IN OTHER WORDS: IN OTHER WORDS: MONA BAKER’S PERSPECTIVE ON MONA BAKER’S PERSPECTIVE ON

EQUIVALENCEEQUIVALENCE

AuthorAuthor: Haralambie Alina: Haralambie AlinaScientific coordinatorScientific coordinator: PhD. Croitoru Elena: PhD. Croitoru Elena

Lower Danube UniversityLower Danube UniversityMaster’s in Translation and Master’s in Translation and

InterpretationInterpretationGalaGalaţiţi20112011

MOTTOMOTTO

Do we really know how we translate or what Do we really know how we translate or what we translate?...Are we to accept “naked we translate?...Are we to accept “naked ideas” as the means of crossing from one ideas” as the means of crossing from one language to another?...Translators know they language to another?...Translators know they cross over but do not know by what sort of cross over but do not know by what sort of bridge. They often re-cross by a different bridge. They often re-cross by a different bridge to check up again. Sometimes they bridge to check up again. Sometimes they fall over the parapet into limbo.fall over the parapet into limbo.

(Firth, 1957:197)(Firth, 1957:197)

MONA BAKER’S EQUIVALENCE MONA BAKER’S EQUIVALENCE TYPOLOGYTYPOLOGY1.1. Equivalence at word level- Equivalence at word level- the meaning

of single words and expressions;2.2. Equivalence above word level- Equivalence above word level- explores

combinations of words and phrases (stretches of language);

3.3. Grammatical equivalence- Grammatical equivalence- deals with grammatical categories;

4.4. Textual equivalence- Textual equivalence- discusses the text level (word order, cohesion, etc.);

5.5. Pragmatic equivalence- Pragmatic equivalence- how texts are used in communicative situations that involves variables such as writers, readers, and cultural context.

MONA BAKER’S EQUIVALENCE MONA BAKER’S EQUIVALENCE TYPOLOGYTYPOLOGY

EQUIVALENCE AT WORD LEVELEQUIVALENCE AT WORD LEVEL What does a translator do when there is no

word in the target language which expresses the same meaning as the source language word?

Is there a one-to-one relationship between word and meaning?

There is no one-to-one correspondence between orthographic words and elements of meaning within or across language:

eg. words such as tennis player is rendered by means of 3 words in Romanian: jucător de tenis; one word in Turkish: tenisçi, etc.; the verb to type- a dactilografia- one word in Romanian; three words in Spanish: pasar a maquina.

NON-EQUIVALENCE AT WORD LEVEL AND NON-EQUIVALENCE AT WORD LEVEL AND SOME COMMON STRATEGIES FOR SOME COMMON STRATEGIES FOR DEALING WITH IT DEALING WITH IT Common problems of non-equivalenceCommon problems of non-equivalence:(a) Culture-specific concepts(a) Culture-specific concepts The source-language word may express a concept which is

totally unknown in the target language (abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom or even a type of food).

eg. eg. English concept difficult to translate: SpeakerSpeaker (of the House of Commons)- it has no equivalent in many languages, such as Russian, Chinese and Arabic, among others. It is often translated into Russian as “ChairmanChairman”, which does not reflect the role of the Speaker of the House of Commons as an independent person who maintains authorityauthority and order in Parliament.

(b) The source-language concept is not lexicalized in the (b) The source-language concept is not lexicalized in the target languagetarget language

The source-language word may express a concept which is known in the target culture but simply not lexicalized, that is not “allocated” a target-language word to express it.

egeg. the adjective standardstandard (meaning ““ordinary, not extraordinary, not extra”, as is standard range of products) expresses a concept which is very accessible and readily understood by most people, yet Arabic has no equivalent for it.

NON-EQUIVALENCE AT WORD LEVEL AND NON-EQUIVALENCE AT WORD LEVEL AND SOME COMMON STRATEGIES FOR SOME COMMON STRATEGIES FOR DEALING WITH ITDEALING WITH IT Common problems of non-equivalenceCommon problems of non-equivalence:(c) The source-language word is semantically (c) The source-language word is semantically

complexcomplex The source-language word may be semantically complex. egeg: arruaçãoarruação, a Brazilian word which means “clearing the

ground under the coffee trees of rubbish and piling it in the middle of the row in order to aid in the recovery of beans dropped during harvesting” (ITI News, 1988:57).

(d) The source and the target languages make (d) The source and the target languages make different distinctions in meaning different distinctions in meaning

The target language may make more or fewer distinctions in meaning than the source language.

eg.eg. Indonesian makes a distinction between going out in the going out in the rain without the knowledge that is it rainingrain without the knowledge that is it raining (kehujanankehujanan) and going out in the rain with the knowledge that it is going out in the rain with the knowledge that it is raining raining (hujanhujananhujanhujanan). English does not makes that distinction, with the result that if an English text referred to going out in the rain, the Indonesian translator may find it difficult to choose the right equivalent.

NON-EQUIVALENCE AT WORD LEVEL AND NON-EQUIVALENCE AT WORD LEVEL AND SOME COMMON STRATEGIES FOR SOME COMMON STRATEGIES FOR DEALING WITH ITDEALING WITH IT Common problems of non-equivalenceCommon problems of non-equivalence:(e) The target language lacks a superordinate (e) The target language lacks a superordinate The target language may have specific words

(hyponyms) but no general word (superordinate)to head the semantic field.

eg. eg. Russian has no read equivalent for facilitiesfacilities, meaning “any equipment, building, services, etc. any equipment, building, services, etc. that are provided for a particular activity or that are provided for a particular activity or purposepurpose.” It does, however, have several specific words and expressions which can be thought of as types of facilities, for example sredstva sredstva peredvizheniya peredvizheniya (“means of transport”), naemnaem (“loan”), neobkhodimye pomeschcheniyaneobkhodimye pomeschcheniya (“essential accommodation”) and neobkhodimoe neobkhodimoe oborudovanieoborudovanie (“essential equipment”).

NON-EQUIVALENCE AT WORD LEVEL AND NON-EQUIVALENCE AT WORD LEVEL AND SOME COMMON STRATEGIES FOR SOME COMMON STRATEGIES FOR DEALING WITH ITDEALING WITH IT Common problems of non-equivalenceCommon problems of non-equivalence:(f) The target language lacks a specific term (f) The target language lacks a specific term

(hyponym)(hyponym) More commonly, languages tend to have general words

(superordinates) but lack specific ones (hyponyms).eg. eg. under househouse, English again has a variety of hyponyms

which have no equivalents in many languages, for example bungalowbungalow, cottagecottage, croftcroft, chaletchalet, lodgelodge, huthut, mansionmansion, manormanor, villavilla and halhalll.

(g) Differences in physical or interpersonal (g) Differences in physical or interpersonal perspectiveperspective

Physical perspective has to do with where things or people are in relation to one another or to a place, as expressed in pairs of words such as come/ go, take/ bring, arrive/ come/ go, take/ bring, arrive/ departdepart, etc. Perspective may also include the relationship between participants in the discourse (tenor).

eg. eg. Japanese has six equivalents for give, depending on who gives to whom: yaru, ageru, morau, kureru, itadaku yaru, ageru, morau, kureru, itadaku and kudasarukudasaru (McCreary, 1986).

NON-EQUIVALENCE AT WORD LEVEL AND NON-EQUIVALENCE AT WORD LEVEL AND SOME COMMON STRATEGIES FOR SOME COMMON STRATEGIES FOR DEALING WITH ITDEALING WITH IT Common problems of non-equivalenceCommon problems of non-equivalence:h) Differences in expressive meaning h) Differences in expressive meaning There may be a target-language word which has

the same propositional meaning as the source-language word, but it may have a different expressive meaning. If the target-language equivalent is neutral compared to the source-language item, the translator can sometimes add the evaluative element by means of a modifier or adverb if necessary, or by building it in somewhere else in the text.

eg. eg. the rendering of the English verb to batter to batter (as in child/ wife battering) by the more neutral Japanese verb tatakutataku, meaning “to beatto beat” plus an equivalent modifier such as “savagelysavagely” or “ruthlesslyruthlessly”.

NON-EQUIVALENCE AT WORD LEVEL AND NON-EQUIVALENCE AT WORD LEVEL AND SOME COMMON STRATEGIES FOR SOME COMMON STRATEGIES FOR DEALING WITH ITDEALING WITH IT Common problems of non-equivalenceCommon problems of non-equivalence:(i) Difference in form(i) Difference in form There is often no equivalent in the target language for a particular

form in the source text. eg. eg. English makes frequent use of suffixes such as –ish –ish (e.g. boyish, boyish,

hellish, greenishhellish, greenish) and –able –able (e.g. conceivable, retrievable, conceivable, retrievable, drinkabledrinkable). Arabic, for instance, has no ready mechanism for producing such forms and so they are often replaced by an appropriate paraphrase, depending on the meaning they convey (e.g. retrievableretrievable as “can be retrievedcan be retrieved” and drinkabledrinkable as “suitable suitable for drinkingfor drinking”).

