Key Points in US HistoryEarly Colonies1606, Virginia Company, Chartered by James I, in search of gold and passage to Asia, create colony of Jamestown.1620, Mayflower lands off coast of New England. Pilgrims draw up the Mayflower Compact a simple agreement to submit to will of majority. This is a step towards self-government in New England.1629, Puritans secure charter for Massachusetts Bay Colony. John Winthrop declares Mass to be A City Upon a Hill a beacon to humanity as a holy society.1639, Fundamental Orders of Connecticut modern constitution, with democracy controlled by substantial citizens.1662, Halfway Covenant eased requirements for church membership by allowing the baptism of baptized, but unconverted, Puritans. Church membership was beginning to dwindle and this allowed more to participate.1676, Nathaniel Bacon led a group of the landless class to retaliate against the Property Class (who monopolized the fur trade with the N.A.) and burned Jamestown in Bacons Rebellion. This brought to surface the fear over the landless against the planter class. The planters now turned to slaves, as they would be less troublesome.1681, William Penn creates Philadelphia (brotherly love) Colony with Quaker ideals representative assembly elected by landowners, no tax supported church, freedom of worship to all (Catholics and Jews couldnt hold office).1692, Salem Witch Trials emerge due to prejudices and superstition targeting property owning women. Shows the increase in social divisions and fear of religious traditionalists.1730s, the Great Awakening brought a resurgence of religious fervor. The old lights versus new lights showcased the divide between conservative religious skeptics and the newly revitalized evangelists, respectively. This broke down denominational lines and sectional differences allowing a growing sense of American unity. Religion now became more emotional than before and women began to increase in churches.1734, Zenger Case in New York took place. Zenger printed truth about a royal official and was charged with seditious libel, but the jury returned a verdict of not guilty. This establishes a precedent for freedom of the press.1750s, The French-Indian War (Seven Years War) was fought for territorial gains in North America by colonists who cared nothing for the European wars. It displayed a complete lack of colonial unity and resulted in the British creation of the Albany Congress. This also marks the end of Frances imperialism in North America.1754, The British create the Albany Congress to increase colonial unity. The congress thought up a plan for colonial home rule, but the colonists rejected it thinking it wouldnt give enough freedom, and the British rejected it due to too much freedom.Road to Revolution1763, England ends its period of Salutary Neglect and asserts its authority over the colonies with The Proclamation of 1763. This forbade colonists from moving west of the Appalachians. This pissed of the colonists because they had fought to remove the French from the west and had hoped that they would be able to acquire that land.1763, Harsher enforcement of Navigation Acts1764, The Sugar Act placed a tax on molasses first act directed at raising revenue. Brought about a rise of smuggling and was eventually repealed due to American agitation.1765, The Stamp Act placed a tax stamp on all printed materials was seen by the colonists as censorship. This act showed the colonists willingness to boycott the British. This act also brought about Admiralty Courts, which tried the colonists in military courts with no juries and the burden of proof on the accused. This was seen as a direct violation of the English Common Law, which entitles English citizens to trial-by-jury. Brought about the saying No taxation without representation.1765, Stamp Act Congress was created, with nine colonies sending delegates, to draw up a list of grievances against the king and to ask for a repeal of the Stamp Acts. This is the first time the colonies come together, bonded by mutual dislike, and increased colonial unity.1766, The Declaratory Act passed by Brittan giving the right to Parliament to bind colonies in all cases. Essentially, this act made anything said by the British law. It wasnt very effective.1767, The Townshend Acts are passed allowing for indirect taxation and creating a light import duty. This tax was meant to pay the royal officials. This act put the power in the hands of the British instead of the colonists.1767, Parliament suspends the New York Colonial Legislature for failure to comply with the Quartering Act of 1765. This brought about an increase in calls for non-importation. This took away one of the foundations of American Democracy. 1770, 5 colonists are killed in The Boston Massacre after inciting the British with snowballs filled with rocks. Paul Revere engraves the event making it famous. This is a propaganda nightmare for the British, uniting the colonists over the martyrs.1773, American Colonists board the British East India Company ships in throw the tea overboard in the Boston Tea Party. This was caused by the colonists refusing the tax on the tea (no taxation without representation). Some felt that this event was a bit too radical, as they were afraid it would lead to Mobocracy. 1774, the British pass the Intolerable Acts, known as the Coercive Acts in Britain. These acts included the Quebec Act, which extended religious tolerance and rights to the French Catholics, the Boston Port Act, which closed off the port of Boston until damages were paid. The British also put into effect a new Quartering Act, which allowed British soldiers to lodge in the colonists homes for free.1774, the First Continental Congress meets in Philadelphia (12/13 Colonies). The goal of the congress was to draw up a declaration of grievances and rights in order to appeal to the King. The colonists also called for a complete boycott of British goods. The delegates were not calling for independence but for a repeal of legislation.1775, the British send troops to Lexington and Concord, with the shot heard round the world and the start of the revolution. Emerson coined this phrase in the 1830s.1775, the Second Continental Congress meets as a last attempt to reconcile with the British. They drafted up the Olive Branch Petition to send to George III for a happy and permanent reconciliation. The king refused to receive the document and destroyed the last chance of peace. The congress authorized the printing of paper money for war supplies, a foreign committee, and a continental army.1776, Thomas Paine prints Common Sense, a pamphlet calling for independence from Britain. This pamphlet attacked King George III as a royal brute, saying that hereditary succession have laid the world in blood and ashes. He expressed the need for a government founded on republican virtues. Common Sense helped many colonists to overcome the loyalty they still felt to the crown. It brought a more unified call for independence.1776, the Second Continental Congress begins to draft a document calling for the colonies to become independent states, with diplomatic relations with other countries and a confederate form of government. On July 4th, the Declaration of Independence by Thomas Jefferson was signed. This document was written based on Enlightenment principles, saying that men had certain unalienable rights, including Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness, and that if a government becomes destructive of these ends, the people can revolt against it. The Declaration was influenced by John Locke and other enlightened Philosophers. 1777, the turning point of the Revolutionary War, General Burgoyne surrenders to the colonists in the Battle of Saratoga. This is important because is shows the world that the colonists have a fighting chance, and it convinces the French to help fund the war against Britain. Its important to note that the French didnt help the colonists out of morality but to weaken their longtime foes, the British.1777, the Continental Congress sends out a proposal to all of the individual states called the Articles of Confederation. The articles called for a unicameral legislature, where each state receives one vote, requiring a unanimous decision for an amendment. This government could conduct foreign relations, mediate interstate disputes, and borrow money. Under the Articles of Confederation, the government was unable to levy taxes, regulate commerce, or raise an army. It also had no central executive power and was considered a very weak form of government. Many states were afraid that the power might be abused like George III had done, so this was the result.1783, the Revolutionary War ends with the Treaty of Paris. The Treaty extended the Americans land west to the Mississippi, while agreeing not to persecute the British Loyalists, and removing Britain from the west.1785, The Land Ordinance of 1785 and the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 establish a method for the creation of new states out west. It excluded slavery north of the Ohio River, and it created land grant colleges.1786, Massachusettss farmers unite over the issue of taxation and their inability to pay off debts in hard currency. Shayss Rebellion sought to end farm foreclosures, imprisonment for debt, high taxation, and wanted more money in circulation. While the Rebellion did not attempt to overthrow the government, it proved how weak the government under the Articles of Confederation was and that the United States needed a stronger central government.1787, the Constitutional Convention is called to create a stronger central government. The Virginia Plan proposed a bicameral legislation based on proportional representation, with a three-branch government with checks and balances. The New Jersey Plan proposed a unicameral legislation with each state receiving one vote. Smaller states favored the latter because they wanted an equal say while larger states supported the former because they would have more representation. The Great Compromise is adopted which called for a bicameral legislature, with one house based on representation (House of Representatives) and another house with an equal vote (the Senate). Due to weariness of a strong central power, the Electoral College was created as a body that would elect the president together.1787, the Three Fifths Compromise is enacted giving slave states three votes for every five slaves. 