in Retailing...The structure and nature of retailing has undergone massive changes over the last two...

R E S E A R C H

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Retailing

Not for quotation or ISSN0265 9778citation without the expresspermission of the author.

Adelina Broadbridge is a lecturer at the Institute for Retail Studies, Department of Marketing,University of Stirling, Stirling, Scotland, UK FK9 4LA

Research Paper 9504

THE CAREERDEVELOPMENT OF

RETAIL MANAGERS:PRELIMINARY FINDINGS

Adelina Broadbridge

Disclaimer

The opinions expressed in this working paper are the responsibility of the author alone.

Institute for Retail Studies. All rights reserved.

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KEY FINDINGS

Female retail managers participating in this survey occupy more senior positions than female

managers in the general UK labour market. Over one third of the women responding to the

survey (36%) describe themselves as middle managers, while one quarter (25%) describe

themselves as senior managers.

Men and women are equally likely to be married (75%) and although twice as many male

respondents have children, the children of female respondents were younger and more likely to

be preschool age. The research illustrates that women are combining a successful career in

retailing with child raising activities (although parenthood was reported as more likely

affecting their career development than those of their male counterparts).

Twenty per cent of women had taken a career break compared with 7% of men. Of those

taking career breaks, men were more likely to report returning at a lower management level

than women.

Men and women are equally likely to describe themselves as functional specialists or

generalists and to work in head office or area management. Fewer women reported being

based in stores. Men are more likely to describe themselves as task orientated, although most

men (66%) and women (70%) describe their management style as being both task and people

oriented - a style which is increasingly important in the changing nature of the industry.

The findings indicate a breakdown of sex segregated departments in retailing: over two thirds

of respondents reported working with colleagues of the opposite sex. Males and females

equally reported having the same responsibilities as colleagues of the opposite sex (78% men;

75% women). Over a third of the positions occupied by female respondents had previously

been undertaken by a male. Over a third of females and almost two thirds of males reported

there being a person of the opposite sex with the same job title as themselves within their

organisation.

The majority of respondents believed they had received sufficient training and development

opportunities (81% men; 77% women).


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Women were more likely to have reported having a mentor than men (43% men; 54%

women). For those with mentors, the benefits of the mentoring relationship far outweigh any

drawbacks.


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Attendance at residential course training was a necessary requirement for career progression

for many respondents, but this has not prevented either women or men from taking part.

Overall, respondents are satisfied with the various aspects of their job; achieving sales, people

development and autonomy are particular job satisfiers.

Male respondents encountered problems of a lack of feedback on performance, a lack of

challenging high profile assignments and double standards for evaluating performance.

Women encountered problems of lack of feedback on performance, exclusion from the 'old

boy' network, and if they have not had them, the absence of mentors.

Men also suffer from problems which have traditionally been thought to be particular to

women (double standards for evaluating performance; absence of mentors; lack of support

from male bosses; exclusion from the 'old boy' network and hitting the glass ceiling).

Almost two thirds of the males and over half the females believed low personal expectations,

lack of mobility and the requirements of family life had not hindered their career development.

The majority of respondents have high career aspirations. Over half the males and a quarter of

the females aspire to board level positions. A further 17% of men and 38% of women aspire

to senior management positions. Overall, the majority believe their aspirations can realistically

be achieved (72% men; 84% women).

Women perceived lack of child care facilities while men perceive the lack of female role

models as the greatest barrier to women's participation in senior management positions in

retailing.

Reasons for women's under representation in senior management positions are not because

organisations are giving equal opportunities a low priority or that women have unequal access

to training and development. However, outdated attitudes to women's roles, company culture

and reluctance to change, the lack of female role models together with lack of child care

facilities and flexi-time are more likely contributors.


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INTRODUCTION

Despite women making up half the workforce, they still only represent nine per cent of the

management population as a whole and three per cent of senior managers (BIM/Remuneration

Economics National Management Salary Survey, 1992). As the workforce becomes more

diverse, so management is changing to one of more involvement and participation; skills which

have been identified as being ideally suited to women managers (Coe, 1992). There are

indications that the trend towards women's participation in management and professional

employment is growing (Hansard, 1990; Crompton and Sanderson, 1990; Alban-Metcalfe and

West, 1991) and therefore represents an important area for research.

The structure and nature of retailing has undergone massive changes over the last two

decades. Market concentration, new store formats, the introduction of new technologies,

locational and internationalisation issues are just some of the developments which have

resulted in an increasingly competitive industry. In terms of employment issues, the boom of

the 1980s saw a move towards increasing emphasis placed on customer service levels and a

growing professionalism of the industry. The impact of the 1990s has resulted in the more

proactive retail companies seeking new ways to achieve competitive differentiation.