(j) Differences in frequency and purpose of using specific (j) Differences in frequency and purpose of using specific formsforms

Even when a particular form does have a ready equivalent in the target language, there may be a difference in the frequency with which it is used or the purpose for which it is used.

eg. eg. English, for instance, uses the continuous –ing –ing form for binding clauses much more frequently than other languages which have equivalents for it, for example German and the Scandinavian languages. Consequently, rendering every –ing –ing form in an English source text with an equivalent –ing –ing form in a German, Danish or Swedish target text would result in stilted, unnatural style.

NON-EQUIVALENCE AT WORD LEVEL AND NON-EQUIVALENCE AT WORD LEVEL AND SOME COMMON STRATEGIES FOR SOME COMMON STRATEGIES FOR DEALING WITH ITDEALING WITH IT Common problems of non-equivalenceCommon problems of non-equivalence:(k) The use of loan words in the source text(k) The use of loan words in the source text Words such as au fait, chic au fait, chic and alfrescoalfresco in English

are used for their prestige value, because they add an air of sophistication to the text or its subject matter. This is often lost in translation because it is not always possible to find a loan word with the same meaning in the target language.

eg. eg. dilettantedilettante is a loan word in English, Russian and Japanese; but Arabic has no equivalent loan word. This means that only the propositional meaning of dilettante can be rendered into Arabic; its stylistic effect would almost certainly have to be sacrificed.

NON-EQUIVALENCE AT WORD LEVEL AND NON-EQUIVALENCE AT WORD LEVEL AND SOME COMMON STRATEGIES FOR SOME COMMON STRATEGIES FOR DEALING WITH ITDEALING WITH IT Strategies used by professional translatorsStrategies used by professional translators(a) Translation by a more general word (superordinate)(a) Translation by a more general word (superordinate)

EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE: Shampoo the hair with a mild WELLA-SHAMPOO and

lightly towel dry. (English- STEnglish- ST)

Lavar el cabello con un champú suave de WELLA y frotar ligeramente con una toalla. (Spanish-TTSpanish-TT)

Wash hair with a mild WELLA shampoo and rub lightly with a towel. (English back translationEnglish back translation)

You can wash a lot of things, but you can only shampoo your hair.

NON-EQUIVALENCE AT WORD LEVEL AND NON-EQUIVALENCE AT WORD LEVEL AND SOME COMMON STRATEGIES FOR SOME COMMON STRATEGIES FOR DEALING WITH ITDEALING WITH IT

Strategies used by professional translatorsStrategies used by professional translatorsTranslation by a more general word (superordinate) (continued)Translation by a more general word (superordinate) (continued)

EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE: He produced a pocketbook and I thought for a moment he was going to tip me.

His face was as gloomy as an El Greco; insufferably bored, decades of boredom, and probably, I decided, insufferably boring. He didn't tip me, but placed the ferrule carefully inside the wallet, and then politely asked me who I was, and, fulsomely, where I had learnt such excellent French. (English ST- from (English ST- from The The MagusMagus, by Fowles, John. 1965: 129) , by Fowles, John. 1965: 129)

A scos un portofel şi m-am temut o clipă că vrea să mă răsplătească. Obrazul lui era întunecos ca un El Greco, nesuferit de plictisit după decenii de viaţă plicticoasă şi mi-am zis în sinea mea că omul era plicticos la culme. Nu mi-a dat nimic, a aşezat obiectul metalic în portofel şi m-a întrebat politicos şi cu ipocrizie cine sînt şi cu falsitate unde învăţasem o franceză atît de bună. (Romanian TT- from (Romanian TT- from MagicianulMagicianul, by Fowles, John, translated by Deac, Livia and , by Fowles, John, translated by Deac, Livia and Chiţoran, Mariana. Iaşi: Polirom, 2002: 126)Chiţoran, Mariana. Iaşi: Polirom, 2002: 126)

The term ferruleferrule (capcapăăt metalic al bastonuluit metalic al bastonului) was translated by means of a more general term: obiect metalicobiect metalic.

NON-EQUIVALENCE AT WORD LEVEL NON-EQUIVALENCE AT WORD LEVEL AND SOME COMMON STRATEGIES FOR AND SOME COMMON STRATEGIES FOR DEALING WITH ITDEALING WITH IT Strategies used by professional translatorsStrategies used by professional translators(b) Translation by a more neutral/ less expressive word(b) Translation by a more neutral/ less expressive word

EXAMPLE:EXAMPLE: Many of the species growing wild here are familiar to us as

plants cultivated in European gardens- species like this exotic lily. (English STEnglish ST)

We are very familiar with many varieties of the wild life here, they are the kind grown in European gardens- varieties like this strange unique lily flower. (back-back-translated from Chinesetranslated from Chinese)

Exotic has no equivalent in Chinese and other oriental languages. It is a word used by westerners to refer to unusual, interesting things which come from a distant country such as China. The Orient does not have a concept of what is exotic in this sense and the expressive meaning of the word is therefore lost in translation.

NON-EQUIVALENCE AT WORD LEVEL NON-EQUIVALENCE AT WORD LEVEL AND SOME COMMON STRATEGIES FOR AND SOME COMMON STRATEGIES FOR DEALING WITH ITDEALING WITH IT

Strategies used by professional translatorsStrategies used by professional translatorsTranslation by a more neutral/ less expressive word (continued)Translation by a more neutral/ less expressive word (continued)EXAMPLE:EXAMPLE: În arături adâci

ţarinadeschide gura.(Romanian ST- Sm(Romanian ST- Smăărrăăndache, Floretin- ndache, Floretin- Clopotul tClopotul tăăcerii/ Silence’s bell/ Le cloche cerii/ Silence’s bell/ Le cloche du silencedu silence, trilingual edition, Phoenix: XIQUAN Publishing House, 1993: 37), trilingual edition, Phoenix: XIQUAN Publishing House, 1993: 37)

Through deep ploughings the field opens its mouth.(English TT- Sm(English TT- Smăărrăăndache, Floretin- ndache, Floretin- Clopotul tClopotul tăăcerii/ Silence’s bell/ Le cloche du cerii/ Silence’s bell/ Le cloche du silencesilence, trilingual edition, translated by Ştef, trilingual edition, translated by Ştefăănescu, Rodica and Benea, Ştefannescu, Rodica and Benea, Ştefan, , Phoenix: XIQUAN Publishing House, 1993: 37)Phoenix: XIQUAN Publishing House, 1993: 37)DISADVANTAGESDISADVANTAGES::

- the term loses all the positive connotations associated with the Romanian word;the term loses all the positive connotations associated with the Romanian word;- the register (archaic and religious, in Romanian) is not rendered in English. the register (archaic and religious, in Romanian) is not rendered in English.

(back-translation form English: (back-translation form English: teren- teren- neutral register, contemporary English)neutral register, contemporary English)

NON-EQUIVALENCE AT WORD LEVEL NON-EQUIVALENCE AT WORD LEVEL AND SOME COMMON STRATEGIES FOR AND SOME COMMON STRATEGIES FOR DEALING WITH ITDEALING WITH IT

Strategies used by professional translatorsStrategies used by professional translators(c) Translation by cultural substitution(c) Translation by cultural substitution It involves replacing a culture-specific item or

expression with a target-language item which does not have the same propositional meaning but is likely to have a similar impact on the target reader.

AdvantageAdvantage: it gives the reader a concept with which s/he can identify, something familiar and appealing.

eg. eg. the Romanian equivalent of The Grim Reaper The Grim Reaper is not secersecerăătorul nemilostorul nemilos, but doamna cu coasadoamna cu coasa, as the Romanian culture has personified death by granting it feminine attributes, whereas the Anglo-Saxon world views death as male character.

NON-EQUIVALENCE AT WORD LEVEL AND NON-EQUIVALENCE AT WORD LEVEL AND SOME COMMON STRATEGIES FOR DEALING SOME COMMON STRATEGIES FOR DEALING WITH ITWITH IT

Strategies used by professional translatorsStrategies used by professional translatorsTranslation by cultural substitution (continued)Translation by cultural substitution (continued)EXAMPLE:EXAMPLE: The Patrick Collection has restaurant facilities to suit every taste- from the

discerning gourmet, to the Cream Tea expert (English ST).(English ST).

