Implementing Learning strategies into military Language courses.pdf

8/12/2019 Implementing Learning strategies into military Language courses.pdf

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MASARYK UNIVERSITY BRNO

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

Department of English Language and Literature

IMPLEMENTING

LEARNING STRATEGIES INTO MILITARY

LANGUAGE COURSES

Diploma Thesis

Brno 2010

Supervisor: Written by:

PhDr. Alena Kaprkov Bc.ZdenkaBushellov


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Brno, December 10, 2010 Bc.Zdenka Bushellov

Declaration

I hereby declare that I have worked on this thesis independently, using only sources listed in

the bibliography.

I agree with the diploma thesis being deposited in the Library at the Faculty of Education at

the Masaryk University and with its being made available for academic purposes.


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Acknowledgements:

I would like to thank my supervisor PhDr. Alena Kaprkovfor her valuable

guidance and kind help during working on my diploma thesis.

Furthermore, I would like to thank the students of the Defence Language Institute

in Vyskov for allowing me to include them into my research.


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Abstract

My diploma thesis deals with language learning strategies and their implementation into

military courses. It focuses at the question whether training and using suitable strategies

within the course material have positive influence on learning process, and whether it can

help the students learn more easily and effectively.

The theoretical part emphasises the important areas that influence the quality of

learning. It firstly looks at the topic of communicative learning and defines communicative

competence. Also, it gives various definitions, classifications and descriptions of particular

strategies. Last but not least, the attention is paid to adult learners and the role of

instructional material.

Based on the questionnaire results the practical part centres around training

particular language learning strategies through individual tasks and activities. The strategy

training effectiveness is discussed through interviews with the students.

Anotace

Moje diplomov prce se zabv strategiemi uen cizmu jazyku a jejich zaveden dovuky ve vojenskch kurzech. Prce se zamuje na otzku zdali vcvik a pouvn

vhodnch strategi vrmci kurzu m pozitivn vliv na vyuovac proces, a zda mohou

studentmpomoci uit se snadnji a efektivnji.

Teoretick st upozoruje na dleit oblasti, kter ovlivuj kvalitu vuky.

Nejprve se zabv tmatem komunikativnho uen a definuje komunikativn kompetence.

Dle uvd rzn definice, klasifikace a popis jednotlivch strategi. Vneposledn ad je

vnovna pozornost dosplm studentm a roli vukovch materil.

Na zkladvsledkdotaznku se praktick st zamuje na vcvik strategi uen

cizmu jazyku formou jednotlivch kol a aktivit. Efektivita vcviku je diskutovna

formou rozhovor se studenty.


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Content

INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................. 8

THEORETICAL PART ................................................................................. 10

COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING ............................................................ 10

Traditional Approach vs. Communicative Language Teaching......................................... 10

Language learning in STANAG courses ............................................................................ 11

Communicative Competence as a Part of Language Education ........................................ 12

INTRODUCTION TO LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES ............................... 15

Definition of Language Learning Strategies ...................................................................... 15Classification of Language learning Strategies .................................................................. 17

DIRECT STRATEGIES ..................................................................................................... 18

Memory strategies .............................................................................................................. 18

Creating Mental Linkages .............................................................................................. 20

Applying Images and Sounds .......................................................................................... 21

Reviewing well ................................................................................................................ 22

Employing action ............................................................................................................ 23

Cognitive strategies ............................................................................................................ 23

Practicing ....................................................................................................................... 24

Receiving and sending messages .................................................................................... 27

Analyzing and reasoning ................................................................................................ 28

Creating structure for input and output ......................................................................... 29

Compensational strategies .................................................................................................. 30

INDIRECT STRATEGIES ................................................................................................. 31

Metacognitive strategies ..................................................................................................... 31

Affective strategies ............................................................................................................. 32

Social strategies .................................................................................................................. 33

LEARNERS IN RELATION TO LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES .............. 33

Adult Learners .................................................................................................................... 35

The role of instructional materials in STANAG courses ................................................... 37


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PRACTICAL PART ....................................................................................... 41

INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................ 41

BACKGROUND RESEARCH ........................................................................................... 42

STANAG Course Specifications ........................................................................................ 42

Participants ......................................................................................................................... 43

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH .......................................................... 43

HYPOTHESES .................................................................................................................... 44

METHODOLOGY .............................................................................................................. 44

RESEARCH ASSESSMENT .............................................................................................. 46

Questionnaire Analysis: ..................................................................................................... 46

First Section of the Questionnaire .................................................................................. 46

Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 54

The Second Part of the Questionnaire ................................................................................ 55

(Strategy Inventory for Language Learning) ..................................................................... 55

IMPLEMENTING STRATEGY TRAINING INTO A STANAG COURSE ................ 58

STUDENTS INTERVIEWSON STRATEGY TRAINING ........................................... 77

CONCLUSION ................................................................................................ 79

REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................... 81

APPENDIX ........................................................................................................................... 83


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Introduction

Tell me and Ill forget; show me and I may remember;

involve me and Ill understand.

