Improving Performance

What are theplanning considerations

for improving performance?

Initial planning considerations• To improve an athlete’s performance —whether at

an elite or recreational level—a coach always needs to formulate a detailed plan.

• This involves conducting a thorough needs analysis and adhering to some basic principles.

• The needs analysis will evaluate where your current team or athlete stands in relation to where they want to be, and is similar to a SWOT analysis.

• The basic principles of planning must also be considered when a coach formulates a training plan.

• Performance and fitness needs– The first task in the planning stage is to

evaluate the previous season’s performance. – This may be on a team or an individual basis,

depending on the sport. – In conjunction with this, the needs analysis will

assess the requirements of the sport and the current ability of each athlete to meet these requirements.

– This evaluation will form the foundation for planning for the upcoming year.

• Next, an overall SWOT analysis is recommended. This will identify the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats that will assist in planning for player development and team performance.

• Once these are identified, the coach considers how to capitalise on the strengths, improve or minimise the weaknesses, benefit from any opportunities and eradicate any threats.

• Schedule of events/competitions– Previously, competition schedules for elite sports

were very controlled, so athletes knew when and where they were competing in advance.

– The competition phase was fixed, with variability only in the duration of the preseason (preparation) and off-season (transition).

– This has now changed for many sports at the elite level.

– At lower levels of competition, however, such as in local the length of the competition will be determined well in advance, coach will decide on the duration of the preseason period.

• Climate and season– When planning for performance,

consideration must be given to the season or climate in which athletes will be competing.

– Performing under hot and humid conditions will require different strategies to performing under cold, wet and windy conditions.

– Two aspects to consider will be whether the environmental conditions will be relatively consistent for the duration of the competition— whether it is for several days or several months—and whether the conditions athletes will train in are similar to those they will compete in.

• Planning a training year (periodisation)– Periodisation is the process of dividing an annual

plan into smaller phases of training. – This enables the coach to work with manageable

segments of an annual plan, and helps with programming for optimal performance during the main competition period/s during the calendar year.

– Essentially this allows a coach to systematically program varied training loads and scheduled recovery at different times of the year to optimise training adaptations. The nature of the sport and the training age of the athlete will determine how many ‘peaks’ are included within the annual plan.

– Periodisation is simply planning. It gives direction and purpose to training, and assists coaches to review what worked and what didn’t work (rather than solely relying on a win/loss record).

– It is the master plan from which weekly and daily plans will be devised. In this way it can be considered a ‘live’ document that will be modified and adapted throughout the training year.

– It can also be applied to individual athletes, taking into account their particular requirements and aiming to improve their fitness, skills, and tactical ability.

• Phases of competition– An annual plan can be divided into three phases: a

preseason (preparation), in-season (competition) and off-season (transition) phase.

– Preparatory (or preseason) phase• The preparatory phase initiates the training plan and

constitutes the period of training in which most of the physical preparation of the athlete is realised.

• The aim of this phase of training is to build on an athlete’s fitness foundation while continuing to develop and perfect their skills.

• The duration of this phase varies between team and individual sports and the training age of the athlete. Generally, team sports will have a shorter preparatory phase.

– The preparatory phase is sometimes further divided into two subphases: general and specific.

• General preparatory phase: This pays special attention to an athlete’s weaknesses, further building on a strong fitness base through high-volume training. Skills are not neglected, with a focus on technique and game strategy. For beginners, this phase can be two to three times as long as the specific preparatory phase.

• Specific preparatory phase: This is a transition to more specific training related to the sport, in terms of energy systems, skill components and patterns of play. Volume is initially high and then gives way to increased intensity during this phase of training. Training is again tailored to meet the individual needs of the athletes.

– Competitive (or in-season) phase• For team sports, this phase is divided into

precompetition, where trial games take place, and the competition proper. The aim is to improve performance with each game or race, with an ‘unload’ or taper period before any play-offs or major races/events. This is achieved with further increases in training intensity and a decrease in training volume.

• The early or precompetition phase is where an athlete refines their technique, focuses on the technical and tactical aspects of play, and adjusts to the competitive environment.

• The competition phase can vary from several weeks for an individual sport, to six months for some team sports.