1787, the Constitution of the United States is ratified with some discontent among the representatives. Federalists supported a strong central government, governing over both state and nation. Anti-Federalists were opposed to a strong central government and were pro-states rights.1790, Alexander Hamilton releases his reports on Public Credit and Manufacture that are the basis of Hamiltons Financial Plan. In his plans, Hamilton calls for the Assumption of state debt, a protective Tariff to raise revenue, and a National Bank. Hamilton favored a loose interpretation of the constitution and utilized the Necessary and Proper Clause of the constitution for justification. This was met with opposition from Thomas Jefferson who favored a strict interpretation of the constitution and was pro-states rights. The two opposing views became the foundations for political parties, as we know it: Federalists under Hamilton and the Democratic-Republicans under Jefferson.1791, James Madison drafts and finally amends the Constitution with ten new amendments known as the Bill of Rights. The B.O.R. included five basic freedoms, speedy and public trial, other rights exist even if not mentioned, reserved states rights. The B.O.R. was important as it appeased all of the Anti-Federalists who opposed the constitution by protecting individual rights.1791, Hamilton places a tax on whiskey to raise revenue to pay off the National debt, but grain farmers revolt due to a loss of profits. The Whiskey Rebellion is important because it is the first time that the Federal Government showed its power and raised an army to put down the rebellion1794, The Jay Treaty is signed calling for the removal of British forts from the west, payments for damages to American ships, and repayment of pre-revolution debt. This treaty scared the Spanish about the Americans having an alliance with Britain. The Spanish then rushed to create a treaty with the Americans for protection.1796, Washington delivers his Farewell Address in which he states that for the nation to continue to thrive, political parties and foreign entanglements should be avoided. This is ironic because Hamilton and Jefferson were the catalyst for political factions and were selected for Washingtons Cabinet. 1798, in an attempt to negotiate with the French about their seizing of ships, President Adams sent diplomats to France who were told that they had to pay before talks could begin. This was seen as a horrible offence and was called the XYZ Affair, named after the three delegates who asked for the bribe. In response, Adams ordered a buildup of the American Navy.1798, Adams passes the Alien Act and the Sedition Act giving the government the power to deport and immigrant who might be dangerous to the peace and safety and could prohibit any attacks on the government that were seen as malicious (ess. Censorship). These acts were seen as a gross abuse of the federal power and ended up destroying Adamss chances for reelection. The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions surfaced proclaiming that states had the rights not to enforce laws that were unconstitutional.1800s, the Second Great Awakening brought about another resurgence in emotional religiosity, reaching its zenith in 1830. The 2nd Great Awakening is the basis of most reforms including education reform with Horace Mann, Temperance with Anti-Saloon Leagues, in addition to prison reform, slavery, womens rights, labor, etc.1803, Chief Justice John Marshall sets the precedent for judicial review in the Marbury v. Madison decision. This meant that the Supreme Court had the right to judge constitutionality of laws. The Judiciary was now an equal branch in every way with the others. Marshall upheld the supremacy of national courts over state courts1803, President Jefferson purchases the Louisiana Territory for $15 Million, effectively doubling the size of the nation. This seems a conflict of Jeffersons beliefs, as the constitution does not explicitly state that the president is able to make such a purchase. This spawned the Lewis and Clark Expedition.1807, Due to the impressments of American citizens into the British Navy and the harassment by both the British and the French, Jefferson declared the Embargo of 1807, which stated that American ships would not enter the seas until they stopped the harassment of American ships. This embargo was disastrous to the economy, as exports dropped dramatically, and almost every merchant, plantation owner, and farmer affected. This was one of Jeffersons lowest points.1809, Congress passed the Non-Intercourse Act, which opened trade with all countries except France and Britain.1812, America goes to war with Britain in the War of 1812. Dubbed the second war for American independence, it showed how ill prepared for war the new nation was. The Federalists were anti-war, as they wanted to maintain economic ties with Britain. The Dem.-Reps. (Warhawks) were pro-war, as they wanted to sever all ties with Britain. The war led to the end of the Federalists, more nationalist feelings, and promoted Andrew Jacksons career (Battle of New Orleans). The war also showed other nations that America was able to defend itself and that it was really independent. 1816, The Hartford Resolutions were a list of grievances that called for voting before an Embargo, abolition of the 3/5th Clause, and no more dynastic presidencies. These requests were not granted. This marked the death of the Federalist Party and the beginning of The Era of Good Feelings with James Monroes presidency.1820, the Missouri Compromise settles the first of many issues over slavery. Missouri wanted to enter the union as a slave state, so Maine entered as a free state, thus maintaining the balance in the Senate. The compromise closed off any land above the 3630 line to slavery. The North feared that MO would set a precedent for future slave states. This compromise engineered by Henry Clay kept relative peace between North and South for about 30 years.1823, President Monroe issues the Monroe Doctrine which sends a stern warning to European powers: the western hemisphere was closed to colonization and that the United States would not interfere in European affairs. The doctrine reinforced Washingtons Farwell Address and offended the European powers. It was more of a symbolic gesture, but it was pretty well respected.1824, the election of 1824 placed John Quincy Adams as the President, but Andrew Jackson won the popular vote. Many saw this as a Corrupt Bargain, and it became a campaigning slogan for Jackson in 1828.1828, Andrew Jackson won the presidency and ushered in the Age of Jackson and the rise of the Common Man. He campaigned openly with frenzied vitality and boisterous democracy. Jackson was a believer in the Spoils System, which awarded political positions to party supporters. This marked the shift of the political center to west of the Appalachians. 1828, Jacksonites in Congress increased the general tariff significantly, hoping that it would be defeated, but it passed, and Jackson inherited the problem. Many southerners believed that this Tariff of Abominations discriminated at them because the north was experiencing an economic boom and the west was prospering. These southerners will eventually join the Whig Party.1828, John C. Calhoun publishes The South Carolina Exposition, which denounced the Tariff of Abominations and resurfaced the ideas of the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions that a state could declare a tariff null and void within its borders. 1830, Congress passes the Indian Removal Act, considered voluntary, so whites could expand. Chief Justice Marshall in the Worcester v. Georgia case said that whites should stay off Indian Land. Jackson responded by saying he has made his decision, now let him enforce it. In the Trail of Tears, forced over 100,000 Indians west of the Mississippi, though many died dues to sickness and exhaustion.1832, Congress lowered the Tariff (Tariff of 1832), but Calhoun and the Nullies werent appeased. They threatened disunion, but Andrew Jackson gathered the federal army and put down the insurrectionists. This is another display of the power of the federal government, though Jacksons reaction to the Nullification Crisis conflicted his stated belief in states rights. This event alienates many of the southerners.1832, Daniel Webster and Henry Clay attempt to renew the national banks charter, but Jackson vetoed the bill. In the Bank War, Jackson removed federal deposits and placed them in several smaller state banks called pet banks. Wildcat Banks in the west also began issuing their own inflationary currency. Jackson also issued the Specie Circular, which required the use of metallic money. 