...di soddisfare tutii i gusti: da qulelli del gastronomo esigente a quelli dell’esperto di pasticceria. (Italian TT)(Italian TT)

...to satisfy all tastes: from those of the demanding gastronomist to those of the expert in pastry. (back-translation)(back-translation)

In Britain, cream tea cream tea is “an afternoon meal consisting of tea to drink and an afternoon meal consisting of tea to drink and scones wit jam and clotted cream to eat”scones wit jam and clotted cream to eat”. It also includes sandwiches and cakes. Cream tea Cream tea has no equivalent in other cultures. The Italian translator replaced it with “pastrypastry”, which does not have the same meaning (for one thing, cream tea cream tea is a meal in Britain, whereas “pastrypastry” is only a type of food). However, “pastry” is familiar to the Italian reader and therefore provides a good cultural substitute.

NON-EQUIVALENCE AT WORD LEVEL AND NON-EQUIVALENCE AT WORD LEVEL AND SOME COMMON STRATEGIES FOR SOME COMMON STRATEGIES FOR DEALING WITH ITDEALING WITH IT

Strategies used by professional translatorsStrategies used by professional translators(c) Translation using a loan word or loan words plus explanation(c) Translation using a loan word or loan words plus explanation This strategy is particularly common in dealing with culture-

specific items, modern concepts and buzz words. Following the loan word with an explanation is very useful when the word in question is repeated several times in the text.

EXAMPLE:EXAMPLE: For maximum effect, cover the hair with a plastic cap or

towel. (English ST)(English ST) For obtaining maximum effectiveness, the hair is covered by

means of a “cap”, that is a plastic hat which covers the air, or by means of a towel. (back-translation from Arabic)(back-translation from Arabic)

NON-EQUIVALENCE AT WORD LEVEL AND NON-EQUIVALENCE AT WORD LEVEL AND SOME COMMON STRATEGIES FOR SOME COMMON STRATEGIES FOR DEALING WITH ITDEALING WITH IT

Strategies used by professional translatorsStrategies used by professional translatorsTranslation using a loan word or loan words plus explanation (continued)Translation using a loan word or loan words plus explanation (continued)

Sometimes, the term itself is not mentioned and the explanation replaces any Sometimes, the term itself is not mentioned and the explanation replaces any reference to the original term. The explanation becomes the translation:reference to the original term. The explanation becomes the translation:

EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE: astfel, necunoscuturile se îmblânzeau, zidirile neanimate şi entităţile morale se

poetizau; metafizica se înfăţişa într-o horă de zeiţe. (Romanian ST- from (Romanian ST- from Creanga de aur Creanga de aur by Mihail Sadoveanu)by Mihail Sadoveanu)

Thus did the unknown become more tractable, while lifeless structures and moral entities grew poetical, and metaphysics was shown as a goddesses’ round dance. (English TT- (English TT- The Golden BoughThe Golden Bough, by Mihail Sadoveanu, translated , by Mihail Sadoveanu, translated by Eugenia Farca, Bucharest: Minerva Publishing House, 1981: 40-41)by Eugenia Farca, Bucharest: Minerva Publishing House, 1981: 40-41)

The generally accepted translation of the Romanian word horă is in fact an explanation of the word. Unfortunately, in translating it through its explanation, the solar and the sacred implications of this Romanian popular dance are lost, as well as the connections with ancient Greek customs established by means of its etymology (<Neo Greek: horos).

NON-EQUIVALENCE AT WORD LEVEL AND NON-EQUIVALENCE AT WORD LEVEL AND SOME COMMON STRATEGIES FOR SOME COMMON STRATEGIES FOR DEALING WITH ITDEALING WITH IT

Strategies used by professional translatorsStrategies used by professional translators(d) Translation by paraphrase using a related word(d) Translation by paraphrase using a related word This strategy is used when the concept expressed by the source item is lexicalized in

the target language but in a different form, and when the frequency with which a certain form is used in the source text is significantly higher than would be natural in the target language.

EXAMPLE:EXAMPLE: The rich and creamy KOLESTRAL-SUPER is easy to apply and has a pleasant

fragrance. (English ST) (English ST) Kolestral-super is rich and concentrated in its make-up which gives a product that

resembles cream... (back-translation from Arabic) (back-translation from Arabic)

EXAMPLE:EXAMPLE: Adjustments in the Member States GNI-based own resources payments ensure that

budgeted revenue matches exactly budgeted expenditure. (English ST- from (English ST- from Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council and Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council and the Court of Auditors. Annual accounts of the European Union. Financial year 2009the Court of Auditors. Annual accounts of the European Union. Financial year 2009 , , at at http://eur-lex.europa.eu)http://eur-lex.europa.eu)

Ajustările plăților statelor membre privind resursele proprii bazate pe VNB garantează corespondența între veniturile și cheltuielile înscrise în buget. (Romanian TT- from (Romanian TT- from Comunicarea Comisiei către Comunicarea Comisiei către Parlamentul European, Consiliu și Curtea de ConturiParlamentul European, Consiliu și Curtea de Conturi. . Conturi anuale ale Uniunii Europene. Conturi anuale ale Uniunii Europene. Exercițiul financiar 2009Exercițiul financiar 2009, at , at http://eur-lex.europa.euhttp://eur-lex.europa.eu))

NON-EQUIVALENCE AT WORD LEVEL NON-EQUIVALENCE AT WORD LEVEL AND SOME COMMON STRATEGIES AND SOME COMMON STRATEGIES FOR DEALING WITH ITFOR DEALING WITH IT

Strategies used by professional translatorsStrategies used by professional translators(e) Translation by paraphrase using unrelated words(e) Translation by paraphrase using unrelated words If the concept expressed by the source item is not lexicalized at all in the

target language, the paraphrase strategy can still be used in some contexts.

EXAMPLE:EXAMPLE: In the words of a Lonrho affidavit dated 2 November 1988, the

allegations...(English ST- “A secret best seller”, English ST- “A secret best seller”, The IndependentThe Independent, , November 1988November 1988)

According to the text of a written communication supported by an oath presented by the Lonrho organization and dated 2 November 1988, the allegations... (back-translated from Arabicback-translated from Arabic)

Romanian: declaraţie prestată sub jurământAdvantageAdvantage: it reaches a high level of precision in specifying the propositional meaning. DisadvantageDisadvantage:

- paraphrase does not have the status of a lexical item and therefore cannot convey expressive, evoked or any other associated meanings

- awkward to use because it involves filling one-item slot with an explanation consisting of several items.

NON-EQUIVALENCE AT WORD LEVEL AND NON-EQUIVALENCE AT WORD LEVEL AND SOME COMMON STRATEGIES FOR SOME COMMON STRATEGIES FOR DEALING WITH ITDEALING WITH IT

Strategies used by professional translatorsStrategies used by professional translators(f) Translation by omission(f) Translation by omission If the meaning conveyed by a particular item or expression is not vital enough

to the development of the text to justify distracting the reader with lengthy explanations, translators can and often do simply omit translating the word or expression in question.

EXAMPLE:EXAMPLE: The panda’s mountain home is rich in plant life and gave us many of the

trees, shrubs and herbs most prized in European gardens. (English ST- (English ST- China’s China’s Panda ReservesPanda Reserves))

The mountain settlements of the panda have rich varieties of plants. There are many kinds of trees, shrubs and herbal plants that are preciously regarded by European gardens. (back-translated from Chinese)(back-translated from Chinese)

EXAMPLE:EXAMPLE: Of all the mediums that influence language, I think film is the one that has the

most effect. (English ST- from (English ST- from Keep your English up to date- Make my day!Keep your English up to date- Make my day! by by Prof. David Crystal) Prof. David Crystal)

Dintre toate artele care influenţează limbajul, filmul are probabil cel mai mare impact. (Romanian ST- from (Romanian ST- from Cele mai noi expresii din viaţa de zi cu ziCele mai noi expresii din viaţa de zi cu zi at the at the following address: following address: http://www.bbc.co.uk/romanian/specials/1259_uptodaterom1/page2.shtmlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/romanian/specials/1259_uptodaterom1/page2.shtml))

NON-EQUIVALENCE AT WORD LEVEL NON-EQUIVALENCE AT WORD LEVEL AND SOME COMMON STRATEGIES FOR AND SOME COMMON STRATEGIES FOR DEALING WITH ITDEALING WITH IT Strategies used by professional translatorsStrategies used by professional translators(g) Translation by illustration(g) Translation by illustration This is a useful option if the word which lacks an equivalent

in the target language refers to a physical entity which can be illustrated, particularly if there are restrictions on space and if the text has to remain short, concise and to the point.

eg. eg. a figure that appeared on a Lipton Yellow Label tea packet prepared for the Arab market. There is no easy way of translated tagged, as in tagged teabags, into Arabic without going into lengthy explanations which would clutter the text. An illustration of a tagged teabag is therefore used instead of a paraphrase.