Chinese proverb

The initial impetus for elaborating this topic matter stemmed from working with

Czech military personnel at the Military English Language Training Institute where the

standard of English language being taught is from lower intermediate to advanced level.

During teaching these adults came to light that the ever-growing need for English language

has created an enormous demand for good quality teaching and teaching materials. Students

demand a high level of fluency, comprehensibility, accuracy and ability to communicate.

Therefore, the demand for an effective teaching methodology is stronger than ever.

Nowadays, the attention in learning-teaching process is paid not only what to learnbut also

how to learnmore effectively and easily.There are equally important elements of education,

such as active and autonomous search for information, ability to solve problems, ability to

see things in proportions, or ability to draw conclusions and form an opinion. The verbs

search, solve, deduce, create, defend suggest active work. Nevertheless, according to the

current research, teachers still spend 80-90% of the communicative time for themselves by

presenting the subject matter in front of the class. There is just a little time and slim

possibilities for students to express their objections, opinions and thoughts, or communicate

within the classroom. Moreover, some teachers ignore the necessity to guide their students

through how to learntechniques and they do not focus on mastering the students learning

processes.

My diploma thesis is devoted to language learning strategies and their incorporation

into language education and the textbooks which are being used on STANAG courses at the

Defence Language Institute. It aims at the question whether training and using suitable

learning strategies within the course material positively affect adult learners and help them

gain communicative competence and learn English language more easily and effectively.

The introduction to learning strategies on STANAG courses was carried out via materials

used on STANAG courses, such as American Language Course (ALC) books, Campaign,

and others.


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The theoretical part concentrates on the important areas that influence the quality of

learning. It firstly looks at the context of communicative learning in language classroom

defining communicative competence, then various definitions and taxonomies of language

learning strategies and their descriptions are presented. At the end, the attention is paid to

the important issues of learning process, such as adult and military learners, characteristic of

a good learner, and also instructional materials are discussed.

The practical part focuses on discovering the learning strategies being used on

STANAG military courses and students methodological preferences. It is followed by a

strategy training carried out through activities and tasks concentrating on a particular

strategy. The research was done in three phases. At first, a two-part questionnaire was

completed to collect data concerning the strategies, techniques and students preferences

being used on STANAG courses. Secondly, strategy training was presented by

incorporating the strategy activities into course materials. Prominence was placed on

training those strategies that appeared to be least developed through activities and tasks

concentrating on a particular strategy. Also, the attention was paid to enhance ALC learning

material with activities supporting the preparation for STANAG examination. In the end, the

effectiveness of the strategy training was summarized by students. This last phase was based

on interviews with course participants.

My goal is to deal with the important issues in learning process and conditions that

can be created for successful learning, such as what makes a good learner, communicative

way of teaching, adapting language learning strategies, instructional material books etc. I

hope that writing this thesis and completing the strategy training in military environment

will contribute to more effective education in military courses and will help STANAG

course participants to acquire English language better and more easily, and last but not least

make the lessons more interesting. I believe that my work might serve as a source of

supporting information for further research in this field.


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THEORETICAL PART

Communicative Language Teaching

Since the thesis is focused on using various learning strategies in context of

communicative learning in language classroom, I would like to start with an explanation of

communicative learning and its meaning first. In the initial phase the methodology is

identified, and also the main differences between the CLT and traditional methods are

depicted. Further, this chapter deals with the question of communicative competence.

Traditional Approach vs. Communicative Language Teaching

The notions of a school, a teacher, or learning process are connected with either

positive or negative memories. Most of the students remember their teacher as person who

explains the topic, practices it, then examines and marks the students. This experience shows

that a good teacher is the one who can explain the topic material well and who can keep the

discipline in the classroom. There is no doubt that explaining the heart of the matter to

others is an important skill, but it is not the only way how to teach.

In history it was important for students to master certain amount of knowledge and

become literate. The onlyplace where the most information and knowledge was gained was

the school. Therefore, traditional way of teaching was a natural tool to achieve the

objectives. Teaching process was based on activity of a teacher who presented already

formulated knowledge to the students who obediently listened to teachers explanation.

There was no time to let the learners search for information, communicate with each other,

use the trial and error method, or even work on their own procedures and experiments.

Nunan emphasizes that in traditional language teaching the aim of the learner was to

approach the target language norms of the native speaker as well as to master structures of

the language (Nunan, 1999, p. 9). In such class the language teaching puts forward the

linguistic system to the learners. Practice and drilling help students learn bits of the language

by heart. Traditional classroom does not consider students as cooperative people, but rather

as individuals who work on the same task, but not on a common task as a team. Students


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are presented with grammar rules first, and then they are given opportunities to practice its

usage by mainly repetitive and drilling exercises.

I have similar experience from my school years, even though I studied in 1990s.

