r sending messages t o f am i l y and f r i ends (as i n the case o f an emergency o r merely t o congratu la te a b i r thday) . As Albo has observed, i t i s no t unusual f o r broadcast s t a t i ons i n B o l i v i a t o f unc t i on i n some respects as a " te legraph system". These s ta t i ons make ava i l ab l e t o r u r a l res idents f i x e d a i r t i m e a t a reasonable cost , so they can send messages t o f r i ends and f am i l y i n o ther communities. u/

When farmers were asked about the type o f techn ica l assistance o r development programs they were most i n t e res ted i n , the m a j o r i t y (95.37%)

. sa i d ag r i cu l t u re . More than h a l f (66.20%) were a lso i n t e res ted i n hea l th education programs, r e f l e c t i n g the l a c k o f adequate hea l t h f a c i l i t i e s i n the area.

Newspapers: Considering t he r e l a t i v e l y h igh l i t e r a c y r a t e i n t he Chapare, one might suppose t h a t newspaper readership would a lso be f a i r l y high. And as can be seen i n Table 111, 68.05% o f the farmers s t a t e t h a t they do read a newspaper. However, when asked i f a newspaper a r r i v e d a t t h e i r community, on ly 28.70% answered a f f i r m a t i v e l y .

The discrepancy between newspaper a v a i l a b i l i t y i n the Chapare and newspaper readership by Chapare farmers can be understood by answers t o the quest ion "How o f t e n do you read a newspaper?" 51.02% o f the farmers read a newspaper on ly once a month and 19.73% less of ten. Dur ing informal quest ion ing o f farmers i t was found t h a t many o f them read newspapers when i n Cochabamba, which they v i s i t on the average o f once a month.

TABLE I11

NEWSPAPER READERSHIP AND AVAILABILITY

Read a Newspaper Newspaper Ava i lab le i n Community A.F. R.F. % A. F.. R.F %

, Yes 147 68.05 6 2 28.70 N o 6 9 31.95 154 31.95

Tota l . 216 100.00 216 100.00

11/ Jav ie r Albo, "Idiomas, Escuelas y Radios en B o l i v i a " , Centro de I n v e s t i - - gacion y Promocion de l Campesinado ( C I P C A ) , Cuadernos de Investigation #3, 1977, p. 25-26;

The newspaper most f requen t l y read by Chapare farmers (93.80%) i s - . Los Tiempos, a Cochabamba d a i l y . Farmers were asked i f they knew about a r u r a l newspaper c a l l e d Ayni, b u t on ly 2.10% sa id they had read t h i s paper.* I f d i s t r i b u t e d i n the region, Ayni, w i t h i t s emphasis on a g r i c u l t u r e and community development, would be o f presumable i n t e r e s t t o Chapare farmers.

The type o f newspaper in fo rmat ion o f most i n t e r e s t t o farmers was spor ts (70.10%), fo l lowed by news (55.80%). Farmers a lso i nd i ca ted a f a i r l y h igh l e v e l o f i n t e r e s t i n p o l i t i c a l events (42.20%).

When asked i f they rec ieve a g r i c u l t u r a l i n fo rmat ion from newspapers, 46.50% o f the farmers answered a f f i r m a t i v e l y . This f i n d i n g l e d t o a one- month content ana lys is o f - Los Tiempos, the most f requen t l y read newspaper.

Los Tiempos does no t fea tu re an a g r i c u l t u r a l page nor does i t pub l i sh - market in format ion. However, some general a g r i c u l t u r a l o r r u r a l development in fo rmat ion was found ( i .e. a d iscussion o f na t iona l r u r a l development problems; a farmers' federa t ion meeting i n La Paz; the v i s i t o f the M i n i s t e r o f Ag r i cu l t u re t o a r u r a l area, etc.). The conclusion o f the content ana lys is was t h a t the a g r i c u l t u r a l i n fo rmat ion was o f a very general nature o r r e l a t e d t o a g r i c u l t u r a l advertisements, o f which very few appeared.