EQUIVALENCE ABOVE WORD LEVELEQUIVALENCE ABOVE WORD LEVEL What happens when words start combining with

other words to form stretches of language Combination restrictions The “likelihood” of certain words occurring with

other words and the naturalness or typicality of the resulting combinations

The difficulties encountered by translators as a result of difference in the lexical patterning of the source and target languages.

Lexical patterning: collocations and idioms (fixed expressions).

Focus onFocus on:- collocations- collocations- idioms and fixed expressions - idioms and fixed expressions

EQUIVALENCE ABOVE WORD LEVELEQUIVALENCE ABOVE WORD LEVEL Collocational related pitfalls and problems in translation Collocational related pitfalls and problems in translation

(a) The engrossing effect of source text patterning(a) The engrossing effect of source text patterning Translators sometimes get quite engrossed in the source text and may

produce the oddest collocations in the target language for no justifiable reason.

EXAMPLE:EXAMPLE: Back at the dull mahogany tables of the Commission, I found myself again

seated opposite the familiar, tall languid figure of Sir Godfray Le Quesne, rocking gently on his chair, with his hands clasped behind his head, and his eyes closed as he listened or slept through the hearings. He’d been looking into us for four years, and knew our business backwards. What am I doing here, I thought, as I gazed by the hour and by the month at the hole in the sole of his leather shoe, and wondered why Lonrho’s bid was in the hands of his leather shoe, and wondered why Lonrho’s bid was in the hands f a man who couldn’t organise his own shoe repairs. (English ST- (English ST- A hero from A hero from ZeroZero))

The French translator of A Hero from Zero (a document produced by Lonrho Plc. about the acquisition of the House of Fraser by Mohamed Fayed) rendered shoe repairs as réparer ses chaussures (“to repair his shoes”), which is a literal translation from English. In French, réparer collocates with things like “fridges”, “cars” and “machines” in general, but it does not collocate with chaussures. The translators should have used ressemeler ses chaussures (“resole his shoes”) which is a far more natural collocation in French.

EQUIVALENCE ABOVE WORD LEVELEQUIVALENCE ABOVE WORD LEVEL Collocational related pitfalls and problems in translation Collocational related pitfalls and problems in translation (b) Misinterpreting the meaning of a source-language collocation(b) Misinterpreting the meaning of a source-language collocation A translator can easily misinterpret a collocation in the source text

due to interference from his/ her native language. This happens when a source-language collocation appears to be familiar because it corresponds in form to a common collocation in the target language.

EXAMPLE:EXAMPLE: All this represents only a part of all that Forbes Magazine reported on

Fayed in the March issue mentioned before. In 1983, he had approached the industrialist Robert O. Anderson under the cover of a commission agent. The industrialist had been struck by his appearance as someone with modest means. Mr. Anderson was therefore astonished by his sudden acquisition of a considerable fortune. (English ST- (English ST- A hero from ZeroA hero from Zero))

The industrialist saw in him a person whose appearance suggests modesty and simplicity. (back-translated from Arabic)(back-translated from Arabic)

The collocation modest means suggest lack of affluence in English and not a moral quality. So, the translator misinterpreted the source collocation and communicated the wrong meaning in the TT.

EQUIVALENCE ABOVE WORD LEVELEQUIVALENCE ABOVE WORD LEVEL Collocational related pitfalls and problems in translation Collocational related pitfalls and problems in translation (c) The tension between accuracy and naturalness(c) The tension between accuracy and naturalness A translator ideally aims at producing a collocation which is typical in the

target language while, at the same time, preserving the meaning associated with the source collocation. This idea cannot always be achieved. Translation often involves a tension – a difficult choice between what is typical and what is accurate.

The nearest acceptable collocation in the target language will often involved some change in meaning.

eg. eg. the nearest acceptable collocation which can replace hard drink hard drink in Arabic is “alcoholic drinksalcoholic drinks”. But hard drinks refers only to spirits in English, for example whisky, gin, and brandy. It does not include other alcoholic drinks such as beer, lager, or sherry. The Arabic collocation, however, refers to any alcoholic beverage.

EXAMPLE:EXAMPLE: Tiny Rowland is a crisper writer than Peter Wright and has an even

stranger story to tell. (English ST- (English ST- The IndependentThe Independent)) Tiny Rowland has a sharper pen than Peter Wright’s, and also the story

which he is narrating is much stranger. (back-translated from Arabic)(back-translated from Arabic)Crisp writing is clear, concise writing. The collocation suggests approval, in Arabic, “sharp pen” is a common and typical collocation. But a writer described as having a “shaper pen” in Arabic is a fierce critic. The collocation suggests disapproval.

EQUIVALENCE ABOVE WORD LEVELEQUIVALENCE ABOVE WORD LEVEL Collocational related pitfalls and problems in translation Collocational related pitfalls and problems in translation (d) Culture-specific collocations(d) Culture-specific collocations Some collocations reflect the cultural setting in which they

occur. If the cultural setting of the source and target languages are significantly different, there will be instances when the source text will contain collocations which convey what to the target reader would be unfamiliar associations of ideas. They point to concepts that are not accessible to the target reader.

EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE: Papers relating to the lesser-known languages will be

particularly welcome. (English ST)(English ST) We intend to discuss separately questions concerning the so-

called “small”, i.e. less widespread and “big:, i.e. more widespread languages. (back-translated from Russian)(back-translated from Russian)

In English academic writing, it is common and acceptable to talk about “lesser-known languages”, as well as “major languages” and “minor languages”. Russian has no equivalent collocations. Furthermore, the political and social setting of Russian makes it potentially offensive to draw a distinction between better-known and lesser-known languages, or major and minor languages. Aware of such potentially offensive meaning, the translator uses the expression “so-called” in order to distance himself from the associations made.

EQUIVALENCE ABOVE WORD LEVELEQUIVALENCE ABOVE WORD LEVEL Collocational related pitfalls and problems in translation Collocational related pitfalls and problems in translation (e) Marked collocations in the source text(e) Marked collocations in the source text Unusual combinations of words are sometimes used in the source text

in order to create new images. Ideally, the translation of a marked collocation will be similarly marked in the target language.

EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE: Canada has chosen to “entrench” its dual cultural heritage in its

institutions and, as a result, official translation has taken firm root. (English ST- (English ST- Language and SocietyLanguage and Society- a bilingual journal published in - a bilingual journal published in Canada- no. 15, 1985, p.8)Canada- no. 15, 1985, p.8)

Canada a choisi “d’enchasser”- le mot est hélas! à la mode- son double héritage culturel dans ses institutions et la traduction officielle y est, apr consequent, solidement enracinée. (French TT)(French TT)

Canada has chosen to “insert”- the world is alas in fashion!- its double cultural heritage in its institutions and official translation is, as a consequence, solidly rooted there. (back-translation) (back-translation)

The reader of the source text is alerted to the writer’s wish to communicate an unusual image by the inverted commas around entrench.

EQUIVALENCE ABOVE WORD LEVELEQUIVALENCE ABOVE WORD LEVEL The translation of idioms: difficulties (a) An idiom or fixed expression may have no equivalent in the target (a) An idiom or fixed expression may have no equivalent in the target

languagelanguage

eg. eg. the sort of fixed formulae that are used in formal correspondence, such as Yours faithfully Yours faithfully and Yours sincerelyYours sincerely in English. These have no equivalents in Arabic formal correspondence. Instead, an expression such as wa tafadalu wa tafadalu biqbuul fa’iq al-ihtiraam biqbuul fa’iq al-ihtiraam (literally: “and be kind enough to accept [our] highest respects”) is often used, but it bears no direct relationship to Yours faithfully or Yours sincerely. The same mismatch occurs in relation to French and several other languages.

Idioms and fixed expressions which contain culture-specific items are not necessarily untranslatable. It is not the specific items an expression contains but rather the meaning it conveys and its association with culture-specific contexts which can make it untranslatable or difficult to translate.

eg. eg. the English expression to carry coals to Newcastleto carry coals to Newcastle, though culture-specific in the sense that it contains a reference to Newcastle coal and uses it as a measure of abundance, is nevertheless closely paralleled in German by Eulen nach Athen tragen (“to carry owls to Athens”). Both expressions convey the same meaning, namely: to supply something to someone who already has plenty of it (Grauberg, 1989). In French, the same meaning can be rendered by the expression porter de l’eau à la rivière, “to carry water to the river”. Romanian: a vinde castraveţi grădinarului.