Grammar-translation method was, and still is, widely used in Czech schools. I remember

textbooks where, as I understood, speaking and communication were not the aims. A lecture

with such book would consist of a list of vocabulary to learn, an article to read, abstract

grammar rules to understand, and repetitive and drilling practice exercises, many of them

with translation and substitution only. I gathered I had to memorize the grammar principles

and vocabulary otherwise I would get a bad grade. The only goal I had was to avoid the bad

grades. It never even came to my mind that language is for communication and speaking. I

misunderstood the one simple obvious thing that I learn to use. Brumfit (1992, p. 51) is

more specific about this issue and says that: Traditional methods are aimed at grammaticalcompetence and evaluation, since they concern accuracy, monitoring, reference rules,

explicit knowledge, and the evidence of skills as the most important sections of language

learning

Conversely, the real language use requires language abilities based on fluency,

functions, comprehensibility, and implicit knowledge rather than grammatical competence.

Acquiring the language skills is not just an intellectual exercise. There may be a variety of

reasons for language study such as travelling or working abroad, promotion at work,

admission requirements to a school, reading English texts, watching movies in original

script, meeting foreign friends etc. Majority of them will need communication at some point.

Language practice should provide opportunities for students to cooperate, communicate, and

interact. This led to the expansion of interactive approaches in which grammar is determined

to the performance of communicative tasks. The role of methods used on STANAG courses

is dealt with in a latter chapter of this work. The next chapter details the STANAG courses.

Language learning in STANAG courses

Communication is an inseparable part of our daily life. Nevertheless, sometimes it

can cause occasional misunderstanding for military personnel attending international

missions, or during official meetings and negotiations. For this reason, the NATO language

subcommittee adopted American language descriptions for language assessment called

STANAG (Standardized Agreement). There are five levels of English comprehension for

each of the four language skills. Therefore, the principal language skills being practiced


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As Oxford (1990, p. 7) summarizes, communicative competence is ability to

communicate. In addition, she provides a comprehensive, four-part definition of

communicative competence:

1.

Grammatical competence or accuracy is the degree to which thelanguage user has mastered the linguistic code, including vocabulary,

grammar, pronunciation, spelling, and word formation.

2.

Sociolinguistic competence is the extent to which utterances can be used

or understood appropriately in various social contexts. It includes

knowledge of speech acts such as persuading, apologizing, and describing.

3. Discourse competenceis the ability to combine ideas to achieve cohesion

in form and coherence in thought, above the level of the single sentence.

4.

Strategic competence is the ability to use strategies like gestures or

talking around and unknown word in order to overcome limitations in

language knowledge.

(Oxford, 1990, p. 7)

The result from such a definition is that communicative competence does not only

refer to the skill of speaking. In fact, it is concerned with both spoken and written language

and thus all four skills. There are many different ways of saying the same thing, and learners

choose one according to the situation. This definition also implies that it is not enough just

supply students with language structures, rules and vocabulary but teachers should teach

students the use and usageof words and phrases.

A question arises: How can students be taught genuine communication in a classroom

environment? Rewell (1994, p. 6) claims that communication stems from necessity, and this

element is usually absent in a classroom situation. Considering ALC course books and many

other textbooks, a learner often knows in advance what he/she will say, and also what

everyone else will say or ask. To illustrate this point, I have taken a paragraph from textbook

material we use:

T: (Students are talking over a picture) Ask your colleague what Anna was wearing

yesterday.

S1: What was Anna wearing yesterday?

S2: She was wearing a combat uniform. (ALC, 1991, book 5)

This example illustrates that there is no exchange of any information, no surprise, no

choice of what to say. Therefore, students do not really need to listen to what is being


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expressed. Rewell (1994, p. 6) mentions the necessity of an information gap,

unpredictability, and skill-getting through skill-using rule, which can be created in

classroom by the use of activities where the participants are only in possession of part of the

total information. Students then have a certain amount of choice in what to say, they ask

questions because they dont know the answer, and they have a reason for listening to oneanother.

She further suggests the use of activities practicing the natural use of language, such

as: jigsaw listening or reading; assembling component parts of a puzzle (instructing);

scientific experiments; making things; describing the differences between words or things; or

activities where one person has all the information, and the rest of the class either has to find

out the information, or those who knowmust give instructions to those in the darkin order to

make for authentic communication. She also suggests trial and error learning, activities wherelearners are playing a part in situations which are not predictable (e.g. role-plays: You are

neighbours. You left the back door open. Your neighbours dog got in, ate your dinner, and

was sick on your kitchen floor). (Rewell, 1994, p. 6-7)

It is possible to summarize all the above mentioned views about communicative

competence: the communicative competence is (1) the ability to communicate which includes

both, spoken and written language, plus all four skills, (2) it aims mainly at the use and

usage of the language rather than teaching students only language rules, structures and

vocabulary.

Turning to point (2), many students seem to learn better if they are thinking about the

language matter. Harmer (2007, p. 57) gives an example where a teacher instead of explicitly

teaching the grammar subject of present perfect tense exposes his learners to examples of

grammar matter and then allows the students, with his help and guidance, to work out for

themselves how it is used. However, discovery learningmay not be suitable for all grammar

or lexical items, or for every learner. Adult learners may feel more secure with a rule because

over-complex language may cause difficulty for them.