Customers have grown to accept and expect excellent levels of customer service, and many

retailers continually strive to ensure these provisions are met. More emphasis is now placed

on adding value to the retail experience, customer care programmes and community initiatives,

all of which are now reflected in many companies' annual reports.

In the past, retail companies have required people in key positions who can deliver key

measurable 'hard' objectives (such as sales targets etc). Although still vital, in the competitive

environment of the 1990s, many companies are requiring more of their key people. More

emphasis is now placed on the 'softer' skills of delivering high morale, customer care and

employee care. Team working and participative management skills are required leadership

skills to manage the delayering and restructuring process, in order to meet the needs of the

customers. It has been argued that women are better equipped than many men at delivering

these skills (Rosener, 1990). If this is the case, a significant rise in the numbers of women

occupying key retail management positions may be expected in the future. To date, women

have been under represented in senior retail management posts (Collins, 1990; Hansard, 1990;


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Equal Opportunities Commission, 1991; Broadbridge, 1995). The pace and way in which

retailing is changing opens up the possibilities for women to make a significant contribution to

the future of the industry.


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THE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This research study represents a preliminary investigation into the career development of retail

managers, and aims to draw comparisons between women and men. The aims of the

research were to :

. investigate the work experience and current positions occupied by male and

female retail managers;

. examine respondents' levels of satisfaction with their current positions;

. identify the skills training received and required by retail managers;

. identify the factors helping and/or hindering career progression;

. identify the ultimate career goals of retail mangers;

. investigate the barriers hindering women's equal participation in senior retail

management posts.

Questionnaires were mailed in May 1995 to all retail managers who have completed, or are in

the process of completing, the MBA in Retailing and Wholesaling by distance learning at the

University of Stirling. Although it is recognised these managers could be criticised for being

atypical of the retail management population generally, the research was regarded as

preliminary and some attempt was taken to counteract this imbalance. All respondents were

asked in a covering letter if they could distribute copies of the questionnaire to other managers

to complete. A total of 132 questionnaires were returned (55% from MBA students; 45%

from other respondents). This represented an overall response rate of 52%. The results of

this preliminary research will be used to obtain co-operation from retail companies to take the

research forward.

Respondents completed a detailed questionnaire covering past and present work histories and

training; their level of satisfaction with their current positions; the factors helping and

hindering career development and their ultimate career goals. Finally all respondents were

asked to identify any barriers which hinder women's equal participation in senior retail

management posts and whether women senior managers may bring any special qualities to

their work. The aim of this paper is to present some of the initial findings. It must be noted

that the findings presented have not been tested for statistical significance. Statistical tests


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need to be performed in order to test any generalities of the results.


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PROFILE OF RETAIL MANAGERS: DEMOGRAPHICS

Males made up 53% of the sample. The age profile was relatively young, with half the

respondents being under the age of 35 (which matches the industry trends, NRTC, 1995),

while 80% are under the age of 40. On average, female respondents were younger than the

males (two thirds (67%) of the female respondents were under the age of 35 compared with

40% of the males). Of those respondents over the age of 40, 30% were male compared with

15% of females.

Although no significant differences were found between male and female respondents with

regard to their marital status, (75% were married; 20% were single), men were twice as likely

to have children (66%) than women (30%). Although fewer women have children they were

more likely to be of preschool age: two thirds of the children of female respondents (67%)

were preschool age, compared with 42% of the men.

Over a quarter of respondents hold a postgraduate degree (34% of men; 20% of women),

while 20% have a first degree (16% of men; 22% of women). Another quarter possess A

levels or equivalent (23% of men; 30% of women). Just over a quarter of the men (26%) and

women (27%) hold an additional professional qualification in a related field.

PAST AND PRESENT WORK HISTORIES

Respondents from over 30 retail companies participated in the research. Most (77%) work for

large retail companies (defined as those with over ten outlets), and contrary to other research

(Swinyard, 1981; Swinyard et al, 1991; NRTC, 1995), retailing was the first career choice for

two thirds of the male and female respondents. Both men and women have stable employment

histories: half have been employed by the same employer over their whole career, while almost

three quarters (71%) have only worked for two employers. On average, women have had two

or three job moves over their career while men have had four or five. This is likely to be

indicative of the age differences between male and female respondents.

Managers' work experience ranged between 2 and 44 years, with half having 15 years

experience (nine at managerial level) and three quarters, 20 years experience (14 at managerial


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level). Women's range of experience vary between 2 and 34 years; while men's varies between

3 and 44 years. On average, men had been with their present employer for 11 years and in

their current post for up to 3 years. By comparison women had been with their present

employer between 9 and 10 years and in their current post for up to 3 years. Owing to age

differences, more men (29%) have over 20 years experience than women (16%). Men have

worked longer in managerial positions than women: 39% have over 15 years experience

compared with 8% of the women. While only one third (33%) of the men have up to 10 years

managerial experience, this compares with two thirds of the women (64%). Again this may be

attributable to the age differences between male and female respondents.