EQUIVALENCE ABOVE WORD LEVELEQUIVALENCE ABOVE WORD LEVEL The translation of idioms: difficulties (b) An idiom or fixed expression may have a similar (b) An idiom or fixed expression may have a similar

counterpart in the target language, but its context of counterpart in the target language, but its context of use may be different; the two expressions may have use may be different; the two expressions may have different connotations, for instance, or they may not be different connotations, for instance, or they may not be pragmatically transferable. pragmatically transferable.

eg. eg. to sing a different tune to sing a different tune is an English idiom which means to say or do something that signals a change in opinion because it contradicts what one has said or done before. In Chinese, chang-dui-tai-xi (“to sing different tunes/ to sing a duet”) also normally refers to contradictory point of view, but has quite a different usage. It has strong political connotations and can, in certain contexts, be interpreted as expressing complementary rather than contradictory points of view.

EQUIVALENCE ABOVE WORD LEVELEQUIVALENCE ABOVE WORD LEVEL The translation of idioms: difficulties (c) An idiom may be used in the source text in both its literal (c) An idiom may be used in the source text in both its literal

and idiomatic senses at the same time. and idiomatic senses at the same time. EXAMPLE:EXAMPLE: In creating Lord Peter Wimsey, Dorothy L. Sayers

demonstrated all the advantages of the amateur private eye. As a wealthy dilettante he was able to pursue the clues without the boring necessity of earning a living. His title as a younger son of a duke pandered to reader snobbery and to the obsessive fascination of some readers with the lifestyle of the aristocracy, or with what they imagined that lifestyle to be. He had sufficient influence to be able to poke his nose into the private affairs of others where less aristocratic noses might have been speedily bloodied. (The British Translators’ Guild Intermediate Examinations for all languages,1986)

The play upon an idiom can be reproduced in languages such as French, German or Romanian which happen to have an identical idiom or at least an idiom which refers to interfering in other people’s affairs and which has the equivalent of nose in it.

EQUIVALENCE ABOVE WORD LEVELEQUIVALENCE ABOVE WORD LEVEL The translation of idioms: difficulties (d)The very convention of using idioms in written (d)The very convention of using idioms in written

discourse, the context in which they can be used, and discourse, the context in which they can be used, and their frequency of use may be different in the source and their frequency of use may be different in the source and target languages.target languages.

English uses idioms in many types of texts, though not in all. Their use in quality- press news reports is limited, but is it quite common to see idioms in English advertisements, promotional material and in the tabloid press.

EXAMPLE:EXAMPLE: It’s got style. And a performance engine that says it’s a

lot more than just a pretty face. (Today’ s Cars, Austin Rover, 1989)

Languages such as Arabic and Chinese avoid using idioms in written discourse.

EQUIVALENCE ABOVE WORD LEVELEQUIVALENCE ABOVE WORD LEVEL The translation of idioms: strategies The translation of idioms: strategies (a) Using an idiom of similar meaning and form(a) Using an idiom of similar meaning and form It involves using an idiom in the target language which

conveys roughly the same meaning as that of the source-language idiom and, in addition consists of equivalent lexical items.

EXAMPLE:EXAMPLE: The sultan’s magnificent income was distributed

impulsively at his command. The rain fell on the just and on the unjust. (English ST- A Hero from Zero, p. 21)(English ST- A Hero from Zero, p. 21)

Le revenue fabuleux du Sultan était distribute sur un simle ordre de sa part. La pluie tombait aussi bien sur les justes ques sur les injustes. (French TT)(French TT)

The fantastic income of the Sultan was distributed on a simple order on his part. The rain was falling on the just as well as on the unjust. ((back-translation)back-translation)

EQUIVALENCE ABOVE WORD LEVELEQUIVALENCE ABOVE WORD LEVEL The translation of idioms: strategies The translation of idioms: strategies Using an idiom of similar meaning and form (continued)Using an idiom of similar meaning and form (continued)

EXAMPLE:EXAMPLE: Here dreaming, though wide-awake, of the exquisite tortures to

which they were to put him at break of day, those confiding savages were found by the treacherous Hook. (English ST- from (English ST- from The The Adventures of Peter Pan Adventures of Peter Pan by Barrie, James Matthew, at by Barrie, James Matthew, at http://barrie.thefreelibrary.com/The-Adventures-of-Peter-http://barrie.thefreelibrary.com/The-Adventures-of-Peter-Pan/12-1#break+of+dayPan/12-1#break+of+day))

În timp ce visau, ce-i drept, cu ochii deschişi, la groznicele torturi la care aveau să-l supună când se va crăpa de ziua, aceşti sălbatici creduli fură surprinşi de Gheară cel perfid.(Romanian TT- from (Romanian TT- from Peter Peter PanPan, by Barrie, J.M., translated by Sorea, Daniela. Bucharest: Rao , by Barrie, J.M., translated by Sorea, Daniela. Bucharest: Rao Publishing House, 2007:127)Publishing House, 2007:127)

EQUIVALENCE ABOVE WORD LEVELEQUIVALENCE ABOVE WORD LEVEL The translation of idioms: strategies The translation of idioms: strategies (b) Using an idiom of similar meaning but dissimilar (b) Using an idiom of similar meaning but dissimilar

formform

eg. eg. the English expression One good turn deserves One good turn deserves another another and the French expression À beau jeu, À beau jeu, beau retour beau retour (“a handsome action deserves a handsome return”) use different lexical items to express more or less the same ideas. The Romanian equivalent: DupDupăă fapt faptăă şi r şi răăsplatsplatăă.

EQUIVALENCE ABOVE WORD LEVELEQUIVALENCE ABOVE WORD LEVEL The translation of idioms: strategies The translation of idioms: strategies (c) Translation by paraphrase (c) Translation by paraphrase

EXAMPLE:EXAMPLE: The suspension system has been fully uprated to take rough terrain in its

stride. (English ST- Austin Montego- car brochure)(English ST- Austin Montego- car brochure)

The capacity of the suspension system has been raised so as to overcome the roughness of the terrain. (back-translated from Arabic)(back-translated from Arabic)

They were a good deal taken aback, and after a little consultation one and all tumbled down the fore companion, thinking no doubt to take us on the rear. But when they saw Redruth waiting for them in the sparred galley, they went about ship at once, and a head popped out again on deck. (English ST- (English ST- Treasure IslandTreasure Island, by Stevenson, R.L., at , by Stevenson, R.L., at http://stevenson.thefreelibrary.com/Treasure-Island/4-http://stevenson.thefreelibrary.com/Treasure-Island/4-1#taken+aback1#taken+aback)

Bandiţii au rămas buimăciţi. Apoi, după ce s-au mai sfătuit în şoaptă, s-au năpustit cu toţii la chepeng, cu gând să ne atace pe la spate, dar, întâlnindu-l în trecătoarea îngustă pe Redruth cu muschetele, s-au repezit iar îndărăt. Unul din ei şi-a iţit capul din chepeng, să vadă ce mai e pe punte. (Romanian TT- (Romanian TT- Insula comorilorInsula comorilor, by Stevenson, R.L., translated by Cosmescu, Alexandru. , by Stevenson, R.L., translated by Cosmescu, Alexandru. ChişinChişinăău: Litera Publishing House, 1997: 119)u: Litera Publishing House, 1997: 119)

EQUIVALENCE ABOVE WORD LEVELEQUIVALENCE ABOVE WORD LEVEL The translation of idioms: strategies The translation of idioms: strategies (d) Translation by omission(d) Translation by omissionEXAMPLE:EXAMPLE: It was bitter, but funny, to see that Professor Smith had doubled his own salary before

recommending the offer from Fayed, and added a pre-dated bonus for good measure. (English ST- A Hero from Zero(English ST- A Hero from Zero, p. VI , p. VI ))

It was regrettable, even funny, that Professor Smith had been able to double his salary twice before offering his recommendation to accept Fayed’s offer, and that he added to this a bonus, the date of which had been previously decided on. (back-translated from (back-translated from Arabic)Arabic)

EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE: The application form does indeed speak of ‘publication of information on the

beneficiaries of the EAGF and the EAFRD and the amounts received per beneficiary’ and refers to Article 44a of Council Regulation No 1290/2005 (and, for good measure, to Article 11 of Commission Regulation No 796/2005). (English ST- from (English ST- from Opinion of the Opinion of the Advocate-GeneralAdvocate-General, at , at http://eur-lex.europa.euhttp://eur-lex.europa.eu))

În formularul de cerere se menționează într‑adevăr „publicarea informațiilor referitoare la beneficiarii FEGA și FEADR și la sumele primite de fiecare beneficiar” și se face trimitere la articolul 44a din Regulamentul nr. 1290/2005 al Consiliului (precum și la articolul 11 din Regulamentul nr. 796/2005 al Comisiei). (Romanian TT- from (Romanian TT- from Opinia avocatului generalOpinia avocatului general, at , at http://eur-lex.europa.euhttp://eur-lex.europa.eu))

GRAMMATICAL EQUIVALENCE GRAMMATICAL EQUIVALENCE 1. Number1. Number English recognizes a distinction between singular and plural. This

distinction has to be expressed morphologically, by adding a suffix to a noun or by changing its form in some other way to indicate whether it refers to one or more than one: student/ students, fox/ foxes, man/men, etc. Some languages, such as Japanese, Chinese, and Vietnamese, prefer to express the same notion lexically or more often, not at all.

eg. eg. my book my book and my books my books are both wo-de-shuwo-de-shu in Chinese. Other languages have the grammatical category of number, similar, but not identical to that of English. Arabic, Eskimo and some Slavonic language distinguish between one, two and more than two.