B u l l e t i ns and Motion Pictures: Despite the p o t e n t i a l usefu l ness and e f fec t iveness o f b u l l e t i n s w i t h l i t e r a t e farmers (and t o some extent w i t h ill i t e r a t e s s ince some member o f the f am i l y can usua l l y read), very few Chapare farmers (12.04%) rece ive a g r i c u l t u r a l i n fo rmat ion from b u l l e t i ns. O f these farmers (26 i n t o t a l ) , 51.85% received b u l l e t i n s from extension agents; on ly two farmers claimed t o have received p r i n t e d mate r ia l s from commercial agents. A1 though few farmers are be ing reached through b u l l e t i ns , the l a rge m a j o r i t y (95.45%) expressed an i n t e r e s t i n r ece i v i ng in format ion i n t h i s form.

%Ayni i s an Aymara word, a lso used by Quechua speakers, which impl ies coop- e r a t i v e ac t ion. A system o f "Ayni" e x i s t s i n many pa r t s o f B o l i v i a i n which farmers exchange labor . The newspaper Ayni i s publ ished by the Center f o r Socia l and Economic Development (DSEC).

For the purpose o f t h i s study, f i l m v iewing was l i m i t e d t o educational o r t r a i n i n g f i lms . Only 13.89% (30 farmers) had seen educational f i l m s i n the l a s t year. It i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h a t farmers d i d no t d i f f e r e n t i a t e between motion p i c t u res and s l i des . To farmers the two v i sua l modes are the same. This f i n d i n g i s important i n l i g h t o f s tud ies t h a t conclude t h a t s t i l l p resenta t ions are about as e f f e c t i v e as motion p i c t u res i n teaching f ac tua l informat ion. Various s tud ies have shown no d i f f e rence between the two v i sua l modes i n terms o f learning. 12/ This "no d i f f e rence i n learn ing" c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s important when c o n s i d e r i n g t h e comparative costs between producing motion p i c t u res and producing s l i d e presentat ions.

Farmer Preferences o f Mass Media f o r A g r i c u l t u r a l Informat ion: A deter- minat ion was made o f which mas5 media are p re fe r red by Chapare farmers f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l in format ion. Farmers were asked t o rank t h e i r preferences o f the f ou r mass media inves t iga ted and a system o f we ight ing was employed g i v i n g the r e s u l t s shown i n Table I V .

TABLE I V

MASS MEDIA PREFERENCES

Media Preferences Weights 0 0

1 2 3 4

Radio 169 4 2 0 2 3 751 35.0 Newspaper 28 6 3 7 5 49 500 23.3 B u l l e t i ns 13 80 6 5 5 5 477 22.2 Fi lms 6 6 6 54 87 417 19.5

Tota l 2145 100.00

12/ Nancy L. Gu i l f o rd , Current Research on the Re la t i ve Ef fec t iveness o f Selected Media Character is t ics . Prepared f o r Westinghouse E l e c t r i c Corporat ion Research and Development Center, October, 1973, p. 38.

In terpersonal Communication Channels

Technical Assistance: Before asking farmers about techn ica l assistance and chanae aaent contact . thev were aiven a d e f i n i t i o n o f the term " techn ica l assistanEell as fo l lows: ' " ~ 1 1 " t y p e s of assistance o r help rece ived by you t o improve your a g r i c u l t u r a l product ion o r t he q u a l i t y o f your l i f e i n general from extens ion is ts , commercial agents, medics, community development workers o r o the r persons o r groups working i n the Chapare."

Despite the ampli tude o f t h i s d e f i n i t i o n , on ly 22.69% (49 farmers) had rece ived techn ica l assistance i n the l a s t year. The assistance received was f o r the most p a r t c rop- re la ted (59.18%). However, a small number o f farmers rece ived hea l t h assistance (10.20%), 1 i ves tock assistance (8.16%) and he lp i n forming cooperat ives (8.16%).

S i x t y - f i v e farmers (30.09%) sa i d t h a t they knew an extension agent bu t on ly 24 farmers (11.11%) had received assistance from extens ion is ts . When farmers were asked i f they had v i s i t e d e i t h e r o f the two M i n i s t r y o f Agr i - c u l t u r e experiment s t a t i ons loca ted i n the area, 71.76% s ta ted t h a t they had no t (See Table V). O f t he 6 1 farmers (28.24%) who had v i s i t e d the s ta t ions , the m a j o r i t y (36.07%) had done so f o r the purpose o f buying p l an t s ; 28.87% t o "know" the s t a t i on ; and 18.03% had attended f i e l d days. The main reasons g iven f o r no t v i s i t i n g the s t a t i ons were: 1) a l a c k o f knowledge o f the existence o f the s t a t i ons (36.12%) and 2) a l a c k o f t ime (35.48%).