• This requires the coach to manipulate the volume and intensity of training in this phase for team sport athletes to either maintain or increase fitness as they strive for maximum performance.

– Transition (or off-season) phase• The transition phase occurs at the end of the

season or competitive phase.• During this phase, athletes mentally and physically

recuperate from the intense training and competition through a program of ‘active rest’—low-volume activity of low to moderate intensity, rather than total inactivity.

• This often includes athletes playing other sports or participating in recreational activities. For some athletes, this will also be a time to have surgery and start rehabilitation.

• Subphases (macro and microcycles)– The macrocycle is termed the training phase and is

broken up into the preparation phase, competition phase and transition.

– The mesocycle represents a major phase of training within a macrocycle or training phase. Each mesocycle should aim to elicit significant improvement in a particular aspect of fitness. Often a mesocycle ends with an unload week, in which the volume of training is lower so the body can fully recover. The length of a mesocycle may vary from 3 to 8 weeks, with 4 weeks being the most common duration

– Microcycle is the term used to refer to the weekly training plan, and usually includes details on each individual training session.

• Sport specific subphases– Strength

• The row for strength indicates how this fitness componentcan be periodised throughout the season.

• The preparation phase involves four 4-week cycles where the main goal is adaptation, followed by hypertrophy, maximal strength, and then conversion to power and functional strength.

• Maximal strength cannot be continually improved in-season so there will be cycles of maintenance and maximal strength.

• This progression would be similar for other team sports.

• Endurance– For a sport like tennis, endurance will be

developed by having cycles where the emphasis moves from aerobic capacity to aerobic power.

– Building on this base, the emphasis changes to anaerobic capacity and finally anaerobic power.

– In-season there is a shift to maintenance and topping up anaerobic power as the finals approach.

• Speed and agility– Both fitness components start the

preparation phase with an emphasis on technique or general speed, and progress to more game-specific speed and agility.

• Skills– Skill development is also periodised

throughout the season. Initially emphasis is on general skill development for the sport, but then progresses to the specific skill development of each athlete.

– As fitness also improves, the next cycle focuses on skills under fatigue, then ‘skills under pressure’.

– During the competitive season, a substantial amount of time is spent on maintaining or fine tuning skill development.

• Intensity and volume– As the volume of training decreases the

intensity of training increases (e.g. week 19).

– Mesocycle 11 illustrates training of a high intensity with an emphasis on technique, but the volume is low as the athlete peaks for the finals.

• Peaking– Athletes cannot maintain peak fitness for long periods of

time. – Consequently, athletes in individual sports plan to peak

for a particular race or tournament by working hard on their skills and fitness, then following this up with a taper.

– These athletes can build on the foundation they have developed in the earlier phase of training without having to be concerned about earlier competition results.

– This is not the case with team sport athletes, however, who have to compete on a weekly basis for a number of months.

– If performance is not maintained at a particular level, the team will have a decreased chance of making the play-offs.

– This makes it more difficult to plan for peak performance in a team sport.

• Tapering– A taper period is scheduled just prior to an

important event or competition so the athlete will compete in an optimum or ‘unfatigued’ state.

– The aim of this training phase is to give the body time to recover (psychological and physiological stress) and replenish glycogen stores by decreasing training without causing a detraining effect.

– When designing a taper for an athlete, a coach needs to consider duration, volume, intensity and frequency of training.

– Research recommends decreasing the training volume by 40–60 per cent during a taper period.

– This is best achieved by decreasing the duration and workload in a training session rather than altering the training frequency.

– The only exception to this is elite athletes who train twice a day—a coach in this case may decide to reduce the number of sessions per week by a maximum of 20 per cent.

– Greater reductions in training frequency result in a loss of ‘feel’ in competitive athletes.

– Training intensity should be maintained, as research has indicated lower intensities may have a detrimental effect on performance.

– Although the optimal length of a taper is still debatable, tapers of 8–14 days have been successful.

– A performance improvement of 3 per cent generally results from an effective taper.

– This is due to the improved psychological, hormonal and metabolic status of the athletes.

• Another consideration that will assist with a successful taper is for the athlete to maintain a high-carbohydrate diet while still monitoring caloric intake.

• If an athlete trains for less than 5 hours per week, a coach does not need to prescribe a true taper, as 1–2 days off prior to the competition will be sufficient for the athlete to be fully recovered.