Translator’s choices:(a) to omit the relevant information on number: China’s Panda Reserves. (English ST)English ST) China’s Panda Protection-zone<s>. (back-translated from Chinese)(back-translated from Chinese)

(b) to encode this information lexically: The heads of the ministries created in 189 were not directly responsible

for “advising and assisting” (hohitsu) the emperor, though they were to become so in 1889. (English ST- (English ST- Palace and Politics in Prewar JapanPalace and Politics in Prewar Japan))

The head<s> of various ministry<ies> created in Meiji 2nd are not directly responsible for “hohitsu” the emperor. (back-translated from (back-translated from Japanese)Japanese)

GRAMMATICAL EQUIVALENCE GRAMMATICAL EQUIVALENCE 2. Gender2. Gender English does not have a grammatical category of gender as such; English nouns are not regularly inflected

to distinguish between feminine and masculine. English has the category of person which distinguishes in the third-person singular between masculine,

feminine and inanimate (he/she/ithe/she/it). This distinction does not apply to the third-person plural (theythey). In some languages, such as Arabic, gender distinctions apply to the second as well as third person pronouns. In addition to gender distinctions in the third-person singular and plural, Arabic has different forms for “you” depending on whether the person or persons addressed is/are male or female.

EXAMPLEEXAMPLE: the problematic items in the ST– the pronominal function of gender. Shampoo the hair with a mild WELLA-SHAMPOO and lightly towel dry. Apply KOLESTRAL-SUPER directly onto the hair and massage gently. For maximum effect, cover the hair with a plastic cap or towel. KOLESTRAL-SUPER can be left on the hair for 10-20 minutes. After the developing time rinse off thoroughly before styling- no shampooing required. Style the hair as usual. (English ST- Instructions for use)(English ST- Instructions for use)

The hair is washed with “Wella” shampoo, provided that it is a mild shampoo. Then the hair is dried by means of a towel, a simple drying so that the hair is left damp.

Kolestral-Super is put directly on the hair and massaged with softness and gentleness. For obtaining maximum effectiveness, the hair is covered by means of a cap, that is a plastic hat which

covers the hair, or by means of a towel. Kolestral-Super is left for a period of 10-20 minutes. After the end of the reaction period, the hair should be rinsed well and in depth before starting on the

desired hair-do. No need for shampoo in this final stage. The hair is styled and combed as usual and in the desired fashion and the result is ideal and marvellous.

(back-translated from Arabic)(back-translated from Arabic)

Passive voice instead of the imperative in order to avoid specifying the subject of the verb altogether.

GRAMMATICAL EQUIVALENCE GRAMMATICAL EQUIVALENCE Gender (continued) Gender (continued)

EXAMPLE:EXAMPLE: Do not touch the power cord with wet hands as it may cause electric

shocks. Place the unit in a well ventilated area and no-heat environment. (English (English

ST- from ST- from Embedded Nagravision Digital Cable Receiver HSC-1170NA. User’ Embedded Nagravision Digital Cable Receiver HSC-1170NA. User’ ManualManual. Hyundai Digital Technology, pp. 2). Hyundai Digital Technology, pp. 2)

Nu atingeţi cablul cu mâinile ude, căci ar putea produce un şoc electric. Puneţi aparatul într-un loc aerisit şi răcoros. (Romanian TT- from (Romanian TT- from Receptor Receptor

digital de cablu HSC-1170NA. Manual de utilizaredigital de cablu HSC-1170NA. Manual de utilizare . Hyundai Digital . Hyundai Digital Technology, pp. 2)Technology, pp. 2)

In Romanian, the problematic issue of the pronominal function of gender is avoided by using a verbal form specific to the plural form of the second person, personal pronoun (no gender distinctions for masculine or feminine).

GRAMMATICAL EQUIVALENCE GRAMMATICAL EQUIVALENCE 3. Person3. Person The category of person relates to the notion of participant roles. Bahasa Indonesia has a nine-term pronoun system where English

has only seven. The gender dimension is absent from Bathasa Indonesia, but two other dimensions are of relevance:

i. the inclusive/ exclusive dimensionthe inclusive/ exclusive dimension: English wewe has two translations in Bahasa Indonesia, involving a choice between kamikami and kitakita, depending on whether the addressee is included or excluded;

ii. the familiar/ non-familiar dimension the familiar/ non-familiar dimension which necessitates a choice between for instance akuaku and sajasaja for English I I, depending on the relationship between speaker and bearer.

A large number of modern European languages, not including English, have a formality/ politeness formality/ politeness dimension in their person system. French vousvous as opposed to tutu; Italian leilei (third-person singular) as opposed to tutu; Spanish ustedusted as opposed tutu; German SieSie as opposed to dudu; Greek esiesi as opposed to esisesis; and Russian vyvy as opposed to tyty.

In translation, decision have to be made along such dimensions as: gender; degree of intimacy between participants; whether reference includes or excludes the addressee.

GRAMMATICAL EQUIVALENCE GRAMMATICAL EQUIVALENCE Person (continued)Person (continued)

EXAMPLE:EXAMPLE: The source text is from Agatha Christie’s Crooked House Crooked House (1949). The characters

in the following dialogue are a young man, Charles, and a young lady, Sophia. They have worked together and have been friends for some time. Charles has just asked Sophia to marry him. (p. 9):

“Darling- don’t you understand? I’ve tried not to say I love you-“ She stopped me. “I understand, Charles. And I like your funny way of doing things...”

Mais vous ne comprenez donc pas? Vous ne voyez donc pas que je fais tout ce que je peux pour ne pas vous dire que je vous aime et...

Elle m’interrompit. J’ai parafaitement compris, Charles, et votre façon comique de presenter les

choses m’est très sympathique...(French TT)...(French TT)

The use of vous in the French translation indicates a level of formality and politeness which is not overtly conveyed in the English original.

The translator has to make conscious decisions about the nature of the The translator has to make conscious decisions about the nature of the relationships among different characters in the story and about the social relationships among different characters in the story and about the social standing of these characters as reflected in their adoption of certain conventionsstanding of these characters as reflected in their adoption of certain conventions.

GRAMMATICAL EQUIVALENCE GRAMMATICAL EQUIVALENCE Person (continued)Person (continued)EXAMPLE:EXAMPLE: “Darling- don’t you understand? I’ve tried not to say I love you-“ She stopped me. “I understand, Charles. And I like your funny way of doing things...”

(English ST(English ST)

- - Iubito, nu înţelegi? Am încercat să nu spun te iubesc… Ea m-a oprit. - Ba înţeleg, Charles. Şi îmi place felul tău nostim de a face lucrurile.

(Romanian TT- from (Romanian TT- from Crima din cCrima din căăsuţa strâmbsuţa strâmbăă, translated by , translated by Sprinţeroiu, Simina and GrSprinţeroiu, Simina and Grăădinaru, Lidia, Bucharest: Multi Press dinaru, Lidia, Bucharest: Multi Press Publishing House, 1997:7)Publishing House, 1997:7)

The Romanian translators chose to render the familiarity between the two fiancées and opted for the second person singular pronoun instead of a more formal address.

GRAMMATICAL EQUIVALENCE GRAMMATICAL EQUIVALENCE 4. Tense and aspect 4. Tense and aspect In some languages, the tense and aspect system are highly developed. Wishram, an

American Indian language, makes no fewer than four distinctions in reference to past events alone, each distinction expressing a certain degree of remoteness from the moment of speaking. Some languages, such as Chinese, Malay, and Yurok, have no formal category of tense or aspect. The form of the verb in these languages does not change to express temporal or aspectual distinctions.

StrategiesStrategies: - the use of adverbials to indicate time reference where necessary and feasible in a

Chinese translation; This attractive black and white mammal has widespread human appeal and has become

a symbol for conservation efforts both within China and internationally as the symbol of The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). (English ST)(English ST)

This attractive black-white mammal widely liked by people and already become a symbol of conservation efforts...