Managerial Level

Figure 1 shows the managerial level of respondents. It is recognised there are difficulties in

providing rigid definitions for various functions across organisations. For example, a middle

manager in a large retail company may be a senior manager in a small company. Although

women outnumber men at junior management levels, and men outnumber women at senior

management levels, which supports the literature on occupational positions held by male and

female managers, the findings are not so straightforward. A quarter (25%) of the female

respondents describe themselves as senior managers while over one third (36%) describe

themselves as middle managers. Nedo (1990) report that 27% of UK managers were female,

but only 4% were at middle or senior level. The findings of this survey show women not to be

representative of the population as a whole, with 61% describing themselves at middle or

senior levels. Admittedly this may be a shortcoming of the sampling technique but it does

seem to indicate that retail companies may be at the forefront of equal opportunity initiatives.

A substantial proportion of women have achieved relatively senior positions within their

companies, and remembering the age and managerial experience differential between male and

female respondents, this finding is even more significant.

Hours Worked

The very nature of the retail industry means that long hours of work may be seen as a

prerequisite for managerial jobs. The results tend to support this view, with just 8.5% stating

they work under a 40 hour week. Two thirds of the sample work up to 50 hours per week


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(62% men; 75% women) while nearly all the respondents work up to 60 hours per week (90%

men; 92% women). The maximum number of hours worked per week for men was 82 hours

compared with 86 hours for women. Additional hours worked would appear to be 'in the

office' as respondents reported not usually taking work home with them. Some (13% men;

15% women) reported never taking work home (mainly those in supervisory positions, but

also approximately 10% of middle and senior managers); while others take work home less


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than one night per week (46% men; 38% women). Approximately, a third of respondents

(36% men; 34% women) take work home between 1 and 3 nights per week, and as expected,

they are in middle and senior management grades.

Days Spent on Travel

Few respondents' jobs do not involve them travelling and spending an overnight stay away

from home (13% men; 19% women). Such jobs were concentrated at the lower levels of the

hierarchy (supervisory and junior management levels). Men (because of their more senior

positions) spend more days away from home per year than women. For example, 35% of men

and 15% of women spend 30 days or more per year in business travel that involves an

overnight stay. Forty per cent of the women's jobs against 33% of the men's require them to

spend up to 10 days per year on overnight business travel.

Areas Worked

Sixty per cent of the male and female respondents were based in head office, while nearly a

quarter were based in stores (26% men; 20% women). Eleven per cent were in area

management (11% men; 10% women). Six per cent were based elsewhere, including training

centres, buying offices, wholesale branches; shopping centre management; home). The

findings may indicate the movement of men and women into areas or functions not

traditionally occupied by one gender, and are worthy of further investigation. Further findings

may point to this possible breakdown of traditional sex segregated departments. Over two

thirds of the respondents reported working with colleagues of the opposite sex (89% women;

63% men). Although most respondents' immediate line managers were male (93% men; 73%

women), a third of the women (35%) reported having male subordinates, while three quarters

of the men have female subordinates. Furthermore, over a third of the women (36%) reported

there being males with the same job title as themselves, while nearly two thirds of the men

(61%) reported there being women with the same job title. Previous literature suggests

women do not hold the same responsibilities as men with the same job title (Ohlott et al,

1994). This was not borne out by the present survey. Both men and women equally reported

having the same responsibilities as colleagues of the opposite sex (78% men; 79% women).

They equally reported having more responsibilities than members of the opposite sex (10%


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men; 9% women), although slightly more women reported having fewer responsibilities than

men in the same job (1% men; 10% women). Ten per cent of men and two per cent of women

reported there to be no persons of the opposite sex in comparable positions. Particularly

interesting is that although 81% of men reported the person doing the job before them was

male, only 50% of the women's jobs were previously performed by a female (figure 2). Over a

third of the women (34%) reported that their present job was previously performed by a man,

while 14% were in newly created positions. Ten percent of the men were in jobs previously

occupied by a woman while 9% were in new positions.

Reasons for Last Job Change

A variety of reasons were given for respondents last job change. However three quarters of

the men (74%) and two thirds of the women (64%) stated promotion or career progression as

the major reason. Other reasons included a return from an assignment abroad, re-organisation

within the company, financial reasons, a new project or secondment and boredom with old job.

Many respondents experienced a complete change in the nature of their jobs, and so their

present job was somewhat different to their previous job (54%; men; 47% women). A further

fifth of both the male and female respondents stated their new job gave them more

responsibility, which may be linked to career progression. Very few respondents (6% men,

11% women) believed there to be very little or no difference between their previous and new

job.