• If the athlete trains 6–10 hours per week, a 7-day taper may be sufficient, while athletes who train for more than 10 hours per week may need a tape of 14–21 days to enhance performance.

Tapering summary

• Duration: 7–21 days, depending on how often the athlete trains

• Volume: reduced by 40–60 per cent• Intensity: maintained• Frequency: reduced by 0–20 per cent

Elements to be considered when designing a training session

• Planning is imperative for effective training sessions.

• The goals of a training session will influence both the sequencing and the actual elements to be practised.

• Planning a session in advance will assist coaches to develop and maintain a positive learning environment, and will allow them to be more relaxed and confident.

• Health and safety considerations– Every athlete wants to participate in an enjoyable and

safe training environment. – The following guidelines will ensure this occurs.

• Complete a risk management plan that identifies any potential risks (program, participants, environment, etc.) and strategies that will minimise the risk.

• Allocate responsibility for each strategy.• Routinely check equipment for faults.• Assess the training environment for anything that may cause

injury, such as broken glass on an inside field, or water on an indoor court.

• Know your athletes and their capabilities—plan appropriate activities.

• Apply the principle of gradual progression—increase volume or intensity or complexity (not all three at once!).

• Ensure athletes use the correct protective equipment.• If an athlete arrives late to training, insist they warm up first before

joining the rest of the group in the scheduled activity.

• Schedule appropriate rest and drink breaks.• Encourage athletes to be honest with you—if they

don’t feel right they should let you know.• When planning activities that involve throwing or

kicking, take care with spacing between athletes. Ideally, no athlete would have their back to the flight of another pair’s ball.

• Providing an overview of session to athletes (goal specific)– A good way to start a training session is to give a

quick overview of the two or three objectives for the upcoming session.

– You may relate these to the previous game or training session or to the overall season plan, or explain why you have planned certain components for the session.

– This gives focus to the session, and ensures everyone is clear on what is expected of them.

– Some coaches prefer to write an outline of the main components of the training session on a whiteboard or flipchart for their athletes to see.

– They can also refer to this at any point during the practice.

– They may also include the approximate time to be spent on each activity, and outline how athletes will be grouped for various activities (team sports).

– Another strategy that coaches can use after outlining a training session is to ask their athletes for two or three things they are going to focus on during the practice, or what individual goal they are going to set themselves within the practice session.

• Warm up and cool down– The warm-up prepares the body both physically and

mentally for the training session. – This may involve a combination of jogging, dynamic

flexibility, skills and games. – A cool-down or active recovery is a good way to

conclude a training session. – After doing some gentle exercise, such as jogging,

the athletes stretch and have their recovery food. – This is a good opportunity for the coach to review the

training session and give some quick feedback to the athletes.

– It is important to always finish on a positive note.

• Skill instruction and practice– New skills should be taught immediately after

the warm-up. – This is because fatigue makes learning new

skills more difficult. – For team sports, this may involve practising

the skill unopposed, then introducing passive defence and eventually progressing to fully opposed practices.

– Once athletes have learned the skill, they must be given opportunities to practise it under competition conditions.

– For a team sport, these progressions may involve:

1. executing the skill when fatigued (e.g. in basketball: participating in a 3-minute conditioning drill and going straight to shooting baskets for 60 seconds)

2. small-sided games with modified rules

3. full practice games.

• Instructional methods– A coach’s instructional and practice methods

will vary depending on the level of the athlete, and the goals for the training session.

– Coaches also need to consider how they will teach a skill depending on whether athletes are at the cognitive, associative or autonomous stage, and should ask the following questions:

• How will the approach or strategy vary?• Will I use the part or whole practice method?• Will skills be practised in block, serial or random

order?

– It is important that instructions or explanations are relevant, clear and concise.

– This will involve good eye contact, questioning, and clarifying that athletes understand.

– When coaches pose questions, athletes generate the solutions and take ownership, remember, understand and apply the content more effectively than if they are told what to do, and when and how to do it.

– A coach’s instructional strategies may vary within a practice session or the season, and can move from coach-centred to athlete-centred approaches.

– For example, the direct method involves the coach setting the goals, and providing the information and direction of the coaching session, while in the problem-solving method the coach establishes the problem, encourages the athletes to find solutions and recognises that there may be more than one solution.