The adverbial yi-jing= already is added to give the effect of the present perfect in English.

- the omission of time reference altogether where it can be inferred from the context or where the information is not felt to be important.

Species like this mountain rhododendron were collected by 19th century botanists and then transported back to Europe for horticultural collections. (English ST) (English ST)

Species like this mountain rhododendron collect<ed> by 19th century botanists and then transport<ed> back to Europe for horticultural collections. (back-translated from (back-translated from Chinese)Chinese)

The connotations of pastness in the above extract can be inferred from the context, because of the reference to 19th century botanists. There is therefore no need to signal the past overtly in the Chinese text.

GRAMMATICAL EQUIVALENCE GRAMMATICAL EQUIVALENCE 5. Voice5. Voice Scientific and technical writing in English relies heavily on passive

structures (in order to give the impression of objectivity and to distance the writer from the statements made in the text).

EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE: Papers are invited on all aspects of lexicography, theoretical

and practical, diachronic and synchronic. Individual presentations should be timed to last 20 minutes,

with a discussion period to follow. Abstracts should be sent to the Lecture Programme Organizer.

(English ST- Conference Circular)

The overall theme of the congress will include all the most important aspects of lexicography.

The envisaged length of individual papers is 20 minutes, not counting supplementary speeches and discussions.

We ask for a short abstract of papers to be sent to the academic organizer of the congress. (back-translated from Russian)(back-translated from Russian)

GRAMMATICAL EQUIVALENCE GRAMMATICAL EQUIVALENCE Voice (continued) Voice (continued) EXAMPLE:EXAMPLE: The two major thematic areas [...] are oriented upon different contemporary socio-

humanist research fields, thus gathering many academic teachers interested in the topics above. 

Researchers from different fields [...]are invited to debate on feminist history, feminist discourse, feminine writing, feminine artistic and literary representations, mythical / ideological feminine values within political / religious contexts, all of these oriented upon the francophone culture. (English ST- from (English ST- from First Call for Papers First Call for Papers for for The International The International Colloquium Colloquium Feminine Representations within the Francophone Cultural SpaceFeminine Representations within the Francophone Cultural Space, at , at http://www.lit.ugal.ro/2010-CIL-FEMININE/First_call.htmhttp://www.lit.ugal.ro/2010-CIL-FEMININE/First_call.htm))

Cele două axe tematice majore [...] se raportează la domenii de mare interes în cercetarea socio-umană contemporană, continuând şi completând o serie de demersuri semnificative ale universitarilor din întreaga lume.

Cercetători din domenii diferite [...] sunt invitaţi la o serie de dezbateri vizând istoria şi memoria feministă, discursul feminist, scriitura feminină, reprezentările literar-artistice ale feminităţii, proiecţiile mitice / ideologice ale acesteia la nivelul imaginarului politic sau religios, raportabile la spaţiul cultural francofon şi la valorile francofoniei. (Romanian TT- (Romanian TT- from from Prima CircularPrima Circularăă pentru pentru Colocviul internaţional Colocviul internaţional ReprezentReprezentăări ale feminitri ale feminităţăţii în spaţiul ii în spaţiul francofon, at francofon, at http://www.lit.ugal.ro/2010-CIL-FEMININE/Apel_colaborare.htmhttp://www.lit.ugal.ro/2010-CIL-FEMININE/Apel_colaborare.htm))

In Romanian, passive structures are rendered by means of both passive and reflexive structures.

TEXTUAL EQUIVALENCETEXTUAL EQUIVALENCE Textual equivalence: thematic and information structures Thematic structure: themetheme and rhemerheme The first segment of the text is called themetheme= what the

clause is about. The second segment of a clause is called the rhemerheme= what

the speaker says about the theme. (Halliday’s model):EXAMPLE:EXAMPLE: Ptolemy’s model provided a reasonably accurate system

for predicting the positions of heavenly bodies in the sky.

Ptolemy’s model= the theme; provided a reasonably accurate system for predicting the

positions of heavenly bodies in the sky = the rheme.

TEXTUAL EQUIVALENCETEXTUAL EQUIVALENCE Thematic choice involves selecting a clause element

as theme.(a) Fronted theme(a) Fronted theme- Fronting of time or place adjunct In China the book received a great deal of publicity. On 4th March 1985, the Fayed brothers made an

offer of four pounds a share for House of Fraser.- Fronting of object or complement Object: A great deal of publicity the book has

received in China. Complement: Well publicized the book was.- Fronting of predicator They promised to publicize the book in China, and

publicize it they did.

TEXTUAL EQUIVALENCETEXTUAL EQUIVALENCE(b) Predicated theme(b) Predicated theme - it involves an it-structure (also called a cleft structure)eg. eg. It was the book that received a great deal of publicity in China.EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE: Era un om interesant, în orice caz, şi lui i se datorează povestea care urmează. E o datorie

de pietate să-l pomenesc aici. (Romanian ST- from (Romanian ST- from Creanga de aur Creanga de aur by Mihail Sadoveanu)by Mihail Sadoveanu) He was at all events an interesting chap. It is to him that we owe the following story so

that it is only a pious duty to mention him here; (English TT- (English TT- The Golden BoughThe Golden Bough, by Mihail Sadoveanu, translated by Eugenia Farca, Bucharest: , by Mihail Sadoveanu, translated by Eugenia Farca, Bucharest: Minerva Publishing House, 1981: 32-33; 34-35)Minerva Publishing House, 1981: 32-33; 34-35)

(c) Identifying theme(c) Identifying theme -similar to predicated themes; instead of using it (a cleft structure), an identifying theme

places an element in theme position by turning it into a nominalization using a wh-structure (a pseudo-sleft structure):

eg. eg. What the book received in China was a great deal of publicity.EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE: Esenţialul e să înţelegi că ordinea de timp a bătrânului meu din acest munte stăpâneşte

asupra aeroplanului dumnealor şi asupra aparatului dumnevoastră de radio. (Romanian ST- (Romanian ST- from from Creanga de aur Creanga de aur by Mihail Sadoveanu)by Mihail Sadoveanu)

What is essential for you to understand is that the regulation of time of my aged man in this mountain prevails over yonder gentlemen’s airplanes as well as over your wireless sets. (English TT- (English TT- The Golden BoughThe Golden Bough, by Mihail Sadoveanu, translated by Eugenia Farca, Bucharest: , by Mihail Sadoveanu, translated by Eugenia Farca, Bucharest: Minerva Publishing House, 1981: 44-45)Minerva Publishing House, 1981: 44-45)

TEXTUAL EQUIVALENCETEXTUAL EQUIVALENCE The tension between word order and communicative function: a problem in The tension between word order and communicative function: a problem in

translation?translation? -topic-prominenttopic-prominent vs. subject-prominentsubject-prominent languages: in a topic-prominent language linear

arrangement follows the scale of CD far more closely than it does in a subject-prominent language.

-word order word order vs. communicative functioncommunicative function: languages with different priorities. Suggested strategies for minimizing linear dislocationSuggested strategies for minimizing linear dislocation

a. voice change - it involves changing the syntactic form of a verb to achieve a different sequence of

elements (passive- active and vice versa).

b. change of the verb - changing the verb altogether and replacing it with one that has a similar meaning but

can be used in a different syntactic configuration. eg.eg. I like it= It pleases me. (the latter is very unnatural)

c. nominalization some languages allow the order verb + subject. If the translator has to adhere to an

obligatory order of subject + verb in the target language, nominalization could probably provide a good strategy in many contexts.

eg. eg. describe- description.

d. extraposition -it involves changing the position of the entire clause in the sentence by, for instance,

embedding a simple clause in a complex sentence eg. eg. cleft and pseudo-cleft structures.

TEXTUAL EQUIVALENCETEXTUAL EQUIVALENCE Textual equivalence: cohesionTextual equivalence: cohesion Cohesion= the network of lexical, grammatical, and other relations which provide links between

various parts of a text. Main cohesive devices in English: referencereference, substitutionsubstitution, ellipsisellipsis, conjunctionconjunction and lexical cohesionlexical cohesion.a. Referencea. Reference referencereference = the relationship of identity which holds between two linguistic expressions.EXAMPLE:EXAMPLE: Surrounded by the toys and the gadgets of his calling- tape recorders, mini television sets, world-

band radios- he is the quintessential Japanese combination that has conquered the world: a tinkerer turned businessman.