TRAINING RECEIVED

Figure 3 lists various factors which respondents have received in association with their work

experience or on the job learning. The majority of men and women have received regular

feedback or counselling from their immediate seniors together with regular performance

appraisals, and been given targets to achieve. As figure 3 indicates, considerably fewer have

received individual coaching and an individual development plan. Although less than a

quarter of women had received career counselling they were more likely to have received it

than men.

With regard to training, over three quarters of the respondents (81% men; 77% women)


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believed they had been given sufficient training and development opportunities, and as

expected, the majority have received middle management training. Half the men had received

senior management training; this compares with only a quarter of the women. These figures

however, although matching findings by Long (1987), match the proportions of men and

women occupying these managerial positions. Forty three per cent of the men and 38% of the

women reported receiving fast track management training. Over half the respondents (56%)

stated they must attend residential course training in order to progress their careers, a factor

which could hinder women's career development owing to family responsibilities. However

only a minority of respondents (14% men; 18% women) have been unable to attend such a

course. The reasons provided for an inability to attend residential course training related to

intrinsic rather than extrinsic factors of their job. Hence, it does not appear that women retail

managers are particularly disadvantaged in this respect.

Respondents were provided with a list of training opportunities which are requisite skills for

most managers. They were asked to indicate those training requirements they needed. Figure

4 shows the findings and generally upholds the view that most respondents are satisfied with

their level of training. There was some variation between the skills required and the

respondents' gender. Almost half the women (48%) felt they needed political awareness

training. Training in stress management, assertion skills and leadership skills were also fairly

important to the women. Men particularly noted stress management, leadership skills and

negotiation skills as training they would like.

More women reported having had a mentor than men (43% men; 54% women), which

contradicts some literature in the area: the lack of mentors have been cited as a reason why

women's career development is blocked (Mumford, 1985). Most mentors are male, which can

cause problems for women owing to a lack of female role models (Warihay, 1980). However

a third of the women reported having had female mentors. In response to an open ended

question, respondents mentioned a variety of benefits of the mentoring relationship. Half

claimed their mentors had provided them with guidance, support and encouragement (53%

men; 52% women); while over a third specifically mentioned they had benefitted from the

honest discussion and advice given by their mentors (37% men, 36% women). Many

respondents specifically reported there to be no drawbacks of their mentoring relationship

(27% men; 36% women), while another third left this question uncompleted. Indeed, no


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particular drawbacks were apparent. A few of the men felt they may pick up bad habits from

their mentors or over rely on them. A small proportion of the women felt female advice may

be limited or had experienced difficulty in managing to see their mentor.

Although the advantages of mentoring for personal growth, recognition and career

development has been well documented in the literature on management development (Rosen

et al, 1981; Brooks, 1984; Kram, 1985; Nelson and Quick, 1985; Clutterbuck and Devine,

1987; Davidson and Cooper, 1987; Noe, 1988; Powell, 1990; Arnold and Davidson, 1990;

Clutterbuck, 1991; Davidson and Cooper, 1992; Wentling, 1992; McDougal and Briley,

1994), only a third of respondents (33% men; 36% women) who had not had a mentor

believed their careers would have progressed faster had they had one. More surprising

perhaps is that 39% of women and 26% of men reported that not having a mentor had not


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affected their career progression. More men were uncertain whether their career would have

developed faster with a mentor than women (41% men; 25% women).

SATISFYING AND DISSATISFYING ASPECTS OF THE JOB

Respondents were asked to describe the satisfying and dissatisfying aspects of their current

jobs in an open ended question before rating various aspects of their present position on a five

point Likert scale. In response to the open ended question, figure 5 shows the findings.

Achieving sales, people development, strategic responsibilities and autonomy comprised

almost three quarters (71%) of the male responses. Achieving sales, autonomy, people

development and diversity and variety of the work comprised almost three quarters (74%) of

the female responses. Other satisfiers included influence and innovation, product

development, self achievement, authority, pay, good employer. All these responses each

accounted for less than five per cent of the replies. Given the nature of the industry, it is

interesting to note that neither customer contact nor working with people were regarded by

most respondents (particularly males) as satisfying aspects of the job. Interestingly no women

and only two men stated there were no satisfying aspects of their current job.

In contrast, only 3% of respondents stated there were no dissatisfying aspects of their job,

although a further 11% left the open ended question blank. No particular one factor could be

regarded as dissatisfying although those mentioned most often were dealings with others,

work overload, lack of resources and politics and fire-fighting (figure 5). Men were more

likely than women to regard administration and bureaucracy, the management culture and

repetition as dissatisfying aspects of their job. Women regarded pay, stress, lack of support,

lack of promotion and being unable to socialise after work as more dissatisfying aspects of

their job than men. As figure 5 shows, however, no dominant criteria were mentioned by

respondents as dissatisfying aspects of their current positions.