1833, the Whig Party is founded in opposition to Andrew Jackson. The platform was based on Henry Clays American System, which was comprised of Internal Improvements, a Protective Tariff, and a National Bank (ess. Hamiltons Plan). The Whigs were unique because party members included Clays System Supporters, Southern States Righters (alienated due to Null. Crisis), Northern Manufacturers, and evangelicals/anti-masons. They were all united by a mutual hate of Jackson.1836, Americans living in Texas declared themselves independent from Mexico, creating the Lone Star Republic. Santa Anna, the Mexican president led a siege at the Alamo. The Alamo became a rallying cry against the Mexicans remember the Alamo. America was reluctant to bring Texas into the union, as it would incite more heated debate about the future of slavery.1837, President Van Buren inherits an economic depression caused by Jacksons policies. In addition to rampant Speculation, those policies caused the Panic of 1837, with the collapse of banks and loss of jobs. The federal reserves were essentially lost, and it was one of the worst depressions ever. The Whig Party offered a solution that was essentially Henry Clays Am. System.1839, In the Stono Rebellion, slaves revolted in South Carolina and killed white citizens, marching through the countryside with stolen guns. This rebellion was crushed and resulted in increased slave suppression and harsh laws i.e. the Negro Act of 1740, which made it illegal for a slave to read English and enabled a slave owner to kill his slaves. This was the largest slave rebellion of the 1700s.1842, the Commonwealth v. Hunt decision ruled that labor unions were legal, provided their methods were peaceful.1845, The Know-Nothing Party is formed in opposition to the increased immigration of the Irish, the Germans, and the Catholics. Nativists believed that these immigrants would take American jobs and called for decreased immigration and deportations. They also join the Republican Party of 1864, and are also known as the Liberty Party.1846, President James K. Polk and Congress declare war on Mexico over a boundary dispute over the Nueces River and the refusal to hear Americas offer for California. The Mexican-American War was fought for the idea of Manifest Destiny, the idea that America should expand to its fullest and to its natural borders.1846, the Wilmot Proviso was proposed in Congress. It would have prohibited Slavery in any of the territories gained from the Mexican Cession. The Proviso was NEVER passed. The Senate shot it down on two occasions after the House passed it. 1848, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo confirmed Americas right to Texas, in addition to giving the U.S. the Western Territories (north to Oregon fifty-four forty or fight!) for a mere price of $18 Million.1848, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott organize the Seneca Falls Convention, which called for womens suffrage, right to retain property, divorce and child custody rights, and equal education opportunities. Stanton read her famous speech Declaration of Sentiments, Fredrick Douglass spoke, calling for the coalition of abolitionists and womens rightists. This convention did not call for equal pay or more liberal abortion. 1848, the Free-Soil Party emerges to vote against slavery in the newly obtained western territories (Wilmot Proviso), also advocating for internal improvements and free government homesteads for settlers. Free-Soil-ers flock out west to help vote down slavery. They eventually help to form the Republican Party.1850, Henry Clay constructs the Compromise of 1850 to help ease North/South tensions. The Compromise admitted California into the Union as a free state, abolished the slave trade in D.C., left the rest of the Mexican Cession open to popular sovereignty, and enacted a harsher Fugitive Slave Law. This new Man Steeling Law required Northerners to help return escaped slaves, but all it ended up doing was infuriating the north into joining the abolitionists. California forever tipped the scales in favor of free states, and the other lands in the Cession didnt require slavery (Sewards Higher Law). 1852, Harriet Beecher Stowe publishes Uncle Toms Cabin. Although she never experienced slavery first hand, Stowe allowed the North to have an idea of the horrors of slavery. This book brought more northerners to the Abolitionists cause.1854, James Gadsden is sent to Mexico to purchase a southern plot of land that would allow for a Transcontinental Railroad. In the Gadsden Purchase, the U.S. paid $10 Million for the land. This didnt really solve any border disputes.1854, attempting to create a railroad through Chicago, Senator Stephen A. Douglass proposed the creation of two new states from the Nebraska Territory: Kansas (Slave) and Nebraska (Free). The Kansas-Nebraska Act allowed popular sovereignty to determine slavery in the states. 1856, Pro-Slavery elements flooded into Kansas to vote for slavery and won due to voter fraud. The pre-existing Free-Soilers split and created a second legislature, one established illegally. In the Bleeding Kansas Conflict, pro-slavery elements burned part of Lawrence, Kansas, and in response, Abolitionist John Brown and followers hacked to death five Pro-Slavery Men. This is considered the unofficial beginning of the Civil War and was symbolic of the North/South Tensions. 1856, in the Dred Scott v Sanford Case, Scott sued his owner for his freedom, stating that he had spent time in a free state. Chief Justice Tanney (anti-Marshall) set the precedent that slaves were property and could thus not sue in any court. Tanney also invalidated the Compromise of 1820 and infuriated the North even more. 1856, the Republican Party is created over the outrage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act. The party consisted of the Whigs, Know-Nothings, and Free-Soilers and was brought together over the issue of slavery. Their platform consisted of non-extension, protective tariffs, railroads and internal improvements, and free homesteads.1857, Pro-Slavery members created the Lecompton Constitution, which would ensure slavery in some form. Free-Soilers boycotted the vote.1858, the Lincoln-Douglass Debates took place, covering issues including the panic of 1857 and the Dred Scott Decision. Lincoln proposed the question: If the people vote it [slavery] down but the court determined they couldnt, who would prevail? Douglass responded with the Freeport Doctrine, which stated that the people prevail over the court. Douglass won, but Lincoln had made a name for himself as a politician.1860, Abraham Lincoln is elected as president, and the southern states succeed from the Union, creating the Confederate States of America, with Jefferson Davis as their president. James Crittenden proposed the Crittenden Compromise as a last attempt to hold together the union (amalgamation of prior compromises), but Lincoln rejected it, as it would allow the expansion of slavery.1861, During the Civil War, President Lincoln suspended Habeas Corpus (trials), arrested those that went against the government (like Adamss Sedition Acts), passed budgets without congress, increasing the power of the executive branch. Draft riots also ensued, and the rich bought their way out of service. Many immigrants and freed slaves fought in the war.1862, the completely republican congress passes the Homestead Act and the Pacific Railroad Act, which gave 160 acres of land to settlers in the west if they worked it for five years and created a railroad out west, respectively. These acts show the ease and harmonious nature of the unified congress. These acts would be met with opposition after the Civil War.1863, after the Battle of Antietam, the bloodiest battle, Lincoln enacts the Emancipation Proclamation, freeing all slaves from bondage and making the Civil War a war of morals.1863, Lincoln establishes the 10% Plan for reacceptance into the Union, which required 10% to swear allegiance and the establishment of a state legislature. Moderate republicans supported Lincoln, who wanted to make it easy to reenter the Union, but Radical Republicans wanted to make the south pay.1864, Congress passes the Wade-Davis Bill, which would require 50% to make an oath of allegiance and held stronger safeguards for emancipation. President Lincoln exercised a pocket veto, allowing the bill to expire. 1865, Lincoln is assassinated and his vice-president Andrew Johnson assumes the Presidency. Johnsons plan for Reconstruction included using Lincolns 10% Plan, disenfranchising leading Confederates, and the ratification of the 13th Amendment, which abolished slavery (except as a crime).1867, Congress passes the Reconstruction Act of 1867, which divided the south into five military districts, disenfranchised confederates, and required the ratification of the 14th Amendment, which granted civil rights and citizenship on all freedmen. During a time of peace, Congress doesnt have the right to create military districts, as proven in the Ex Parte Milligan Case. As long as federal troops were in place, the republican governments stayed, but when they left, the south reverted to home rule, the Solid South.1867, Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act, which required the President to consult with the senate before removing appointments. Johnson dismissed his secretary of war Stanton who was a spy for the radicals in violation of this act. Congress attempted to impeach him, but he was found not guilty. This brought about fears of a destabilizing precedent and the abuse of constitutional principles.1868, President Grant is elected to office (vote as you shot let us have peace), and his presidency is plagued with corruption. Fisk and Gould tried to corner the Gold market with Speculation, Boss Tweed and the Tweed Ring were corrupt political machines that controlled elections and the police, the Credit Mobilier Scandal was where dividends of a railroad company were sold at falsely inflated prices (Stockwatering), and The Whiskey Ring robbed the treasury of excess revenue, etc.1870, 15th Amendment passed, safeguarding the vote for all freedmen. This did not include women.1870, with the reemergence of the Ku Klux Klan, who used intimidation and violence against Blacks, Congress passed the Force Acts, which used federal troops to force the KKK underground. This is another display of the power of the federal government. During Jackson, Congress also passed Force Acts to deal with the Nullification Crisis.1870, John D. Rockefeller founds Standard Oil. The company followed the American Beauty Rose model, snuffing out the little buds so that all the nutrients could go to the main rose. J.P. Morgan is also known for his use of Horizontal Integration, where he cornered the market on oil refineries. Ida Tarbell, a muckraker, published The History of Standard Oil to point out the horrors of the industry. Her fathers company was put out of business due to Standard Oil.1877, Congress ended reconstruction with the Compromise of 1877, which created an electoral commission of 15 men from congress, removed federal troops from the South, and brought an end to the equality pursuits. The South reverted to home rule and instituted Black Code, which restricted voting with tests, and the Jim Crow Laws, which allowed for segregation and mistreatment of Blacks. Sharecropping also emerged and was essentially slavery. 