As the eldest son of a wealthy sake and soy-sauce producer in conservative Nagoya, he was expected to take over the family business- and perhaps become the 15th generation of Morita Mayors in the local community. Instead, he spent his time taking apart clocks and listening to Western classical music and preferred the study of physics to business. During World War Two, he went into naval research as a lieutenant, working on a thermal-guided missile and other projects, and it was there that he met his future partner, Ibuka. After the war, the two set up a business after a false start in the home-appliance market- manufacturing rice cookers. Total production: 100. Total sales: 0. (English ST- references to Akio Morita, Chairman of the Sony Corporation)(English ST- references to Akio Morita, Chairman of the Sony Corporation)

Product of a culture that values subtlety and indirect manners, Morita, with his frank way, is an ideal bridge between Japan and the West.

The eldest son of a prosperous producer of soya oil and saki, in Nagoya, the parents of Morita expected that he should take over the control of the family business. Instead of this, Morita spent the time taking clocks apart, listening to Western classical music and preferring to study physics to putting himself into business. During the Second World War <he> dedicated himself to naval research, as a civilian and it was in this period that <he> made a partnership in a factory of rice cooking pots. Total production: 100 pots. Total sales: 0. (back-translated from Portuguese)(back-translated from Portuguese)

English prefers to pick up the reference in a new paragraph by means of a pronoun, while Portuguese prefers lexical repetition.

TEXTUAL EQUIVALENCETEXTUAL EQUIVALENCEb. Substitution and ellipsis b. Substitution and ellipsis -substitution= the replacement of an item (or items) by another item (items):eg. eg. You think Joan already knows?

I think everybody does. (does replaces knows).-ellipsis= the omission of an item. eg. eg. Joan brought some carnations, and Catherine some sweet peas. (ellipted item: brought in the second

cause).c. Conjunction c. Conjunction Conjunction= the use of formal markers to relate sentences, clauses and paragraphs to each other.EXAMPLE:EXAMPLE: Today people are aware that modern ceramic materials offer unrivalled properties for many of our most

demanding industrial applications. So is this brochure necessary; isn’t the ceramic market already over-bombarded with technical literature; why should Matroc add more?

Because someone mumbles, “our competitors do it.” But why should we imitate our competitors when Matroc probably supplies a greater range of ceramic materials for more applications than any other manufacturer.

And yet there are some customers who in their search for a suitable material prefer to study complex tables of technical data. It is for such customers that we have listed the properties of Matroc’s more widely used materials. Frankly however without cost guides which depend so much on shape such an exercise is of limited values. (English ST)(English ST)

Today experts are fully agreed that modern ceramic materials offer unsurpassed qualities for many of the most demanding industrial applications. So we asked ourselves whether this catalogue would still find a corresponding resonance, given the flood of technical literature which is currently circulating in the ceramics market. Should Matroc also add its contribution to this?

On the one hand, some would say: “that is quite usual for business” but on the other hand will we reach our customers just by eagerly imitating others? Finally, Matroc offers a greater range of ceramics for more applications than most other firms.

Now, there are customers who in their search for suitable materials prefer to study copious technical data sheets. For such customers we have listed the properties of the most popular Matroc materials. (back-(back-translated from German)translated from German)

TEXTUAL EQUIVALENCETEXTUAL EQUIVALENCE Conjunction (continued)Conjunction (continued) Metodele mele, însă, m-au îndemnat foarte de timpuriu, de pe când

eram tânăr ca dumnevoastră, să caut argumentul acestor paleologii, datini şi eresuri ale populaţiilor din Carpaţi. Am ajuns la nişte concluzii fireşti, cărora unora li s-ar părea totuşi surprinzătoare. Am ajuns să preţuiesc şi să iubesc aceste alcătuiri vii ale religiei vechi a pământului acestuia, găsind în ele gândirea strămoşilor mei şi însuşi sufletul lor. (Romanian ST- from (Romanian ST- from Creanga de aur Creanga de aur by Mihail by Mihail Sadoveanu)Sadoveanu)

But my own methods induced me- when I was not older than yourselves- to seek to interpret the palaeology, the customs and superstitions of the Carpathian populations, and I reached conclusions which are only natural, but which, nevertheless, some people might find surprising. And I have come to prize and to love the living structures of the ancient religion of this land, for I found in them the frame of thought of my ancestors, their very soul. (English TT- (English TT- The Golden BoughThe Golden Bough, by Mihail Sadoveanu, translated by , by Mihail Sadoveanu, translated by Eugenia Farca, Bucharest: Minerva Publishing House, 1981: 36-37)Eugenia Farca, Bucharest: Minerva Publishing House, 1981: 36-37)

TEXTUAL EQUIVALENCETEXTUAL EQUIVALENCEd. Lexical cohesiond. Lexical cohesion it refers to the role played by the selection of vocabulary in

organizing relations within a text.eg. eg. if we encounter the word socialismsocialism in a text, we do not search

for its referent, but we do recognize the lexical chain which links socialismsocialism with communistcommunist and EastEast, as opposed to WestWest and even decadentdecadent:

Ready supplies of fun throughout the thirties and forties were the decadent pseudo-sovereign regimes of the West. More recently people have turned East for their targets, reflecting the new contact with communist countries and also the growing disenchantment with socialism.

Types of lexical cohesion: reiterationreiteration= the repetition of a lexical item (by means of a

synonym or near-synonym, a superordinate or a general term) collocationcollocation= any instance which involves a pair of lexical items

that are associated with each other in the language in some way.

PRAGMATIC EQUIVALENCEPRAGMATIC EQUIVALENCE the way utterances are used in communicative

situations and the way we interpret them in context

language in uselanguage in use

Focus:Focus: coherence; implicature.

PRAGMATIC EQUIVALENCEPRAGMATIC EQUIVALENCE1. Coherence 1. Coherence Coherence= a network of conceptual relations which underlie the surface text. difficultydifficulty: a network of relations which is valid and makes sense in one society may not be valid in another.

It’s a matter of view of the world. the coherence of a text is a result of the interaction between knowledge presented in the text and the the coherence of a text is a result of the interaction between knowledge presented in the text and the

reader’s own knowledge and experience of the worldreader’s own knowledge and experience of the world, the latter being influenced by a variety of factors such as age, sex, race, nationality, education, occupation, and political and religious affiliations.

EXAMPLE:EXAMPLE: The purchasing power of the proposed fifteen hundred shop outlets would have meant excellent price

reductions to customers across Britain and the United States. The flagship, Harrods, had never been integrated with the rest and would damage to retain its particular character and choice.

It’s often written, as a handy journalist’s tag, that I suffered from an obsession to control the splendid Knightsbridge store. It would be a very static and limited aim, I think. For Lonrho’s purpose, it could have been any well-spread stores group. It was chance, and also roulette, that brought Hugh Fraser, the seller, and Lonrho, the buyer, together in 1977. (English ST- A Hero from Zero, where Tiny Rowland gives an English ST- A Hero from Zero, where Tiny Rowland gives an account of how he lost control of the House of Fraser)account of how he lost control of the House of Fraser)

There is no explicit cohesive relation which tells us that Harrods and the splendid Knightsbridge store refer to the same thing, except perhaps the use of the definite article in the splendid Knightsbridge store and the synonymy between shop outlets and store (but even that depends for its interpretation on recognizing that Harrods is a shop or store of some sort).

The combined purchasing power of 1500 stores meant excellent reductions in prices for buyers in all parts of Britain and the United States. As for the main store Harrods, it was not integrated with the rest of the stores and was kept separate from the rest in order to retain its distinctive character and the areas of choice available in it.

It has often been written about me in journalistic circles that I suffer from a sick obsession which pushes me to try and control the splendid Knightsbridge store... (back translation from Arabic)(back translation from Arabic)

-explicit link made by the Arabic translation through repetition of “store”.

PRAGMATIC EQUIVALENCEPRAGMATIC EQUIVALENCE2. Implicature2. Implicature ImplicatureImplicature raises the question of how it is that we come to to

understand more than it is actually saidunderstand more than it is actually said. EXAMPLE:EXAMPLE: The scene takes place on a public street in contemporary

U.S. “What’s your name, boy?” the policeman asked. “Dr. Poussaint, I’m a physician.” “What’s your first name, boy?” “Alvin.” (used by Blum-Kulka ,1981)(used by Blum-Kulka ,1981)

Anyone familiar with address rules in American English will know that Dr. Poussaint is black. They will also realize that by refusing to accept the normal address of occupational title plus surname and by using the term boy and requesting Dr. Pouissant’s first name, the policeman means to insult the doctor.

CONCLUSIONSCONCLUSIONS

Translation must take into consideration:

the linguistic context; the semantic context; the pragmatic context.

Translation also involves cultural translation, as cultures shape concepts and texts differently.

REFERENCES:REFERENCES:

Baker, Mona. 2006. In Other Words. A Coursebook on Translation. London: Routledge Group.