The responses from the Likert scale questions on satisfying and dissatisfying aspects of various

aspects of current positions appear to confirm these findings (figure 6). From figure 6 it can

be concluded that, overall, respondents are satisfied with the various aspects of their current

jobs. Those of particular satisfaction to men were working relationships with colleagues and

subordinates, credibility with their line managers and staff. Nearly all the women were


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satisfied with their working relationships with colleagues, superiors, and the degree of

responsibility and authority they hold. Of those factors which caused dissatisfaction,

approximately a quarter of men mentioned opportunities for travel and opportunities for

promotion, while a fifth of the men were dissatisfied with their opportunities to influence

organisational policies and achieve their career aims, the level of recognition for their work

achievement and their salary. Approximately a quarter of the women reported being

dissatisfied with their salary, their opportunity to influence organisational policies, the level of

support from their immediate seniors, and opportunities for travel, while a fifth reported their

working conditions, opportunities for promotion and self development and the level of

recognition achieved for their work.

The responses between men and women are encouraging and appear to contradict other

literature in the field of management which shows more marked differences between men and

women's levels of satisfaction (Alban-Metcalfe, 1984). Those factors showing the most

marked differences between men and women were the calibre of the work allocated,

relationships with superiors, hours of work, job security and job location all of which women

report more overall satisfaction. Men showed more overall satisfaction with their credibility

with staff, opportunities for self development, to influence organisational policies and for

travel and their working conditions. These differences tend to reflect traditional culture. Of

the dissatisfiers which produced different responses for men and women, support from

immediate superiors, salary and working conditions were mentioned, all of which were

reported in more frequency by women.

FACTORS HELPING AND HINDERING CAREER DEVELOPMENT

Respondents were asked a variety of questions regarding the characteristics which make a

successful retail manager, and the factors that have helped and hindered their careers.

Characteristics which make a successful retail manager

Both male and female respondents were in agreement over the characteristics which make a

successful retail manager. In order of importance the characteristics which make a successful

retail manager are motivation (99%), ability to manage subordinates (97%), self confidence


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(97%), desire for success (96%), high achievement level (94%) high aspirations (86%) career

commitments (81%), making career moves which provide broad business experience (75%), a

willingness to take risks (73%) a willingness to seek help from senior executives (71%), the

ability to be mobile (70%) and education (48%). The only major difference between male and

female respondents was the willingness to seek help from senior executives (58% men; 86%

women). Education was the only factor respondents particularly disagreed was characteristic

of a successful retail manager.


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Factors helping and hindering career development

Respondents considered there to be more factors which have helped their career development

than those which had hindered it (figure 7). In particular, both men and women believed their

attitude to work, personal skills, experience and past and present performance had aided their

career development. Women also were more likely to rate assistance from others, training,

luck and educational credentials more highly than men in helping career development, while

men rated the willingness to take risks more highly than women. Networks and having a

career plan made least difference to men and women's career development although many

respondents stated they had a career plan (73% men; 66% women).

The factors mentioned most often as hindering career development were bosses withholding

guidance or encouragement, lack of in company political awareness and personal factors (such

as being too blunt and outspoken). However these were mentioned by approximately only a

quarter of the respondents. Almost two thirds of the men and over half of the women believed

low personal expectations, lack of mobility and the requirements of family life had not

hindered their career development. Another encouraging finding was that over half the

women (52%) believed organisational attitudes towards women had not hindered their career

development, while almost two thirds of the women (63%) did not consider sex discrimination

had been a hindering factor.

Barriers to Career Development

A fifth of male and female respondents believed there to be no obstacles or barriers that have

stood in the way of their career advancement. A further third left this open ended question

uncompleted, which could indicate that up to half the respondents saw no barriers to their

career development. Men were slightly more likely than women to name obstacles which have

stood in the way of their career advancement. The main reasons provided by men were their

own abilities (20%), delayering and restructuring within the company (20%), lack of suitable

positions to advance to (15%) and the attitudes of senior management (13%). The main

reasons cited by women were 'not being male'(24%), which is interesting given sex

discrimination was not regarded by most as a hindering factor in their career development,

their own abilities (21%), mobility difficulties (17%) and the attitudes of senior management


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(14%). Women were far less likely than men to attribute the lack of positions available and

restructuring of the organisation as barriers to their career development.


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Respondents were given a list of problems encountered by managers and asked to identify any

which applied to them. Relatively few respondents indicated any problems they had suffered.