Oxford (1990, p.8) sees the aim of language learning strategies as being oriented toward

the broad goal of communicative competence. Development of communicative competence

requires realistic and meaningful interaction among students. She emphasises that: Learning

strategies help learners participate actively in authentic communication (1990, p. 8). The

issue of learning strategies and their contribution to the goal of communicative competence is

the subject matter of a next chapter.


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Introduction to Language Learning Strategies

There has been an influential shift within the field of language learning and teaching

over the last two decades in the Army of the Czech Republic. Nowadays, the Ministry ofDefence consider language learning as one of the most important priorities. This important

fact indicates that teachers should streamline the language education continually, improve

and search new ways for effective learning, motivate students so that they are capable to

perform all the requirements which are imposed on them. Language learning strategies,

being specific actions, tactics, or techniques, facilitate the target language by the language

learner. Learning strategies affect the nature and the quality of learning processes, as well as

focus on how to manage language learning easily and more effectively. Prior to adopting

this approach in military courses, it is good to know what learning strategies are actually

about. Therefore, topics in the next chapter include various definitions of learning strategies.

Definition of Language Learning Strategies

The issues: how learners process, learn, or remember new information, and what kinds

of strategies they employ to understand has been the primary concern of the authors dealing

with foreign language learning. A number of researchers have attempted to define language

learning strategies (LLS). Leaver, Ehrman, and Shekhtman (2005, p. 65) specify learning

strategies in general as activities and techniques students use to learn. Similarly, OMalley

and Chamot (1995, p. 1) define learning strategies as special ways of proceeding information

that enhance comprehension, learning, or retention of the informationsuch as repeating new

words aloud to remember them, using the surrounding context to guess the meaning of

unknown words, or showing the main ideas in a text in a form of a map.

Ellis (2008, p. 76) adds to the LLS definition that: They are typically problem-

oriented. In short, students apply learning strategies when they face to a problem, such as

how to summarize a text, or how to remember a new word.

Rebecca Oxford, one of the leading specialists in the language learning strategies field,

emphasises two important reasons of strategy importance. Firstly, she says that learning

strategies are tools for active, self-directed involvement, which is essential for developing

communicative competence. Secondly, she says that learners who have developedappropriate learning strategies have greater self-confidence and learn more effectively


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(Oxford, 1990, p. 1). She adds that learning strategies are specific actions taken by the

learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and

more transferrable to new situations (p. 8). Further she identifies twelve key features of

strategies, among others, she emphasises contribution to communicative competence,

developing the skill of students self-direction, expanding the role of teachers, or involvingproblem-oriented tasks (Oxford, 1990, p. 9).

Nunan (1999, p. 171) corresponds to Oxfords point of view and adds that

strategies are the mental and communicativeprocedures learners use in order to learn and

use the language. Underlying every learning task is at least one strategy. Nevertheless,

Nunan claims that in most classrooms learners are unaware of the strategies underlying the

learning tasks in which they are engaged in. Conversely, Ellis (2008, p. 77) states that

learners are generally aware of the strategies they use. Learning strategies are mostlyunobservable, though some can be connected with behavior that is possible to observe, such

as taking notes in order to remember the information. In my opinion, the recognition of the

strategies depends on the age and students maturity. Students should be able to report and

explain their mental processes of choosing and applying a particular strategy. Especially

adult learners are able to describe what they did to try to learn something through

interviews, questionnaires, or diaries.

Nunan further brings a research which shows that learners who are taught the

strategies underlying their learning are more highly motivated than those who are not. The

knowledge of learning strategies is not automatic. Learning strategies need to be trained and

learners need time to experiment with different strategies in order to reach more effective

learning (Nunan, 1999, p. 171-172).

An insight into the issue of a learner in relation to language learning strategies and a

general characteristic of a good learner are the subjects of an individual chapter included in

this thesis. Since learners differ quite widely in their preference and adaptation to styles of

learning, there is no definite list of LLS, but generalized categorization which is the subject

of the next chapter.

To conclude, all language learning strategy definitions correspond in one matter, and

that is, that they make language learning easier, faster, more enjoyable and more effective.


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Classification of Language learning Strategies

A number of researchers have attempted to classify LLS in various ways.

Nevertheless, as it was stated in a previous chapter, the diversity of students, their individual

needs and personality have resulted in the use of varied and often overlapping terminology.

Consequently, a definite taxonomy of LLS does not exist so far.

Ellis and Sinclair (1991-a, p. 151) divide learning strategies into four rather detailed

sections: meta-cognitive, cognitive, social and communication. OMalley and Chamot

(1995, p. 8) apply similar classification to language learning and add new category, which

they call affective - social or socioaffective. Nunan, who is the author of many textbooks,

has developed his own typology of strategies. He divides them into four major classes:

cognitive, interpersonal, linguistic and affective (1999, p. 183).