1880, Immigrants shift from Brittan and WASPs to Southern and Eastern Europeans: Jews, Italians, Poles, Greeks, and Slovaks. These immigrants received help from Political Bosses in return for their votes. These Europeans brought with them the ideas of Socialism and were met with opposition from the Nativists.1882, Congress passes the Chinese Exclusion Act, which closed the door to Asian immigration. Some tried to take away immigrants citizenship, but in U.S. v Wong Kim Ark (1989), the court ruled that the 14th Amendment Citizenship was guaranteed to all persons born in the U.S.1883, after President Garfield is shot, Chester Arthur took his place and passed the Pendleton Act of 1883. Known as the magna-carta of civil service reform, it established a commission to make appointments based on exams rather than spoils.1884, Grover Cleveland is the first Democratic President since before the civil war. Once a believer in civil-service reform, he was controlled by the Democratic Party bosses.1886, The Haymarket Square Riot takes place. Held by the Knights of Labor, one of the first attempts at organized labor, they set off bombs trying to achieve a shorter workday. The Government sides with Big Business and puts down the strike. This event brings a sour name to Organized Labor.1887, the Dawes Act is passed to civilize the Native Americans, giving them farms to work on. This act was a fatal blow to the remaining N.A. land and destroyed many tribe identities.1887, Congress passes the Interstate Commerce Act, prohibiting pools, rebates, and closed rates. It also set up a commission to enforce the legislation. Railroads and other companies actually saw this as good as it could be used to help big business. Along with the Sherman Anti-Trust Act (1890), which was created to curb trusts, actually ended up being used to go after Labor Unions. These are important because they show a shift of desire for the protection of the public interest.1889, Andrew Carnegie of Carnegie Steel publishes The Gospel of Wealth, stating that the rich were made so through Gods graces and that it was their moral duty to help the poor. Andrew Carnegie was known for his use of Vertical Integration, where his company owned portions of each aspect of manufacturing. Carnegie and Rockefeller were known as robber barons or Industrial Monarchs or Captains of Industry.1890, President Harrison passed the McKinley Tariff Act of 1890, which raised the tariff to 48.5%. This tariff was despised by farmers, who were forced to buy protected goods, while theirs were unprotected.1890, Jacob Riis publishes How the Other Half Lives, a documentary that showed America just how horrible poverty was. With photos of slum life in NYC, this is a fine example of Muckraking.1892, Due to the high tariffs and the capitalistic railroad companies, the Populist Party formed out west from the ashes of the Grange Movement and the Greenback Labor Party. Populists saw unlimited coinage of silver as their savior (16oz to 1oz of Gold). Populists called for graduated income tax, nationalization of railroads (socialism), direct election of senators, and a federal sub-treasury to hold grain. Coinage of silver is inflationary and was called for by the Populists so that they didnt have to pay as much for their loans. William Jennings Brian is one of the most well know Populists who says you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold.1892, The Homestead Strike takes place at a Carnegie Steel Factory. The workers revolted, and the U.S. Government sends in Federal Troops to put down the strike.1893, Pro-American sugar planters in Hawaii, outraged over the McKinley Tariff that made it impossible to sell their Sugar, overthrew the Queen and requester citizenship from the U.S. As part of Manifest Destiny, the U.S. took over Hawaii in 1898, allowing the Planters to sell their now protected goods.1893, the Panic of 1893 hits during Clevelands second (separate) term. Caused by speculation, labor issues, and instability in the farming sector, Cleveland struck a deal with J.P. Morgan, who agreed to loan the government $65 Million for a $7 Million commission. This deal was the epitome of everything that was wrong with the Government. The U.S. Gov. was in bed with Big Business.1894, The Pullman Strike, organized by Americas Favorite Socialist Eugene Debbs against the growth of railroads, turns violent while striking for a larger economic dividend. After slowing down all railroad lines, President Cleveland sent in federal troops to put down the strike. 1896, in the Plessey v. Ferguson Case, the Supreme Court validated the idea of separate but equal. Those facilities were protected under the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment.1898, The USS Maine, sent to protect U.S. interests during a time of rebellion, explodes in Havana Harbor. Employing Yellow Journalism, Hearst and Pulitzer used the atrocity of the USS Maine and Spanish reconcentration camps to push for war with Spain. In April, The Spanish-American War began. The U.S. was ill prepared for war, and more men died from dysentery and starvation than actual battle. Theodore Roosevelt created the Rough Riders to fight the war, a true cross-section of America (cowboys, Ivy Leaguers, etc.). This splendid little war ended with the Treaty of Paris, which recognized Cuba as independent and gave the Philippines to the U.S. 1899, Secretary of State John Hay calls for an Open Door Policy in China, which would respect the territorial integrity of China (spheres of influence) while allowing the U.S. to establish trading relations.1901, U.S. in Cuba pass the Teller and Platt Amendments, which state that the U.S. wouldnt colonize Cuba and that the U.S. would make foreign policy decisions for Cuba, respectively.1901, The Insular Cases raised the question about constitutionality and imperialism. The flag didnt outrun the Constitution, but it did not extend fully to the new peoples. 1901, Theodore Roosevelt becomes president after McKinleys assassination, adopting the Big Stick Policy from the quote speak softly and carry a big stick. TR sent the Great White Fleet on a goodwill tour around the world to showcase the power of the U.S. Military, and he issued to Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine which called for preventative intervention, that the U.S. had the right to intervene in the Western Hemisphere if it could be harmful to the U.S. This created the idea of the Yankee Lake. 1902, TR issues the Square Deal in response to the Anthracite Coal Strike. The first time that the federal government sided with Labor, TR threatened to seize the mines and operate them with troops. The Square Deal was a domestic program that focused on Control of Corporations, Consumer Protection, and Conservation of Resources (The Three Cs). TR reasserted the Sherman Anti-Trust Act, but TR didnt see big as bad. He just wanted to protect against any injustices and reassert the dominance of the federal government. TR actually supported Standard Oil.1902, after gaining the Philippines from Spain, the U.S. fought against Filipino insurgents using water torture and internment camps. Taft believed that we should help our little brown brothers, and the U.S. sent aid to the now corrupt government. The U.S. wanted a naval base in the Pacific, missionaries saw the Philippines as a wonderful place to convert the savages, and anti-imperialists thought that it was causing too much strain on the economy and called for isolationism.1903, As a result of the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty, the U.S. recognized Panama as independent, France was removed, and the U.S. was able to build the Panama Canal. The U.S. taking of the Canal Zone hurt L.A. relations.1907, as a result of the Racist treatment of Japanese and Asians in the U.S., the Gentlemans Agreement was signed, stopping the flow of Japanese into California, in return for fair treatment. TR did not abide by his agreement, and nothing changed about the treatment of Asians.1900s, Progressivism began to take root, developing from the Populist Party. Their goals were to control trusts and to keep down the threat of socialism. Progressives wanted to reform Capitalism, while Socialists wanted to end it. The Social Gospel Movement was one progressive religious group that wanted to aid the Urban Poor. Progressives called for the direct election of Senators (17th Amendment), the referendum process (final say over legislation), and the recall process (remove an official from office). Progressives also supported Anti-Saloon Leagues and Womens Suffrage. Jane Addams created the Hull House to aid, house, and teach the poor. Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, and Alice Paul all fought for Womens Suffrage. Robert Lafollette fought against trusts and railroads.1908, TR chooses William H. Taft as his successor, who easily wins the Presidency. The biggest issue with Taft was that he wasnt TR. Tafts foreign policy was Dollar Diplomacy, which used American investments to increase US influence overseas. This policy replaced TRs Big Stick Policy. Taft also supported the Payne-Aldrich Bill, which raised tariffs, annoying the progressives who viewed tariffs as hurting the lower class. During his presidency, Taft brought 95 trusts to court, more that TR had. One trust was Standard Oil, a trust that TR had purposely ignored. This caused friction between Taft and TR.1910, Taft fired Gifford Pinchot, the head of the forest service and one of TRs closest friends, in the Ballinger-Pinchot Affair. This alienated a lot of progressives who now viewed Taft as Anti-Progressive. This debacle was one of the major causes of the Republican split in the 1912 election.1911, The Triangle Shirtwaist Company goes up in flames. This event kicked reforms into high gear, calling for safety regulations and other labor reforms. 