Men saw pay inequities as the major problem (28%). This was followed by lack of

challenging, high profile assignments (26%), double standards for evaluating performance

(25%), absence of mentors (22%), lack of support from male bosses (20%), exclusion from

the old boy network (19%) and hitting the glass ceiling (17%). Women also reported pay

inequities as the major problem (36%), followed by exclusion from the old boy network

(31%); absence of mentors (30%), lack of female role models (25%), hitting the glass ceiling

(21%) lack of support from male bosses (20%), dual career family conflicts (20%), and double

standards for evaluating performance (18%). Although some of the problems encountered by

female managers accord with the literature, what is interesting to note is that men also suffer

from problems which have traditionally been thought to be particular to women. This is an

important area to pursue in further research. Women are more likely to suffer from dual

career family conflicts. For those with children, women (55%) were more likely than men

(26%) to report parenthood had affected their career. Of the ways parenthood had affected

careers, men said it had restricted their mobility (no women mentioned this factor), while

women were more likely to report it had restricted their hours and time of work (not

mentioned by men), which is interesting given the long hours they report working.

Very few respondents had turned down an offer of promotion (19% men; 13% women).

Women's reasons were more likely to be because of family commitments or the need to

relocate which mirror the personal reasons found by Alban-Metcalfe, 1984; Nedo, 1990;

Davidson and Cooper, 1992; Traves and Brockbank, 1995). Men were more likely to cite

factors relating to the job as reasons for turning down the promotion, although a quarter

refused the job because of family commitments. Although these reasons match those of the

literature, the fact so few men and women have turned down a promotional opportunity owing

to factors beyond their control is highly encouraging.

ULTIMATE CAREER GOALS

Respondents were asked the highest position they wanted to achieve and figure 8 reports the

findings. Over half the men (55%) and a quarter of the women (26%) desired board level

positions. The majority of these respondents specified a board level function, although


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approximately 30% of both men and women had aspirations to become managing directors,

some of their own companies. A further 17% of men and 38% of women desired senior

management positions. Almost a fifth of the respondents (16% men; 21% women) had

already achieved their career ambitions. A minority of respondents were unsure of their career

ambitions at this stage. Gaining broader experience, working hard and continuing to perform

in their current position was believed by most respondents to be necessary to achieve their

ultimate goals.

The barriers which may prevent respondents attaining their desired positions were described

mainly as factors beyond the respondents' own control. Lack of available positions was the

most frequent response given (38% men; 24% women). Being a woman was also mentioned

by a fifth of the females, while the subjectivity of senior management was equally mentioned

by a few men and women. Age appeared to be of concern to more men than women, perhaps

because the higher average age of the male respondents. Nedo (1990) reports most senior

management positions are expected to be achieved by a manager's early 40s, and Alban-

Metcalfe (1984) also found age to be a source of discrimination for both male and female

managers in their opportunities for career development. Contrary to the literature on women

in management (Rothwell, 1984; Alban-Metcalfe, 1984) being pigeon holed posed few

problems for females attaining their desired positions. Overall, most respondents (72% male;

84% female) believed their ultimate career goals could be realistically achieved.

ISSUES REGARDING WOMEN MANAGERS

Figure 9 shows the percentage of male and female perceptions of why women are under

represented in senior management positions in retailing. It is not that equal opportunities are

given a low priority in retail organisations nor that they have unequal access to training and

development. Neither is it women's own reluctance to accept management positions or their

preference to work part-time. The major reasons presented can be divided into two groups:

women's domestic responsibilities and organisational attitudes. The lack of child care facilities

and flexi-time, together with the long anti-social hours of retailing were one set of reasons

provided for women's under representation at senior management levels. It is interesting to

note, however, that this does not appear to be a demand for the growth of part-time positions

at senior level, but merely a more flexible approach to the hours worked. Outdated attitudes


23

to women's roles, company culture and the reluctance to change, the lack of female role

models were another set of reasons posited. Included in this category is also lack of support,

which was a reason particularly stated by the female respondents. Given the prior evidence of

the general findings of this paper, these findings call for the need for further research in the

area. Of particular note is the finding that 63% of women did not feel sex discrimination, and

52% did not believe organisational attitude towards women have been hindering factors in

their career to date. The findings from figure 9 suggest some of these women may believe

they will encounter discrimination difficulties in the future. Although the cracks in the glass

ceiling in relation to women are appearing, respondents seem to be of the opinion that

companies have some way to go before the ceiling is shattered.


24

In response to the open ended question about what special qualities women may bring to their

work as senior managers, a vast array of qualities were provided. Those most commonly

stated were a different management style and balance (21% men; 13% women), people

qualities (19% men; 25% women) and a more understanding and empathetic approach (16%

men; 41% women), findings which corroborate research by Brown (1979). These three

reasons are clearly related, and important in the move of the industry toward team working,

democratic management approaches and transformational leadership styles. Included in the

other qualities women bring, women mentioned organisational and time management skills,

high standards and a different perspective to a problem. Men mentioned that women pay

more attention to detail and have an innate common sense!