TABLE V

KNOWING AN EXTENSION AGENT AND EXPERIMENT STATION VlSITS

Know an Ex tens ion is t V i s i t e d an Experiment S ta t i on

A. F. R.F. % A. F. R.F. %

Yes 65 30.09 6 1 28.24 N o 151 69.91. 15 5 71.76

Tota l 216 100.00 216 100.00

In terpersonal Communication and the Use o f Improved Pract ices

Data were gathered t o determine the ex ten t t o which Chapare farmers use improved a g r i c u l t u r a l p rac t i ces and the in fo rmat ion sources which in f luence t h e i r decis ions t o use these pract ices.

Four improved p rac t i ces were chosen f o r i nves t iga t ion : improved seeds, chemical f e r t i l i z e r s , herb ic ides, and pest ic ides. As can be seen i n Table V I , 76.38% o f the farmers use herb ic ides; 50% use pes t i c ides ; 14.81% use improved seeds ; and 7.87% use chemical f e r t i 1 i ze r s .

TABLE VI

USE OF IMPROVED PRACTICES

Practices A. F. R.F. %

jt Herbicides 165 76.38 * Pesticides 108 50.00

Improved Seeds 3 2 14.81 Chemical Ferti 1 izers 17 7.87

For each of the improved pract ices , farmers were asked "From whom did you learn the practice?" In a l l cases, except the use of chemical f e r t i - l i z e r s , the principal sources of information were friends and neighbors (fellow farmers); fo r chemical f e r t i l i z e r use, the primary source was comm- erc ia l agencies. The following graph shows the re la t ive importance of the various sources of information fo r the use of a l l four improved practices:

Informal questioning of farmers revealed tha t herbicides and pesticides a re used primarily in t h e i r cocales. Since coca i s the principal cash crop of the region, i t i s not surprising t h a t many farmers a re wil l ing t o invest in inputs t h a t can improve production. (One hectare will produce about 45 cargas of coca per year. A t an average value in 1978 of $50 per carga, a farmer could gross approximately $2250 annually with one hectare of coca. ) Coca production i s labor intensive, requiring, fo r example, four weedings per year. Since labor i s frequently in .short supply, herbicides a re commonly used.

The importance o f f r i ends and f am i l y was underscored by the quest ion "Whom do you consu l t when you have a farm problem?" The r e s u l t s , as seen i n Table V I I , show t h a t neighbors were the most f requen t l y consul ted sources. When farmers were asked i f they received a g r i c u l t u r a l i n fo rmat ion through the s ind ica to organ izat ion, 66.62% s ta ted t h a t they had not.

TABLE V I I

SOURCES CONSULTED ABOUT FARM PROBLEMS

Sources A. F. R.F. %

Nei ahbors 146 67.59 ~ a m i l ~ 3 4 15.74 Commerci a1 Agents 2 5 11.57 Extension Agents 2 5 11.57 Community Workers 3 1.30

As can be seen i n Table V I I I , the main reason given by farmers f o r - not us ing any o f the improved p rac t i ces was a l ack o f knowledge o r i n fo rmat ion about the p rac t i ce . - 13/

TABLE V I I I

REASONS FOR NOT USING THE FOUR IMPROVED PRACTICES

Reasons A. F. . R.F. %

Lack o f In fo rmat ion 353 61.71 Fear o f Risk 5 9 10.31 Lack o f Inputs 43 7.52 High Costs 3 2 5.59 Lack o f C red i t 2 3 4.02 Other 6 2 10.85

To ta l 572 100.00

13/ A l a ck o f i n fo rmat ion about p r i ces was a lso g iven by Chapare farmers as - the main problem associated w i t h the marketing o f a g r i c u l t u r a l products. Bernard L. Delaine, "Coca Farming i n the Chapare - A Form o f Co l l ec t i ve Innovation." Unpublished Ph.D. d i s se r t a t i on , Sa in t Louis Un ive rs i t y , 1979.

Results of a Correlation Analyses

A bivariate correlational analysis was utilized to identify rela- tionships between pairs of variables. The measure of association used was the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (r). This statis- tical procedure measures linear relationships between two variables, in- dicating the strength and direction of the relationship. Therefore, a strong linear relationship is assumed as the value of r approaches +1.0 or -1.0. A1 1 correlations reported were significant at the .O1 level of confidence (p .01).