1912, after returning from Africa, TR decided that Tafts policies werent progressive enough, so he threw his hat into the ring and split the Republican Party, creating the Bull Moose Party. Campaigning on the New Nationalism policy, which called for increased Government power to help the economy and the people, the Bull Moose Party called for elimination of child labor, womens suffrage, and an 8-hour workday. Though TR was the only third party candidate to out-poll an established one, the split in the party essentially handed the election to Woodrow Wilson, the democratic candidate. 1912, Woodrow Wilson is elected President, his platform consisting of the New Freedom policy. New Freedom cautioned against big government, calling for anti-trust, anti-tariff, bank reform, and laissez-faire policies. Wilson was also anti-dollar diplomacy and stopped aid to L.A. and China. Instead of regulating trusts, Wilson wanted to break them up. Wilson fought against the Triple Wall of Privilege (Tariff, Trusts, Bank)1913, Wilson cuts tariffs on imported goods with the Underwood Tariff Act, instituting a graduated federal income tax with the 16th Amendment. Meant to create a more level field, there were still complaints about artificially high prices on goods sold to the poor. Tariffs were one of the triple wall of privilege.1913, partially a result of the Panic of 1907 where there was a lack of currency, Wilson creates the Federal Reserve System, which established 12 district reserve banks and created paper money. Banks was the second issue of the triple wall of privilege.1914, Wilson passes the Clayton Anti-Trust Act (Magna Carta of Labor) as a continuation of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act, helping labor by making strikes legal and outlawing certain business practices. The Federal Trade Commission was created to enforce these new laws. This allows labor to stand up against big business. Trusts were the third issue of the triple wall of privilege.1914, with the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand and the beginning of World War I, Wilson issues the U.S. Declaration of Neutrality which allowed Americans to continue trading with both sides, though most Americans were sympathetic to the Allied Powers. Farming and Industry boomed during the War. Wilson had campaigned on the slogan He Kept Us Out of the War.1915, as part of the Germans unrestricted submarine warfare policy, a U-Boat sank the passenger ship Lusitania, killing 128 Americans. This was a propaganda nightmare for the Germans due to American yellow journalists who slowly began to sway the U.S. to fighting the war.1910s, a Great Migration of African Americans from the south to the industrialized North takes place. Many left to search for new economic opportunity, taking the jobs that whites once had (those men went to fight the war). Race Riots ensued all over the country.1916, Germany issues the Sussex Pledge, promising to stop sinking ships without prior warning. This was signed because of another ship that was sunk by the Germans, and the U.S. had threatened to cut all economic ties.1917, Germany takes a gamble and announces a policy of unrestricted submarine warfare, hoping to win the war before bringing in the U.S. Outraged, the U.S. breaks all economic ties with Germany and attempts to arm all merchant ships.1917, the British turn over the Zimmerman Note to the Americans. The Telegram contained a message from the German Foreign Minister to Mexico, suggesting that Mexico should attack the U.S. from the south in return for the lost land from the Mexican Cession. Though this could have been a British ploy, it certainly worked dragging the U.S. into the war. On April 2nd, the U.S. declared war, a war to end all wars.1917, the government passes the Espionage Act and the Sedition Act, aimed at anyone who spoke out against the war, socialists, and labor union radicals. Like Addams and Lincoln, this increased federal power, while decreasing constitutional rights. Eugene Debbs was imprisoned for speaking out against the war effort due to these laws. 1918, the Meuse-Argonne Offensive ends the war. The turning point of the war, the Germans realize that they are unable to continue fighting. The war officially ends on 11/11 at 11:00am.1919, the 18th Amendment is ratified making it illegal to buy or sell alcohol. In addition to reforms pushed by women and the anti-saloon leagues, prohibition was seen as patriotic, as beer was very German.1919, Wilson participates in the Paris Peace Conference, along with France, Britain, and Italy. Wilson proposed the Fourteen Points, where he called for open peace treaties, freedom of the seas, removal of economic barriers, self-determination for all peoples, and collective security (League of Nations). These points were largely opposed by the other Allied Powers who wanted to make Germany pay harsh reparations (Diktat). Wilson did not invite any Republicans from Congress to join him, thus alienating others. The U.S. did not actually sign the Treaty of Versailles. Irreconcilables were isolationists opposed to the League, while Reservationists wanted restrictions. The U.S. never joined the League of Nations, which was a largely ineffective body due to the lack of the U.Ss presence.1919, due to the rise of Bolshevism in Russia, the U.S. experienced a Red Scare. During the war, Labor unions broke out on strike several times, walking out on the job. In addition to giving Labor a bad name, many really associated Labor with Communism.1920, Warren Harding is elected president, stressing a return to Normalcy, the doing-away-with of the highbrow idealism of Wilson and Progressivism. Along with the next president Calvin Coolidge, the government increased Tariffs to protect American industry, thus hurting European economies that were struggling to repay the U.S. its war debt.1920s, this decade, known as the Roaring Twenties, was marked with Prohibition, Jazz, Feminism, and Consumerism. With the 18th Amendment, people began to visit clubs called speakeasies, clubs that illegally sold alcohol and were frequented by city police. Wets vs. Drys was a big issue during this period. Jazz also saw its beginnings. Though it was seen as race music, Jazz helped to break down racial lines, creating some youth rebellion and influencing styles (Bobbed Hair and Flappers). Women gained the right to vote with the 19th Amendment and also experienced a sexual revolution and more work outside of the home. Americans began to buy the next big thing on credit, this rage fueled by the rise of advertising in media. One item was the Model T, which made it easier to commute and live in the suburbs and helped to start a sexual revolution. The 20s also brought about the Harlem Renaissance, with A.A.s finding new economic and artistic opportunities. The Blacks began to experience a model of white society that was entirely their own. 1920s, the Lost Generation were a group of writers and artists and Americans who felt alienated from society. WWI disillusioned many, with some moving to Europe. The Lost Generation criticized middle-class materialism and conformity and were separated from traditional American Values. F. Scott Fitzgerald and Sinclair Lewis were prominent writers from this group.1920, the Sacco and Vanzetti Trial concerned two Italian immigrants who were implicated in a robbery that resulted in the deaths of two guards. Despite more eyewitnesses placing them elsewhere at the time of the robbery, they were still sentenced to death and killed. This showcases the fear and antagonism that Americans had towards outsiders and the fear of communism, as most immigrants were viewed as such.1920, Attorney General Palmer creates a new division in the Justice Department to hunt down Communists and Anarchists. Invoking the Espionage and Sedition Acts of 1917/1918, Palmer justified the Palmer Raids, in which 30,000 resident aliens were arrested.1921, Congress passes the Emergency Quota Act, which limited immigration to 3% of the number of persons each country had living in the U.S. in 1910.1921, the Teapot Dome Scandal, under Harding implicated the Secretary of the Interior Albert Bell. Bell secretly gained control of oil reserves and leased them to private owners for a loan. This scandal, referred to as the worst before Watergate, made everyday Americans question the integrity of the Government.1924, During Coolidges Presidency, Congress overrides his veto on the Bonus Act that granted bonuses to WWI veterans that would be collected in 1945. Coolidge said, The business of America is business. A large issue for Coolidge was the international debt. During the war, the U.S. had lent the Allied Powers $10 Billion. The Dawes Plan attempted to solve the debt crisis.1929, due to speculation and buying on the margin (Credit), the stock market begins to crash on Black Tuesday. Speculators began to sell, and within two months, the market had lost over $40 Billion. This was the beginning of the Great Depression. Bank closings began to increase, creating a snowball effect, with many Americans loosing all of their life savings. Industries began to shut down, and by 1933, nearly 25% were unemployed. Many began to live in shanties called Hoovervilles. The Dust Bowl (OK, KA, CO, TX) was hit horribly, with farm production decreasing, in addition to droughts and dust storms that destroyed crops. Grain & Cotton Stabilization Corporations were created to buy up extra crops to keep the cost up. Hoover urged voluntarism, like during the war, where Americans would voluntarily give up items on certain days. Hoover was also a believer in Trickle Down Economics, where he believed that by investing in the Upper Classes, the benefits would slowly tickle down to the lower classes.1930, President Herbert Hoover passes the Smoot-Hawley Tariff, which started out as an attempt to help the suffering farmers but ended up raising the import tax to an all-time