Despite access to training and development not posing particular problems for women, only

ten per cent of the respondents reported that their organisations run training courses for

women only. These were all large multiples, and perhaps indicate a recognition of the growth

of managerial roles for women and a changing culture within these organisations. Such

courses included assertiveness training, personal and self development, women in

management, management development, how to influence people and equal opportunities.

Only 12% of the respondents stated that their organisations (again the large multiples)

provided the option of flexible working arrangements to male and female managers at senior

level. Of those organisations who do provide such options, these included career breaks, part-

time working, flexible hours, home working, maternity, paternity and education breaks. Some

respondents stated that being able to manage your own workload provided a degree of

flexibility.

Given that the flexibility issue is a major reason women are under represented in senior

management positions, it is likely that more retail companies will be adopting this working

arrangement in the future. To understand whether this is a feasible option in the retail trade,

respondents were asked the extent to which their jobs could be performed in a flexible manner.

Figure 10 shows the findings. Of the flexible options given, working during the school term-

time was the least feasible option. The results show that with some planning and

reorganisation, flexible working arrangements are a feasible option. For example, managers

may be able to manage their time so that they spend fewer hours or days in the office, and

complete certain aspects of the job at home. Flexitime appears to be the most feasible option


25

available to most retail managers.


26

CONCLUSIONS

This paper has provided some preliminary findings of the career development of retail

managers. While some of the findings match previous literature in the area of gender

relationships in management, other findings are in variance and indicate the need for further

research. It is recognised that there are limitations in the sample, and although steps were

taken to minimise the possibility of bias, further research using random sampling and a larger

population is necessary to test the generalities of these results.

Females were on average younger than the male respondents which matches findings by

Alban-Metcalfe and Nicholson (1984), Nicholson and West (1988), Scase and Goffee (1989),

Alban-Metcalfe (1989), Alban-Metcalfe and West (1991) and Coe (1992). Unlike the findings

of other studies which report female managers to be less likely than males to be married

(Brown, 1979; Harlan, 1978; Korn Ferry International, 1982; Alban-Metcalfe and Nicholson,

1984; Davidson and Cooper, 1984; Nicholson and West, 1988; Foster and Carson, 1988;

Scase and Goffee, 1989; Alban-Metcalfe, 1989; Nedo, 1990; Alban-Metcalfe and West,

1991), this survey found male and female managers equally likely to be married. Female

managers, however, were less likely than males to have children, which corroborates the

findings of Harlan (1978), Brown (1979), Korn Ferry International (1982), Harlan and Weiss

(1982), Davidson and Cooper (1984), Foster and Carson (1988) and Nedo (1990). Less than

a third of the females reported having children, a finding also forwarded by Traves and

Brockbank (1995). It would appear, however, that the career of the mothers under current

investigation were more likely to report that parenthood had affected their careers (supporting

findings by Brown (1979) and Long (1984)) than those in the sample investigated by Traves

and Brockbank (1995).

The respondents were found to have stable employment histories with most having no more

than two employers and, for most, retailing was their chosen careers. Both males and females

had been in their present post for up to three years, which reflects findings by Gold and Pringle

(1988). Hammond (1988) and Nedo (1990) report that top performing companies expect very

strong commitment from their managers. Work related travel and/or working at home results

in many managers working long hours (Hammond, 1988; Nedo, 1990; Wentling, 1992). The

results of this survey found respondents to work long hours while the majority are involved in


27

some overnight business travel. Male and female respondents were equally likely to work in

head office and area management. A fifth of the females are based in stores against a quarter

of the males, which may be significant as Nedo (1990) argue that store management may

provide the best promotional path in a retail chain. Although senior managers were more

likely to be male, it was encouraging to find that a quarter of the female respondents were in

senior management positions. The findings indicate the possible breakdown of traditional sex

segregated departments, with most respondents reporting working with colleagues of the

opposite sex, many of whom have the same job titles and responsibilities as themselves.

It was encouraging to find that most respondents believed they had been given sufficient

training and development opportunities. Most had received a level of training commensurate

with the positions they hold which appears to contradict findings by Alban-Metcalfe and West

(1991). The high proportion of women having received fast track management training (38%)

is encouraging, given that this has been identified as a way to accelerate the development of

female managers (Wentling, 1992). Furthermore, respondents in general were not hindered by

the requirement to attend residential course training to progress their career development.

Most respondents have received regular feedback and counselling and regular performance

appraisals but considerably less had been given an individual development plan or received

career counselling which matches findings by Long (1984). Some areas of skills training were

desired by respondents and these were in contrast to those found important by Davidson and

Cooper (1983; 1984). Fewer respondents required confidence building and assertion skills

than those reported by Davidson and Cooper, but more wanted stress management , leadership

skills, negotiation, delegation and discipline skills. In particular, almost half the females in this

survey required political awareness training compared to just 7% in Davidson and Cooper's

sample.