Rubin, who pioneered much of the work in the field of strategies, draws a distinction

between direct and indirect strategies according to how they involve the target language.

The primary category is direct strategies, and it includes strategies that directly affect

learning, thus cover mental processes in language learning, such as clarification/verification,

monitoring, memorization, guessing/inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning, and practice.

As the name suggests, these are specific techniques that students can use to internalize the

language. On the other hand, the second category, indirect strategies includes strategies that

indirectly contribute to learning, such as evaluating ones learning, cooperating with others

and creating practice opportunities and using production tricks (Rubin in OMalley and

Chamot, 1995, p. 4). According to Rubin, there are three types of strategies that contribute

directly or indirectly to language learning: learning strategies, communication strategies,

and social strategies.

Oxford (1990, p.14-15 ) goes in more detail while describing learning strategies. She

also uses sorting the strategies into direct and indirect categories which are closely

interconnected and further distinguished into subgroups. She offers a good way of linking

strategies with all four skills- speaking, listening, reading and writing.

For my thesis topic, the implementation of language learning strategies into military

course materials and for the research evaluation, the Oxfords taxonomy was chosen. Her

overview is well-arranged and transparent. The questionnaire used in the practical part of

my research was inspired by Vlckova and Prikrylovas Foreign Language Learning Strategy


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Questionnaire for Comprehensive School (2002) who also give priority to Oxfords

classification of strategies. The following chapters describe the strategies in more detail.

Direct Strategies

Oxford (1990, p.37) makes a distinction between direct and indirect strategies.

Direct strategies directly affect a specific learning task, such as memorizing and retrieving

new information, analyzing and reasoning, or guessing. She associates direct strategies to

the Performer at the stage play, explaining that they deal with the new language itself in a

variety of specific tasks and situations (Oxford, 1990, p. 14). Among direct strategies whose

common feature is the requirements of mental processing of the language belong: memory,

cognitive and compensation strategies. Oxford (1990, p. 37) explains that each of the

strategies group does the mental processing of the language in a different way. A diagram of

memory strategies shows the relationship among particular strategies.

Original source: Oxford, 1990, p.38

Memory strategies

Memory strategies, sometimes called mnemonics, help students memorize, store

and retrieve new information, and according to Oxford (1990, p. 38) they have been used

widely for thousands of years, especially before literacy. As an example, she mentions

orators in ancient times remembering their long speeches by linking different parts of the

speech with different places or things. Nowadays, memory strategies are still considered as

a very important mental tool. Lots of classroom information can be encoded in mnemonics,

Memory

strategies

Creating mental

linkages(grouping,

associating/elaborating

, placing new words

into a context)

Applying images and

sounds(using imagery,

semantic mapping,

using keywords,

representing sounds in

memory)

Reviewing well

(structured reviewing)

Employing action

(using physical

response or sensation,

using mechanical

techniques)


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such as remembering the order of the British royal houses with "No Plan Like Yours To

Study History Well" (Norman, Plantagenet, Lancastrian, York, Tudor, Stuart, Hanoverian,

Windsor). Frequently, these tricks are remembered from childhood till adulthood. From

my own experience, I can still remember the periodic table according to the rhymes and

sentences in Czech language as I had learned at school (vertical lines: Hanu Libal Na

KolinkaRobustni Cestar Franta,BezelaMagda CanonemSrazilaBananRamenem...)

Turning to the topic of using memory strategies when learning foreign

languages, they relate to the whole work with new information including input, learning and

output phase. Scrivener (2005, p. 254) gives a detailed description of each phase:

Input phase: students are exposed to the language matter, they notice

specific items when they are being used in text,

Learning phase: students understand the form, meaning and use of anitem,

Output phase: students try things out, have opportunities to practice,

use the new language, and remember items.

Oxford (1990, p. 39) points out that memory strategies reflect techniques and

activities which all involve meaning and the material to be retrieved must have

significance for learners. Memory strategies deal with the new language information

including remembering words. There is no doubt that grammar and vocabulary is the base

of second language acquisition. Grammar on a certain level of learning language is a

closed set, but the vocabulary is an open set. That is why the importance of teaching

vocabulary should be emphasized. Remembering new words is hard. It takes a lot of effort

to keep new words in memory. Jill Hadfield (1999, p. 4) presents three distinct processes

of remembering vocabulary: fixing the meaning of a word (memorizing), making the word

myown by personalizing it so that it becomes a part of studentsindividual word store

(personalising), and using the word creatively in the context (communicating). It is

possible to equate this process with Scriveners ways of recording lexical items. He says

that remembering involves four things: putting into storage (corresponds to memorizing),

keeping in storage (corresponds to personalizing), retrieving and using which corresponds

to communicating (Scrivener, 2005, p. 241). Students are supposed to follow this process

while learning vocabulary. That is why they need to know various memory strategies to

assist them with better remembering and retrieving vocabulary. Arthur Bornstein (2007),

a founder of School for Memory Training, offers a number of strategies for successful

remembering vocabulary, such as notes on the walls, using visual methods, saying or


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writing words, recording words/phrases, grouping words, retrieving words in certain time

intervals, playing games, associations, using active, positive, fun connections, or using lot

of imagination while learning new vocabulary. Oxford (1990, p. 39) emphasises that the

arrangements and associations must be personally meaningful to the learner, and the

material to be reviewed must have significance.The memory strategies described in the following chapters are offered by Rebecca

Oxford. They are divided into four categories: creating mental linkages, applying images

and sounds, reviewing well and employing action.