high of 60%. This high tariff caused more European countries to raise high tariffs on their imports adding to the international depression. To this day, this tariff is the highest tax ever enforced.1932, the Bonus Army appears in Washington, consisting of WWI veterans who wanted to collect their service bonuses at that point, rather than in 1945. Hoover used tear gas and force to disperse the protest (Battle of Anacostia Flats). This was a major blunder for Hoover, souring public opinion of him. The Norris-LaGuardia Anti-Injunction Act was passed, which forbade injunctions against peaceful picketing and yellow-dog contracts.1932, the Stimson Doctrine is passed in response to the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. It declared that the U.S. wouldnt recognize any territorial acquisitions achieved by force. Hoover didnt recognize the Japanese occupation but did nothing about it.1932, Franklin Delano Roosevelt is elected President, and in the first 100 Days, FDR focused on relief, recovery, and reform. FDR is best know for the New Deal, a set of reforms and such that set the U.S. on the path to prosperity. Roosevelt also excelled in his fireside chats, his radio addresses to America where he spoke as if he were speaking directly to the American. FDR also favored Priming the Pump Economics where the lower classes were stimulated, therefore investing in the economy. During his presidency, FDR significantly increased the power of the Executive Branch.1933, FDR declares a Bank Holiday with the Emergency Banking Act. This stopped the run on banks and allowed the government to reopen solvent banks. The EBA also created the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), which insured the bank deposits of individuals. This helped to restore consumer confidence in the banking system.1933, the 21st Amendment repeals Prohibition, creating thousands of jobs, raising revenue through taxes, and stimulating the economy.1933, Congress passes the Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA), which paid farmers not to grow crops, allowing the prices of these goods to start to rise. 1933, the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) is created to employ young men. In addition to internal improvements and conservation, these men earned a salary, which was partially sent back to their families.1933, the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) creates the NRA to combat falling prices in industry. Under this legislation, owners and workers were to work together to set wages and work hours that would allow as many to work as possible. Wages ended up rising but so did the price of goods, so this was largely ineffective. We Do Our Part was the slogan of the Sick Chicken, and it was ruled unconstitutional in 1935.1933, the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) is created to construct dams and provide electricity. This creates jobs and also allows the government to regulate utilities, being a yardstick to measure costs. This helps to modernize many parts of America. 1933, FDR announces his Good Neighbor Policy towards Latin America, calling for the removal of troops and more isolationism.1935, the Works Progress Administration (WPA) creates thousands jobs for internal improvements. Bridges, roads, schools, and even artists were supported.1935, Congress passes the Wagner Act, which reaffirmed the rights of workers to unionize and to utilize collective bargaining. This also outlawed unfair business practices with the creation of the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB).1935, FDR enacts the Social Security Act (SSA), which create a retirement plan for workers over the age of 65. This ensures that the elderly have money to survive. The SSA also creates unemployment insurance. This revolutionized the idea of government, making it the job of the Federal Government to take care of those who couldnt help themselves.1935, the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) splits from the AFL. The CIO organized both skilled and unskilled labor. It is dependent upon a national union representing all employees.1936, with FDRs reelection, the New Deal Coalition is created, making the Democrats the majority party until the 80s. While traditionally consisting of white southerners, African Americans and Labor also joined the party.1937, FDR attempts to pack the court with the Justice Reorganization Bill, which would allow him to appoint an additional supreme court judge for each justice over 70 years old. Roosevelt was trying to increase his power by throwing off the balance of powers and making sure that his legislation wouldnt be declared unconstitutional. This damages his relationship with congress.1937, another depression hits calling for a reduction of spending among the New Deal. FDR responded with deficit spending to cure the issue. The Great Depression is important because it showed a shift in the governments purpose towards helping the people who couldnt help themselves.1935-37, the U.S. creates a series of Neutrality Acts, attempting to keep the U.S. out of another war like WWI.1939, the Neutrality Act of 1939 allowed European Democracies to buy U.S. munitions strictly on a cash and carry basis, meaning they paid in gold and shipped it themselves. This helped to solve unemployment and overseas demand and gear the U.S. towards war production1941, Due to FDRs neighbor borrowing a garden hose speech, Congress passes the Lend-Lease Act stating that the U.S. would lend war materials to the Allied Powers and speak about price afterwards. This made America the Arsenal of Democracy. This was an economic declaration of war on the Axis Powers.1941, along with Winston Churchill, FDR creates the Atlantic Charter, which made it a war to end colonialism, a war for self-determination of peoples, and a war for collective security.1941, on December 7th, due to many U.S. Embargos on items to Japan and the freezing of Japanese assets in America, Japanese forces attack the American Naval Base at Pearl Harbor, a date which will live in infamy. On December 11th, the U.S. declared war. During World War II, the government implemented direct price controls to halt inflation and there was virtually no unemployment. Rosie the Riveter symbolized women (many married) working in the defense industry. The Second Great Migration took place as several more thousands of African Americans moved north. Many A.A.s fought in the war as Double V Victory (over dictators abroad and racism at home).1943, Congress passes the Smith-Connelly Anti-Strike Act, allowing the government to seize any industries on strike.1944, the Supreme Court upholds the Constitutionality of the Japanese Internment Camps as a wartime necessity in Korematsu v. the United States.1944, Congress passes the GI Bill (Service Mens Readjustment Act), which gave veterans education so as to not flood the job market. When these veterans returned, they decided to live each day as if it were their last, and this thinking brought about the Baby Boom, creating massive youth culture and eventually becoming a strain on society.1945, Roosevelt, Stalin, and Churchill meet at the Yalta Conference, agreeing that Germany would be split into four occupational zones, as well as Berlin. Stalin also agreed to allow free elections in Eastern Europe, though this did not occur until a few years later. Stalin hoped to create a buffer zone of satellite countries that would protect the Soviet Union and keep out Capitalism. Many consider this conference one of the reasons for the start of the Cold War.1945, after the death of FDR, the United Nations meets for the first time, with the Security Council consisting of five permanent members: France, The Soviet Union, USA, Great Brittan, and China. 1945, with the rise of Harry S. Truman to the presidency and the advances of the Manhattan Project, the U.S. drops the atomic bomb on Hiroshima and then on Nagasaki. This ended the war1947, Republicans in Congress pass the Taft-Hartley Bill, outlawing closed shops, making unions liable for damages, and calling for a non-communist oath. This bill was called the slave labor bill. 1947, George Kennans Long Telegram hits the spotlight, calling for the U.S. to focus its foreign polity of Containment, the containing the spread of Soviet Influence.1947, Truman issues the Truman Doctrine, determined to block the expansion of Soviet influence into Greece and Turkey. Truman said the U.S. would support free peoples who are resisting subjugations by outsiders. This marks the true beginning of the Cold War, a time of friction between the U.S. and the Soviet Union, Capitalism versus Communism1948, the Marshall Plan is put into effect to provide economic aid to the war-torn Europe, preventing the spread of Communism, so as to permit the emergence of a political and social conditions in which free institutions can exist. The Marshall Plan was extremely effective and Western Europes economies recovered, without much issue of Communism.1948, due to a blockade of the road into West Berlin, the U.S. creates the Berlin Airlift, flying in the essentials needed. Due to the overwhelming amount of planes, a new airport was created. The Soviets didnt shoot down these planes because if they did, they would have been charged with starting the war.1948, Truman executes Order 9981, the desegregation of the military, alienating many of the southerners. The Solid South bolts the party, creating the Dixie-crats with the states rights ticket. Truman still won the election.1949, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization is created as a defensive military alliance. NATO marked a defined break from the U.S. policy of isolationism and a rejection of Washington and Jeffersons warnings against foreign alliances.1949, China falls to communism under Mao Zedong, declaring the Peoples Republic of China an independent nation. The collapse of China to communism was seen as a humiliating defeat for the U.S. (who lost China?). The U.S. didnt recognize China and saw an increase in anti-communist fanaticism. 