Approximately half the respondents had had a mentor, a factor which has been identified as

succeeding as a manager (Langrish-Clyne, 1984). Although women have been identified as

subject to unfavourable bias with regard to mentoring (Dalton and Kesner, 1993), this survey

found more females than males to have had a mentor, and females were less likely than males

to mention any drawbacks of the relationship. A proportion of male and female respondents,

however, did not believe that not having a mentor had hindered their career development.

Despite these findings, the lack of female role models was mentioned by half the respondents


28

amongst the reasons for women's under representation in senior management posts.

Overall, respondents were satisfied with the various aspects of their current jobs (figure 6).

The most dissatisfying aspects of respondents' current positions (dealings with others, work

overload, organisational restrictions and climate and administration) corresponds to those

identified most often by Davidson and Cooper (1983). Career progression and promotion

were the major reasons given for respondents' last job change (career progression was also

identified by Alban-Metcalfe and Nicholson (1984) as the main reason for employer moves).

This was supported by the high career aspirations of the respondents, over two thirds of whom

aspired to senior management and board level positions (72% men; 64% women). The

findings support those by Alban-Metcalfe (1989), Alban-Metcalfe and West (1991),

Broadbridge and Davies (1993) and Traves and Brockbank (1995) in that most females

wanted to progress their career, and contradicts earlier research which suggested that women

are unambitious (Brown, 1979) or avoid career aspirations (Dipboye, 1975). Very few

respondents had turned down a promotional opportunity, which not only contradicts the

argument that women are unlikely to accept promotion (Rothwell, 1984), but also questions

the assumption that women are more likely to turn down a promotion than men (Wood, 1975;

Davidson and Cooper, 1992).

Most respondents believed their ultimate career goals could be realistically achieved which

supports findings by Wentling (1992). Any barriers to attaining their goals were identified as

factors beyond their own control: lack of available positions being the most common factor

cited. Being female was cited as a barrier to attaining desired goals by a fifth of the

respondents. This may be owing to the lack of child care facilities and flexible working

arrangements available for women in senior management positions. Also contributable, may

be company culture, outdated attitudes of women's roles, lack of female role models and lack

of support for women, all of which were identified as the main reasons for women's under

representation in senior management positions.

In line with findings from Alban-Metcalfe and West (1991), only a few organisations offer

career break schemes, and few offer women only training courses. However, Handy (1988)

suggests many women felt such courses were detrimental to their progress by singling them

out and making them appear in need of special help, although they can help some women


29

overcome some of their own attitude problems, through discussion or assertion training

(Rothwell, 1984).

Sixty one per cent of the females and 80% of the males in this survey occupied middle or

senior management positions within their companies. Although equal opportunity legislation

was passed twenty five years ago, perhaps it is now that we are beginning to see the effects of

such legislation, as fresh blood replaces the older generation of managers. Loring and Wells

(1972) argued that a younger generation of males would be less limited by stereotypic

attitudes and contribute a more supportive environment. The findings may indicate that many

retail companies are awakening to equal opportunity initiatives, and that cracks in the glass

ceiling are appearing.

Despite attempts to minimise the possibility of bias in the sample, the limitations of the

research methodology are accepted. Further research is required to test the generalities of the

survey results. Some areas are worthy of further investigation. One area is the positions

occupied by make and fame retail managers and their career progression. The evidence

presented here suggests the possible breakdown of traditionally sex segregated departments.

This may uphold a view that retail companies are at the forefront of equal opportunity

initiatives.

Another issue is training and development. The majority of both make and female respondents

want to progress their career, and it appears training and development opportunities are

equally accessible by both male and female managers. Attending residential course training

has not posed a problem for most male and female managers, and over a third of the women

have received fast rack management training while half have had a mentor. Furthermore,

several companies have introduced career break schemes which enable both male and female

managers to have a break from their careers for a variety of reason and not suffer in

consequence.

Respondents, however, still regard there to be barriers to women's representation at senior

management levels. Some barriers were identified as being part of the culture of retail

companies and require considerable change. Other issues such as the introduction of flexible

working arrangements and the levels of support given to female senior managers may be


30

addressed more readily with some reorganisation and training. Other issues, such as the lack

of child care facilities, may require intervention from outside the retail sector.

The vast array of special qualities respondents claimed women bring to their work as senior

managers is worthy of further consideration. In particular, many of these qualities and skills

will be needed by retail managers of the future in the search to secure competitive advantage

through people.

Another area worthy of special attention is that of men encountering problems which have

traditionally been regarded as particular to women. Approximately a fifth of male respondents

stated they had suffered from double standards for evaluating performance, the absence of

mentors, lack of support from male bosses, exclusion from the old boy network and hitting the

glass ceiling. These issues need to be addressed in more detail as they may highlight some

problems and biases in other gender related research.


31

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