Significant correlations were found between age and education (r= -. 373) and between age and literacy (r= -.368). The negative r's denote inverse relationships; that is, as age increases, education and 1 i teracy decrease. Clearly, older farmers have not had the same or equal educational opportunities as have younger farmers. In this respect, it is not surprising to have found a negative correlation between age and ability to speak Spanish (r= -.213). Also since formal schooling is conducted in Spanish, it is consistent to find a strong positive correlation between literacy and ability to speak Spanish (r= +. 618).

It is interesting to consider what A1 bo terms the "functional-insti tutional conf 1 i ct" between Spanish and native 1 anguages. He observes that there exists a "1 inguistic polarization" which results from Spanish being the predominate language of the technical/professional world, while Quechua and Aymara are the languages of the rural/traditional world. 14/ This points to the importance of communicating with farmers in their nativelanguage, as in the case of radio programming for the Chapare in Quechua. Also, in order to gain the confidence of farmers, extension agents should speak the indigenous language of the region where they are assigned to work.

Expected positive correlations were found between education and radio 1 istening (r= +. 290) and education and newspaper readership (r= +. 492), as well as a positive correlation between education and receiving agricultural information from newspapers (r= +. 458). Positive correlations were also found between education and the use of improved seeds (r= +.188) and herbicides (r= +. 187).

It is not at all remarkable that farmers with greater education listen to radio and read newspapers more than farmers with less education, or that they are more inclined to use improved seeds and herbicides. In this regard, it should be noted that newspaper readership was found to be positivbly related to both herbicide and pesticide use (r= +.I89 and r= +.227, respectively). These findings support Beltran's observation that the higher a person's education (income and status), the "higher" the level of access to mass media messages." c/ 14/ Javier Albo, Idiomas, Escuelas y Radios en Bolivia. Cuaderno de In- -

vestigacion de Promotion del Campesidado (CIPCA), La Paz, Bolivia, 1977, No. 3; p. 3.

15/ Luis Rami ro Be1 tran, "Rural Development and Social Communication: Re- - 1 ationships and strategies. I' In ~ommunication Strategies for Rural Develo~ment. Robert H. Crawford and William B. Ward (Eds.1. Proceedinas of the' cornel 1 - CIAT International Symposium, Cal i , '~olombia, 1974, 17.

It also may be that access to one medium improves access to another medium, as evidenced by the finding that radio listening was positively related to newspaper readership (r= +. 311). This brings to mind Roger's centripetal effect--"exposure to one medium is positively related to exposure to other media." 16/ -

Better educated farmers also appear to have more access to extension agents. Positive correlations were found between education and receiving bull etins (r= +. 220) and between education and viewing technical assistance films (r= +. 222). When farmers were asked from whom they had received bul l - etins or who had shown them films, in both cases the most frequently given response was extension agents. Confirming this are the positive correlations found between knowing an extension agent and receiving bul letins (r= +. 196) and viewing films (r= +.236). The implication of such findings is that extension agents concentrate their efforts on better educated (and presumably more receptive) farmers. However, it is also possible that these farmers have more access to extension information through their own initiative.

Worth noting are the significant positive correlations found between the four improved practices studied. Use of better seeds was found to be related to fertilizer use (r= +. 265) and to herbicide use (r= +. 209); fertilizer use correlates 'with herbicide use (r= +. 292); and herbicide use correlates with pesticide use (r= +.207). Clearly, there are rational farm- ing reasons for using a set of improved practices rather than one practice alone. For example, a farmer who cultivates rice will often have serious weed problems in the second-year crop., a problem which is compounded by the application of fertilizer. Therefore, in order to fully realize the benefits of increased rice production resulting from fertilizer use, the farmer will need to control weeds by timely herbicide applications. One implication of this for research and extension is that the benefits of improved technologies cannot be fully realized by farmers if only a part of the "technological package" is adopted. What is required to insure that partial adoption, often resulting in negative outcomes for the farmer, does not occur is farmer-participant, on-farm evaluations of the various technological com- ponents. - 17/

16/ Everett Rogers, Modernization Among Peasants. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc. , New York, 1969, p. 102-103. Rogers notes that the clustering of

. media exposure (centripetal effect) has both desirable and undesirable results for development. He writes: "On the one hand mu1 tiple media exposure probably increases media influence in producing effects in the audience, for each mass medium tends to reinforce the others. On the other hand, peasants who are not directly reached'by one mass medium tend not to be reached by others either, a fact that leads to two categories of peasants: (1) those who are in the audience for all the mass media and (2) the 'unreachables"'.