• Conditioning– If speed, power or acceleration are important components of

the training session, these must be scheduled early—either immediately after the warm-up or after learning any new skills.

– These fitness components must be conducted at a high inten– sity and before the athlete becomes fatigued. Sequencing for

the other fitness components—strength, muscular endurance and aerobic fitness— would follow later in the season.

– Circuits or intervals are often completed towards the end of the training session.

– However, for team sports, incorporating ‘conditioned games’ will allow the athletes to practise their skills in a competitive environment while also improving their fitness.

– Coaches need to ensure that the intensity of the conditioning training is appropriate for the energy system they wish to train.

• Evaluation– Evaluating a training session is very important,

and should have two components. – The first is evaluating the session in relation to

the athletes’ learning and performance. • This is the time for a coach to receive feedback from

athletes on how they felt they performed. • A coach can also provide feedback to athletes,

indicating whether the objectives of the training session were achieved, the aspects of training that went well, and areas that require more work next session.

• For team sports, coaches need to make mental or written notes about these aspects for both individuals and the group, as this will assist in planning the next session.

– Second, a coach needs to evaluate the training session in relation to their own performance:

• Were instructions and explanations clear?• Did the athletes understand?• Was feedback provided to all athletes?• Did the planning maximise participation?• Was there a smooth transition between activities?• Did the athletes enjoy the session?• What worked well?• What might be changed to improve the session?

• The evaluation process only needs to take 10 minutes: 5 minutes with the athletes as they are cooling down and stretching, and a further 5 minutes at the end of the session after everything is packed up.

• Reflecting on the session while it is fresh in the mind, and making a few notes, will make planning the next session quicker and more effective.

• Planning to avoid overtraining– Overtraining is the result of excessive training loads

being placed on an athlete without sufficient recovery.

– This results in a drop in performance and the inability to train fully.

– There is a fine line between appropriate training loads and overtraining.

– Recognising symptoms of overtraining can assist both the coach and athlete in detecting early warning signs.

– However, as athletes are individuals, it is important to remember that they will respond differently to the same training regime.

– The first stage of overtraining is referred to as ‘overreaching’.

– This is short term, with recovery only taking several days.

– Overreaching is often deliberately planned by the coach but must be monitored so it doesn’t progress into overtraining, which may have a recovery time of up to six months.

– During the overreach period, the athlete will experience temporary underperformance, followed by a period of super compensation, where the athlete’s performance increases following a recovery and regeneration period (up to two weeks).

• Amount and intensity of training– It is important that physical and psychological recovery

are scheduled into the training week like any other training component (speed, strength, skills and so on).

– Inadequate recovery between sessions will lead to overtraining as much as the sessions themselves.

– Research indicates that under-recovery can result from:• high frequency of competition• monotonous training• three hours or more of training per day• a 30 per cent increase in training load each week• more than two hard training days in succession• no unload week after three weeks• no rest days.

Suggested recovery times, depending on the trainingload placed on an athlete.

• Physiological considerations– Overtraining can occur due to a number of factors, such

as sudden increases in training intensity and volume, poor diet, environmental conditions and psychological factors.

– Possible physiological symptoms of overtraining include:• excessive sweating• elevated resting heart rate• menstrual irregularities in female athletes• fatiguing earlier in training• higher heart rate at submaximal training loads• more frequent colds and sore throats• delayed recovery from training• weight loss• loss of appetite• stomach upsets and nausea• headaches/aches and pains• disturbed sleeping• decreased performance.

• Psychological considerations– Training sessions that are fun and conducted in a

happy environment are perceived by athletes to be less stressful and more enjoyable.

– Other potential stressors for athletes include lifestyle imbalance, pressure to perform, feeling isolated, fear of failure and relationship issues (family, friends).

– Highly ambitious and competitive athletes often have difficulty understanding the full implications of overtraining—they often want to get the edge on their competitors by training longer, harder or more frequently.

– Psychological symptoms of overtraining include:• lack of concentration • loss of competitive drive• lower self-esteem • increased tension and anxiety• distractedness • restlessness• feelings of depression • irritability• boredom lack of enthusiasm• lethargy • staleness.• loss of confidence