Creating Mental Linkages

This group comprises of three strategies that form the foundation of the rest of the

memory strategies.

One strategy involves grouping words so that a set is learned together. Oxford

introduces grouping as an activity dealing with classifying or reclassifying into meaningful

groups, including also labelling groups (Oxford, 1990, p. 58-59). Classifying can be done in

various ways: according to the topic, conceptual similarities (e.g. hot, warm, boiling),

dissimilarities or opposites, word classes, , positive-negative groups, practical or linguistic

function, etc. Nunan considers classifying helpful for learners because it is easier tomemorize items that are grouped together in meaningful way than trying to remember

isolated items (1999, p. 185). Similarly, Scrivener (2005, p. 242) defines grouping as

...more effective than studying unrelated individual words.

Another strategy is called associating/elaborating. Learners are trying to find a

connection of a new term with familiar language information already stored in their

memory, so-called footing. They use various aids to associate new words. Hadfield

supports the usefulness of this strategy by stating that students have to fix the meaning of

the word in their minds by personalizing so that it takes on a colour and a character and

becomes part of their individual word store (Hadfield, 1999, p. 4). Oxford (1990, p. 41)

highlights that this strategy must be meaningful to students. A similar strategy based on

the principle of associating is the semantic mapping (sometimes called word web or mind

web).

Placing new words into a contextis another strategy which should be considered. This

technique involves a form of associating/elaborating, in which students are trying to link the


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new information with a context. Placing a word or phrase, which is supposed to be learned,

in a meaningful sentence, a story, or conversation leads a student to the context

involvement. This strategy is useful in situations when students are asked to remember

words without any supporting or explanatory context. In such cases, learners create their

own context and place new words, phrases, or expressions into their meaningful context.

Hadfield points out that it is helpful if students relate the new word to their personal

experience (1999, p. 5).

Applying Images and Sounds

These strategies focus on ways to remember new information by means of visual

images and sounds. Four strategies are included in this group: using imagery, using keywords, semantic mapping, and representing sounds in memory.

Relating new information to mental or visual image in memory is a strategy called

using imagery. The image can be either real (a picture or an object), or in the mind (a

mental representation or an image of a word). For example, students are asked to visualize

abstract words in order to remember them easier. This strategy can be helpful especially for

visual (seeing) style students. Leaver, Ehrman, and Shekhtman (2005, p. 65-67) define that

visual style students understand grammar or vocabulary better when they can read about it

in a book or when they see a picture of what they heard or read, they often recognize words

by sight, use lists to organize their thoughts, or recall information by remembering how it

was set out on a page. Using imagery is very useful strategy, not only for young learners,

but also for adults. Things that we can imagine in mind, words which easily evoke pictures

are much easier to remember.

Semantic mappingis a strategy in which students arrange words into a diagram or a

picture which has a key heading and related words (sub-headings). Words are highlighted

and linked via lines or arrows, which help learners to visually see how certain groups of

words relate to each other. Oxford defines semantic mapping as strategy involving

meaningful imagery, grouping, and associations (1990, p. 41). Scrivener (2005, p. 245)

describes this strategy as topic websand adds that this way of recording lexical items may

reflect more accurately the way that we store lexical item networks in our brains-and may

therefore be more useful for students than the traditional lists.Nunan speaks about concept

mapping which shows the main ideas in a text in the form of a map (1999, p. 183).


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Semantic mapping can be used as a brainstorming activity prior to an assignment,

organizing strategy during an assignment, or as a post- assessment activity.

Remembering a new word by using auditory and visual links is introduced by

Oxford (1990, p.41) as using keywords. She describes that the first step is to identify a

familiar word in ones own language that sounds like the new word (auditory link). Thesecond step is to generate an image of some relationship between the new word and a

familiar one (visual link) (1990, p. 41-42). She gives an example that the word Minnesota

can be remembered by the image of mini soda.

Remembering new words according to its sound, all of which create

meaningful and sound-based association between new words and already known material,

represents a broad strategy called Representing sounds in memory. This technique

involves linking a new word with a word in your or any other language that sounds like thetarget word, such as English bill (request for payment) and Czech byl (he was). Another

helpful and very popular technique is using rhymes, songs or poems. It is very effective way

of how to remember new vocabulary, master pronunciation or learn grammar.