17/ For a detai 1 ed expl anat? on of farmer-participant research, see Richard - R. Harwood, Small Farm Development, Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado, 1979, pp. 32-38.

Extension/ Communication Strategy for the Chapare

Research and experience have shown that the best communication strategy for many situations is a combination of mass media and interpersonal commu- ication. This approach is based on the premise that multi-channel communication is more effective than single channel communication. In this respect, Rogers observes that "mass media alone can reach a larger audience at the price of a lesser message impact, while interpersonal communication provides a greater message impact at the price of a smaller audience." The effects of the two communication modes together are greater than the effect of either alone. - 18/

To be effective, however, a strategy of communication must have the support of the development institutions working in the project area. The success of a communication strategy in affecting change in the Chapare rests on the ability of development agencies to anticipate the need for and provide access to the supplementary services and materials (fertilizers, seed, credit, etc.) whose acceptance or adoption is being encouraged by the communication effort.

From the study findings, it is clear that radio has excellent possibilities for communicating effectively with Chapare farmers. Radio could be an important tool for supporting regional development activities. Radio campaigns, prepared to reinforce di rect-contact efforts, could contribute greatly to extension effectiveness. Nor is it unrealistic to expect that a dialogue between a local radio station and Chapare residents could be developed.

Consideration should also be given to the use of the printed word to reach Chapare farmers with change messages. For example, distribution of Ayni, a rural newspaper which at present reaches only 2% of the farmers, could be expanded. Ayni prints articl es deal i ng with community improvement activities, health, indigenous culture and history, as well as agricultural topics. Since the agricultural topics relate more to the highlands, it might be worthwhile to consider a special one-page tropical insert for copies distributed in the Chapare. The cost of doing this is unknown, but it could be absorbed by development agencies whose interest is in communicating with farmers or offset by advertising from commercial agencies interested in selling their products locally. Ayni could be distributed at the monthly sindicato meetings in Villa Tunari to the leaders, who in turn would distri- bute copies to members. At $b1.50 (6 cents US), Ayni is well within the financial means of most farmers.

Regarding extension agent contact with farmers, it is worth recalling that only about 1% of the farmers had received technical assistance from extensionists. In part, the effectiveness of extension could be improved by providing agents with basic audio-visual equipment and materials (flip-chart easels, battery-operated slide and filmstrip projectors, cameras, etc.). There

18/ Everett M. Rogers and Juan R. Braun with Mark A. Vermilion. "Radio Forums: - A Strategy for Rural Development". In Radio for Education and Development: Case Studies. Vol. 11, World Bank Staff Working Paper No. 226, May 1977, p. 362. Rogers et. a1 note that the most likely main effects of mass media channels is increased knowledge, whereas for interpersonal channels they are attitude changes. In combination the effects are increased knowledge - and attitude change.

is also a need to produce regional farm bulletins; the few available often relate to crops not grown in the area. Simple crop fact sheets could be produced with inexpensive mimeograph equipment.

However, the problem of limited extension effectiveness in the Chapare cannot be solved merely by providing agents with AV equipment. Extension in the Chapare is afflicted by many of the same general problems found elsewhere: too few agents spread over too large an area; no direct line of technical support and supervision; inadequate mobility; a lack of resources; and low status in relation to research personnel. All of these factors (and others) add up to low morale, a sense of frustration and a high turnover rate of personnel. For many of these constraints there are no simple or immediate solutions. In part what is required is a restructuring and expansion of the extension service with an emphasis on decentralization. - 19/

There also exist some doubts whether extension agents have anything of great value to extend to farmers. Such doubts are raised by the finding that over 70% of the farmers had not visited the two area experiment stations, the reason being that many of them did not know the stations exist.