1950, North Korea under invades South Korea, thus starting the Korean War. Truman and the UN labeled North Korea as the aggressor, marking the first collective military action by the UN. General MacArthur threatened the Chinese with the atomic bomb, if they entered the war, and Truman relieved him of his command for insubordination. This war extended the U.S. policy of Containment to China. The Korean War was fought under UN auspices and mainly American troops. This war was also the first American war to be fought with integrated units.1950s, the early 50s were influenced by McCarthyism, a period in U.S. History saturated with communist-witch hunts undertaken by Senator Joseph McCarthy. The Loyalty Review Board investigated millions of government employees, though none were formally charged. The House Un-American Committee used this red paranoia to their advantage. 11 Communists were charged with trying to overthrow the Government in Dennis v. United States. The Alger Hiss case (led by Nixon) was accused of selling secrets, along with the Rosenbergs, who were executed without a fair trial for selling the Soviets the atomic bomb. In 1954, McCarthy accused the Army of being infiltrated by Communists. The Army-McCarthy hearings brought about his condemnation and downfall.1952, Dwight D. Eisenhower is elected president. Believing in dynamic conservatism, Ike was socially liberal and economically conservative, calling for a balanced budget. Eisenhower favored intervention in Vietnam, finding support from the Domino Theory, that if one state fell to communism, the rest would, too.1954, in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, a unanimous ruling states that separate education facilities are inherently unequal, a violation of the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment.1955, Rosa Parks is arrested for refusing to give up her seat to a white passenger. The NAACP organizes the Montgomery Bus Boycott, demanding fair seating and better treatment. The boycott resulted in a loss of money, so the company changed its policy. This was the start of MLK Jr.s career in Civil Rights.1956, Eisenhower passes the Federal Highway Act, creating the interstate highway system. This was a major internal improvement, and it cut down travel times significantly. It also aided in the white flight movement to the suburbs, helping those achieve the American Dream, with their perfect suburban houses. This shows more conformity in the 50s.1957, Eisenhower releases the Eisenhower Doctrine, which stated that American armaments would be used in the Middle East to protect against Communist aggression. This sets up the U.S.s policy of Middle East intervention.1957, Jack Kerouac publishes his book On the Road, expressing the alienation and disillusionment he felt for mainstream U.S. culture. This feeling described the Beat Generation of the 1950s, all of whom felt alienated and wanted to get away from the materialism and conformity. They embraced jazz and drugs and followed Eastern Religious thought. The Beats are reminiscent of the Lost Generation. This all is an example of the lack of conformity, in addition to the emergence of Rock n Roll and Abstract Art.1957, the Soviets launch the first Earth-orbiting Satellite Sputnik, stunning the U.S. and spawning the creation of NASA. Sputnik made education a national security issue and resulted in the National Defense Education Act, which funded programs in math, language, and science.1960, four black students sat down at a whites only counter in N.C. and are refused service. This begins the Greensboro Lunch Counter Sit-in. The city of Greensboro adopter more rigid segregation policies, but after losing too much money, the store relented and changed its policies.1960, Gary Powers plane is shot down over the Soviet Union in the U-2 Incident. This proved to the world that the U.S. was, in fact, spying on the Soviets, humiliating the President.1960, John F. Kennedy is elected President, saying America was on the brink of a New Frontier. NF included health care, education, housing, and civil rights. JFK was the first president to be Roman Catholic and this election was the first in which T.V. had a major influence. JFK created the Peace Corps, sending many young people out into developing countries.1960, the introduction of the Birth Control Pill helps to create a sexual revolution among young people, with free love.1961, the Freedom Riders set out to ride a bus through the Deep South, testing how far the South will go in regards to maintaining segregation. They were met with much opposition and their busses were attacked.1961, JFK creates the Alliance for Progress, attempting to heal Latin American Relations. Indented to counter the emerging Communism, the AP gave aid to LA without the bullying the U.S. had previously used.1961, As a result of Fidel Castro coming to power in Cuba and establishing a Communist government, Kennedy sends trained American Cubans to Cuba to attempt to overthrow Castro. In the Bay of Pigs Incident, almost all of these men were killed or captured, a huge embarrassment for JFK. Many Cubans fled to the U.S. and the government cut diplomatic ties, imposing a trade embargo.1961, the Soviets construct the Berlin Wall in Germany, cutting off the East from the West, in an attempt to stop the escapes into West Germany. JFK did not respond with any force, making him seem somewhat weak.1962, when Khrushchev sends Soviet Missiles to Cuba, only 50 miles south of Florida, JFK responds with a naval blockade, forcing the Soviets to remove the missiles. In the Cuban Missile Crisis, JFK was using the tactics of Brinkmanship, threatening war to get your opponent to back down. The Soviets did remove the missiles, and JFK truly made a positive name for himself during this issue. This also resulted in the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, which ended the testing of Nukes in the atmosphere.1962, Rachel Carson publishes Silent Spring (DDT), an environmental book that started the modern environmental movement. This led to the Clean Air Act and the Endangered Species Act.1963, after being arrested for campaigning against segregation in Alabama, Martin Luther King Jr. was sent to jail, where he wrote his Letter from Birmingham Jail, saying they had a moral responsibility to disobey unjust laws. MLK was a proponent of nonviolence, and on his march on Washington, he read his I Have A Dream Speech, helping to bring about the Civil Rights Act of 1964. MLK, in an effort to maintain the youth, spoke out against the Vietnam War, alienating many whites. Dr. King was assassinated by James Earl Ray, sparking a series a riots.1963, the KKK bombs the 16th Street Baptist Church, killing four girls at Sunday school. This unprovoked bombing brought many moderate Northerners into the Civil Rights Movement.1963, Betty Freidan publishes her book The Feminine Mystique, launching the modern womens right movement. Her book attacked the boredom of the suburban housewife and the frustration at the unfeminine lifestyle, commenting on the issue with no name. Is this all? Friedan also founded NOW, a womens organization. Feminism tended to be a movement of middle-class women. 1964, President Lyndon B. Johnson comes to the Presidency after JFKs assassination. LBJ passes the Civil Rights Act of 1964, banning racial discrimination in private facilities open to the public. This created the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, which attempted to end discrimination in hiring (Title VII was added to stop gender discrimination, as well.) As a result, many more Southerners leave the Democratic Party.1964, Johnson, a New Deal Democrat, is actually elected President on the Great Society platform. In his war on poverty, LBJ creates Medicare (elderly) and Medicaid (poor), aids education with Affirmative Action (individuals), and passes the Immigration and Nationality Act, abolishing the national-origins quota acts. All of these policies help to significantly decrease poverty in the U.S. and it also opens the door to Africans, L.As, and Asians. Great Society was similar to the New Deal in the sense that they were both government sponsored spending, but Great Society helped with education and with Civil Rights.1964, after already entering Vietnam on the reason of Containment, LBJ announces the Gulf of Tonkin Resolutions, as a result of the North Vietnamese firing on U.S. ships in international waters. This resolution gave LBJ a blank check to prevent further aggression in Vietnam. This only escalates the issues in Vietnam. LBJ believed in gunboat policy, a brother to big stick policy.1965, LBJ passes the Voting Rights Act of 1965, tying money to equal voting. This gets many states on board with the equality by offering federal money.1968, with the Tet Offensive in Vietnam, everyday Americans realized that the Government wasnt as far along in Vietnam as they had said, turning mainstream Americans against the war. Cronkite, Americas Most Trusted Man, gets on air and suggests the reevaluation of policy in Vietnam, and LBJ says, If Ive lost Cronkite, Ive lost America. This event was an example of the widening credibility gap in America, and it was hastened by the popularity of T.V. Johnson also decided not to run for a second term, as a result of this incident.1968, horrible Anti-War Riots break out in Chicago at the Democratic National Convention, and the police attack the protestors with Gestapo-like tactics. The Chicago Seven are arrested for organizing the riots. Anti-War riots got their tactics from the Civil Rights Movement. These riots revealed the cracks in society, especially among young voters. Many had lost their optimistic view of the government.1968, Richard Nixon becomes President, creating the EPA, expanding Affirmative Action to groups, and increasing spending on Medicaid. This showed Nixons policy of deficit spending. Nixon also tried to appeal to the Southerners with his southern strategy, delaying the integration of schools and stopping an extension of the Voting Rights Act. Nixons plan was known as New