Reviewing well

As the name suggests, structured reviewing in spaced intervals is very important

strategy related to a process of repeating new information in order to store it in memory. All

stages of working with new information are important, but the initial stage of putting new

information into storage would not be effective without practicing, retrieving and using

phase. Language practice activities are undoubtedly the most important. Some teachers

spend too much time on input phase, but the real learning experience comes when students

try to use the language. Oxford (1990, p. 42) calls this strategy spiraling, because students

keep spiralling back in certain time intervals to the subject matter taught, and at the sametime learning new information. The goal is to become familiar with the information which

then becomes natural and automatic. A typical activity of a restricted output stage is drills.

Although some teachers consider drills old-fashioned and rarely use them, I honestly think

that students need to be able to automate the new knowledge. They need to practice the item

which they are trying to learn many times before they eventually start using it.


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Employing action

There are two strategies described in this section. Using physical response (TPR)

appeal especially to young learners but can be also enjoyable for adult students. Some

military learners might feel embarrassed, considering the uniform and the age factor. TPR

involves acting out a new expression. The physical movement influences well the way how

the new language item is kept in memory.

Using mechanical techniques Oxford (1990, p. 43) introduces as a strategy which

involves using creative but tangible techniques, especially involving moving or changing

something which is concrete, in order to remember new target language information. An

example of such a technique is using flashcards which can be used as a tool for many

activities, such as definition game, description game, story-telling activities, guessing game,

etc.

Original source: Oxford, 1990, p.38

Cognitivestrategies

As it has been already stated above, many methodologists have classed language

learning strategies in a different ways. Frequently, in many publications cognitive strategies

overlap with memory strategies. One group of linguists distinguishes memory strategies

from cognitive ones (Oxford 1990, p. 18-19), whereas the other group includes memory

Cognitive

strategies

Practicing(repeating,

formally practicing with

sounds and writing

systems, recognizing

formulas and patterns,

recombining, practicing

naturalistically)

Receiving and sending

messages(getting the

idea quickly, using

resources for receiving

and sending messages)

Analyzing and

reasoning (reasoning

deductively, analyzing

expressions, analyzing

contrastively,

translating)

Creating structure for

input and output

(taking notes,

summarizing,

highlighting)


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strategies such as grouping, visualisation (imagery), or associating into cognitive section,

such as Nunan (1999, p. 183), Ellis and Sinclair (1991a, p. 152-153), or Ellis (2008, p. 77).

Cognitive strategies are fundamental in learning languages and are typically found to

be most popular among language students. As the name suggests, they refer to cognition,

which is the process of knowing, understanding, and learning something (Longman,2005). They refer to the steps used in learning or problem-solving. These procedures and

strategies are used by students to perform tasks successfully. Although they vary from

repeating to analyzing and summarizing, they are unified by manipulation or transformation

technique of the target language by the student. Oxford (1990, p. 43) defines four sets of

cognitive strategies: practicing, receiving and sending messages, analyzing and reasoning,

and creating structure for input and output.

Practicing

Practicing has always played an important part in language learning and it is one of

the most effective cognitive strategies. It helps students to transfer knowledge from their

short-term to their long-term memories. Having committed a new knowledge or information

properly in memory is not possible without training. If students think about what they are

repeating and try to organize the new information in their heads, they have better chances of

remembering the subject matter. Nunan (1999, p. 184) defines practicing as doing

controlled exercises to improve knowledge and skills. Unfortunately, very often the

chances to practice in class are pushed aside by one student who recites while others sit

back. The aim of a teacher is to provide enough practice for all his/her learners in order to

reach acceptable proficiency, which requires a lot of practice time. Oxford (1990, p. 44)

offers following strategies reinforcing the student practice: repeating, formally practicing

with sounds and writing systems, recognizing and using formulas and patterns, recombining,

and practicing naturally. The most important strategy of the five practicing strategies is

definitely practicing naturally.

Saying or doing something over and over, listening to something several times,

rehearsing, or imitating a native speaker are strategies called repeating. The aim is to

practice new language information until students start using it automatically and naturally.

The more students come across with language, the more repeated encounters they have, and

consequently they have better chances of remembering new knowledge. Harmer points out

that just repeating something several times is not useful, the important factors are the lapses

in between (2007, p. 56). He suggests activities, such as re-formulating what has been said,


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re-using words and grammar, paraphrasing, which provokes re-structuring of noticed

language.

Even though strategy of repeating sounds might not seem very creative, Oxford

(1990, p. 70-71) suggests some appealing ways, which can improve all four language skills.

One of these strategies is repeated listening to native speakers or new languageon a tape

or record, preferably with the silent rehearsal. Another way is reading a passage several

times for different purposesfollowed by review, yet another is imitation of native speakers

which can be used in speaking and writing. All these strategies are very useful for all

learners, especially for adult students. Learners can improve their use of structure,

pronunciation, vocabulary, intonation, idioms, and style.

The next strategy introduced in cognitive section is more focused on perception of

sounds (pronunciation, stress and intonation) rather than on meaning and comprehension. Itis a strategy called formally practicing with sounds and writing system. Oxford(1990, p.