However, it is our opinion that there is agricultural information which can be disseminated immediately and which can help increase farm productivity. In many situations there exists a gap between what farmers are doing in their fields and what could be done to improve production. "Generally such gaps exist in a1 1 kinds of agricultural areas and in all crops. Where research findings are not readily available, the gap can be the difference which often exists between what a few good farmers do and what the rest of the farmers in the area practice. " - 20/

The job of extension is to close these gaps. Initially, management and cultural practices which require little risk or cash expenditures should be stressed. While extension closes the "gap ,Ii a viable research program should be established to generate information for extension to carry to farmers. The program should be a joint research/extension effort and should focus on field trials which are a final test of experiment station findings. "Without a network of field trials upon which new recommendations can be based and without continuous feedback to research from the fields, the extension service will soon have nothing to offer farmers and the research institutions will lose touch with the real problems farmers face." - 21/

Even armed with a "package" of information, extension wi 11 be l imited unless there is a viable delivery system to farmers. And while the present communication picture can be greatly improved by the use of radio and other

19/ For a detailed report on extension services in Bolivia see "Small Farmer Communication Improvement Project" by the University of Missouri team, Wi 11 iam Herzog, team l eader. Prepared for USAID/Bol ivia, August, 1979.

20/ Daniel Benor and James Q. Harrison. Agricultural Extension - The Training - and Visit System. World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1977, p. 10.

21/ Benor and Harrison, 9. cit. , p. 14. - -

media, the core of the delivery system should be interpersonal contact with farmers. Farmers can learn from radio and bulletins, but their attitudes towards cropping a1 ternat$ves wi 1 1 change most through interpersonal commun- ication.

.Extension has an important role to play working with groups of farmers and farm leaders who can influence their fellow farmers. Even when farmers hear about a new improved practice from extension agents or commercial dealers, they are persuaded to try the practice by farm neighbors. Traditionally, farmers have relied upon the experiences of their more progressive neighbors before adopting a new practice.

In the Chapare, the sindicato is the logical basis for the formation of an extension/farmer contact system. It is not possible, nor even necessary, for extension to reach the majority of farmers directly. Instead, extension agents should focus on contact farmers who will be able to spread recommended practices to others.

One way to establish a farmer contact system is to encourage sindicatos to elect one or two members to represent the organization in agricultural matters. These are essentially the contact farmers who inform other sindi- cat0 members of extension recommendations and serve as demonstrators of the - practices. These farmers participate in the evaluation of the innovations and if they approve, advise other farmers to adopt. Extension should also work with regional sindicatos to establish agricultural councils who could have inputs into the design of extension programs. In such a manner, the needs and problems of the local community are reflected in extension plans.

In conclusion, the Chapare offers a viable and potentially effective mechanism for including 1 ocal participation in development efforts - the si ndicato structure. Sindicatos should be the basis for interpersonal communication activities. It is not unrealistic to imagine them serving as an important link to mass communication efforts, as in the formation of radio-listening groups. As a social group which influences (and legitimizes) the behavior and attitudes of its members, the sindicato is an instrument through which development programs can be implemented. They should form the basic units in a broad communication network, combining radio, other support media, and interpersonal contacts. Sindicatos are the organizational structures for channeling technical assistance to farmers and feedback to development institutions. To a great extent, the development of the Chapare depends upon the transformation of the sindicato into a group which fully participates in the development process. Currently the sindicato structure is not being fully utilized as an information network, as evidenced by the finding that over 65 percent of the farmers had not received agricultural information through the sindicato.

It should also be remembered that extension is only one of the many sources of information for Chapare farmers. As noted earlier, the principal source of information for the use of improved practices was friends and neighbors. Commercial agencies also figured importantly as information sources in the use of these practices. Extension, therefore, could perform an important function by providing commercial dealers with reliable information.

Stavis re fers to the informal information tha t farmers get from other farmers, and in some cases from merchants and salesmen, as a "spontaneous extension service." He writes tha t "an extension system can make a crucial i n i t i a l input into the spontaneous extension system. I t can play a ca t a ly t i c role in energizing the spontaneous system. I' 22/ In the Chapare, the mechanism for extension input into the farmer informatzn network i s the sindicato s t ructure. Working through sindicatos , extension should be able t o improve i t s a b i l i t y t o r a i se the information potential and the action potential of Chapare farmers.

22/ Benedict Stavis , "Agricultural Extension fo r Small Farmers." Michigan - Sta te University Rural Development Series , Working Paper No. 3 , East Lansing, Michigan, 1979, p. 16.