Federalism, in which he had hoped to distribute a portion of the federal power to the states, e.g. revenue-sharing.1969, Earl Warren, a liberal chief justice who was attacked by Nixon and Conservatives, is succeeded by Warren Burger who was conservative. The Warren Court had passed many liberal decisions, placing the rights of the accused before those of the victim. The Burger Court passed the Roe v. Wade Decision, declaring abortion legal, a big step forward for womens rights.1970, with his support from the silent majority, the mainstream Americans who quietly supported his Vietnam Policy, Nixon began to withdraw U.S. troops, replacing them with Southern Vietnamese troops (Vietnamization). Without consulting Congress, Nixon bombs and invades Cambodia, joining with the Southern Vietnamese to clear out the Viet Cong.1970, in response to Nixons invasion, a massive protest breaks out at Kent State. The Coast Guard was called in to settle the dispute and fired into the crown, killing four. This triggered even more rallies around the U.S.1971, the New York Times releases the Pentagon Papers, a book that said that American ships were inside the Vietnam Border when they were fired on. The Government sued NYT, but the 1st Amendment freedoms won out.1972, the Equal Rights Amendment win support from Congress but are never fully ratified by all the states. This amendment would have prohibited discrimination based on account of sex. Title IX was another set of legislation that prohibited sexual discrimination in educational settings. This had its largest effect on sports. 1972, ten days before Nixons re-election, Henry Kissinger, a top Vietnam advisor, announces that the Vietnam War was coming to an end, winning the Presidency for Nixon by a landslide. With the Paris Accords in 1973, the U.S. reached a ceasefire.1972, Nixon visits China, finally normalizing relations and recognizing China as a nation with the ideas of Dtente, a relaxation of tensions with Communism. This visit made the Soviets scared of a U.S.-China Military Alliance against Russia and prompted the SALT I Treaty, Strategic Arms Limitation Talks that placed a limit on Nuclear Weapons. Dtente was now the major foreign policy with China and Russia.1973, as a result of U.S. support of Israel during the Yom Kippur War, Arab States placed an embargo on oil to the U.S., demonstrating how susceptible the U.S. was to the world oil market.1973, Congress passes the War Powers Act, placing a time limit on U.S. troop involvement around the world. This placed a check on the Executive Branch, which now needed to justify its actions in regards to the military.1973, as a result of a break-in to the Democratic Headquarters at Watergate, Nixon and the White House become caught up in a national scandal, accusing Nixon of obstruction of justice. After the discovery of Nixons Tapes, the president called executive privilege, saying that he didnt need to turn them in, but the Supreme Court ruled that he had to. A bipartisan committee told Nixon that he was going to be impeached, so he stepped down from the presidency. This issue showcased how well the Constitution worked, that it could remove the President without any real issues. The Watergate Scandal also creates a sense of distrust among the Americans and the government.1974, Gerald Ford replaces Nixon as President, giving him an official Pardon. This outraged many Americans and was thought of as a corrupt bargain (presidency for the pardon). W.I.N was his slogan that stood for Whip Inflation Now.1975, the Helsinki Accords under Ford are passed, showing U.S. support for basic human rights. This was a response the horrible Soviet treatment of Russian Jews.1976, Jimmy Carter became president, as he was a Washington outsider. A recession under Ford turned to inflation under Carter, and the oil embargo helped to hurt the U.S. economy. During his presidency, Carter agreed to turn the Panama Canal back over to the Panamanians, helping to heal U.S./L.A. relations.1978, Bakke v. Regents of the University of California upholds Affirmative Action, after some felt that it caused reverse discrimination. This case did rule that Quota systems were forbidden.1978, Anwar Sadat and Menachem Begin meet with Carter to sign the Camp David Accords, a document that proclaimed Egypts recognition of Israel as a state.1979, militant Irani students takeover the U.S. Embassy in Tehran, starting the Iran Hostage Crisis. In response to the hostage situation, Carter froze all Irani assets in America, resulting in the stopping of oil shipments from Iran to the U.S. The U.S. also attempted to rescue the hostages but failed miserably. This issue ruined Carters administration. Aside from the skyrocketing gas prices and energy crisis, Carter was seen as inept and unable to handle foreign affairs.1980, in response to the Soviet Unions invasion of Afghanistan, one of the many Cold War Era proxy wars, the U.S. Boycotts the 1980 Moscow Olympics. Many were appalled that the U.S. used the Olympics as a political statement. This also led to the 1984 Boycott of the LA Olympics by the Soviets and the Eastern Bloc. 1980, Ronald Reagan rises to the presidency, capitalizing on his Washington Outsider status. Major points included the Iran-Hostage Crisis, the high inflation, hostility towards big government, and a more conservative Court. Reaganomics, Supply-Side Economics, or Voodoo Economics, refers to Reagans desire to reduce taxes for the wealthy, reduce corporate tax rates, and deregulate business. This was meant to encourage private investment but really only resulted in a widening split between the rich and poor. Reagans election brought about the rise of the Neo-Conservatives who were against the excesses of Liberalism, calling for more individualism and family values. The Silent Majority had now become the Moral Majority under Reagan. Government is not the solution to the problem, Government is the problem.1980, at first, Supply-Side took the economy into the deepest depression since the 30s, with 11% unemployment. The Democrats charged that the tax cuts favored the rich and really hurt the poor. By 1983, the economy started to turn around, but it wasnt on sound footing. The U.S. had gone from being the masters of global commerce after WWII to being the heaviest borrowers in the 80s. 1983, Reagan proposes the Strategic Defense Initiative, or more commonly, Star Wars (in reference to the films). This would expand U.S. defense capabilities beyond those of the Soviets, creating missile protection systems. This moved the U.S. away from the Doctrine of Mutually Assured Destruction, and since the Soviets couldnt complete, they began to make concessions to the U.S.1983, after sending in U.S. troops to Afghanistan to keep the peace in a turmoil-ridden country, a suicide bomber kills 260+ Soldiers. Reagan withdrew the troops, facing no real damage on the home front. This gave him his nickname of the Teflon President.1985, in the Iran Contra Affair, the U.S. had been secretly supplying arms to the Anti-Communists Contras in Nicaragua, using money from the secret Iran arms sales that took place to free U.S. hostages in Lebanon. Congress had refused to allow the support of the Contras. Reagan denied any knowledge of the occurrences and his administration was condemned for secrecy, deception, and disdain for the law. This scandal marred the rest of Reagans time in office.1985, the Soviets install Mikhail Gorbachev as chairman of the party, and he institutes a policy of Glasnost and Perestroika, openness and restructuring. This resulted in military downsizing, and the effective end of the Cold War. Four Summits followed, mainly dominated by the issue of Intermediate Missiles. The INF Treaty eliminated such missiles and helped to reduce nuclear armaments.1990, under president George Bush Sr., the U.S. sent a force to remove Iraq from Kuwait, which invaded as an attempt to obtain Kuwait oil reserves. In Operation Desert Storm and the Gulf War, the UN and U.S. attempted only to remove Iraq, not remove Saddam Hussein from power.1990, Bush passes the Americans With Disabilities Act, which prohibited discrimination of Americans with physical or mental handicaps. 1991, Clarence Thomas, an African American, was nominated for the Supreme Court. Anita Hill accused Thomas of sexual harassment, reopening hearings. Women were outraged over the all-male jury and the decision that nothing wrong had been done. It is important to acknowledge that Thomas was a conservative.1993, the U.S. faces yet another economic downturn that sours Bushs approval rating. After the Gulf War, his rating was over 80%, but after, he lost the election to Bill Clinton. 1994, President Clintons big issue was to end discrimination against gays in the military. After fierce opposition, the Dont Ask, Dont Tell Policy is enacted, allowing gays to serve, as long as they kept their sexuality secret.1994, Bill Clinton enacts the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), creating a North American trade bloc between Canada, Mexico, and the U.S., the largest free trade zone in the world.1998, Clintons sexual affair with intern Monica Lewinsky led to a special investigation. Clinton was impeached by the House on a charge of perjury and a charge of obstruction of justice. The Senate acquitted Clinton of both charges.2000, despite losing the popular vote, George H. W. Bush Jr. is elected president. Disputed votes in Florida were disregarded in the Gore v. Bush ruling.2001, a group of Al-Qaeda terrorists uses planes to destroy the World Trade Center buildings in NYC. Congress, in response, passes the USA Patriot Act, allowing the government to bypass warrants and directly track terrorists through wire taps and record searches. Many believed that this was an abuse of federal power and a violation of basic rights, but this is yet another example (with precedent: Alien and Sedition Acts, Suspension of Habeas Corpus, Espionage Acts, etc.) of the expansion of Executive powers during a time of turmoil.

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