71-72) explains that this technique is mostly used while doing listening exercises purely

through perception (purely audio speech) in order to keep visual and conceptual clues to

minimum. Ellis and Sinclair (1991a, p. 152-153) include written repetition into this section

of strategies where students are supposed to imitate a language model several times in order

to aid retention and production.

Recognizing and using formulas and patternsfocuses on using routine formulas,

which are single and unanalyzed units such as Hello, how are you?, and unanalyzed

patterns, which have at least one slot to be filled, such as Im fine,_______ . These

strategies are widely used in different textbooks.

Oxford (1990, p. 45) describes the strategy of combining known elements in new

ways to produce a longer sequence, such as linking one word or phrase with another into a

whole sentence. It is known as a strategy of recombining.

Practicing naturalistically is an effective and most important cognitive strategywhich trains students to use real language in natural and realistic settings, either inside or

outside the classroom. The emphasis is given to the practice with an authentic material

where learners have to deal with written text and speech which is hard for them to

understand. They miss quite a few words but they are still able to extract the general

meaning. Harmer defines authentic materials as language where no concessions are made

to foreign speakers. This is normal, natural language used by native or competent speakers

of a language (2007,p. 272).Activities such as participating in conversations, listening to

authentic speech, reading English books and articles, writing in target language, watching


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English films, listening to English songs, using the internet significantly contribute to the

use of language for actual communication. Above all, they make the course more practical

and realistic, and develop the fundamental aim of learning language, communicative

competence.

Nunan (1999, p. 212) strongly supports the use of authentic data from the very

beginning of a course. He suggests activities such as listening to extracts from radio and

television, public broadcasting announcements, conversations and discussions, telephone

conversations, voice mail, etc. He considers essential to expose students to authentic

materials for several reasons: Firstly he explains that the non-authentic materials lack

negotiation of meaning and linguistic features, such as overlaps, hesitations, repetition,

clarification, and so on. Secondly, he says that using authentic sources prepare students for

genuine conversations and lead to greater interest and variety in the material that learners

deal with. Scrivener states that authentic exposure promotes noticing and is widely used in

task-based learning (2005, p. 116-117).

On the other hand, authentic materials can be extremely de-motivating for students

since they are hard to understand and depend on proficiency, and consequently students

experience failure. In my opinion, a teacher should not press students to deal with a too hard

task, but instead he/she should let students read and listen to things they can understand and

choose such tasks that help students to understand the language better. For beginners, the

activities and tasks may be simplified, but not in unnatural way.

In STANAG courses, students have the best possibility to practice speaking

naturally, especially with native speakers, or through role-plays, discussions, and speaking

games. Listening in our courses is realized mainly through related material to the ALC

textbooks and supplementary textbooks. However, there are other possibilities to implement

authentic and untraditional sources into lessons more often, especially with the technologydevelopment. Students can listen to a wide range of authentic material according to their

selection, watch films, listen to the songs, radio stations, listen to the sources on the internet,

use web-quest, etc. Turning the topic to reading skills, there are many possibilities for our

students to read authentic texts. They can either use the school library or they read texts

which are in the scope of the language lessons, or they can work with the internet and read

various sources which pique their interest. Lesson reading material should be carefully

chosen by a teacher in order to attract students attention and their drive to continue and


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finish the reading after the lesson. Writing skill can be developed through writing letters, e-

mails, essays, or while performing tasks and projects.

Receiving and sending messages

There are two strategies discussed in this section. First, getting the idea quickly,

and secondusing resources for receiving and sending messages . The former one uses two

specific strategies for extracting ideas, while the latter one involves using a variety of

resources for understanding and producing meaning. No doubt, these strategies are useful

since some students have difficulties with reading skills and complain that they need a

dictionary all the time, or it takes them too long to go through a text and the interest of the

subject matter is soon lost. In order to make students better readers, they should be aware of

different strategies and reading techniques which can show them that it is not vital to

understand every word, but often skimming and scanning, or other reading techniques can

take place.

The technique of getting the idea quickly uses skimming, often called reading or

listening for gist (general idea), which is a fast technique to determine the main ideas, topic,

overall theme, etc. Also scanning is a strategy involving fast reading, where students are

supposed to find a specific point or detail, such as names, address, dates, etc. This strategy

helps learners understand what they hear or read in English language. With the growth of

internet technology, these techniques can be done in realistic and more enjoyable ways.

Frequently, these techniques are in the content of various textbooks.

The last strategy in the section of receiving and sending messages is using recourses

for receiving and sending messages, which relates to the usage of printed and non-printed

resources in order to understand incoming messages or producing outgoing messages. An

example of a recourse which should be widely used by learners is definitely a dictionary.

Harmer distinguishes between referenceand productiondictionaries. He explains that: A

referencedictionary is one where a student looks up a word to see what meanings it has,

how it is used and the way it is spelt and pronounced. On the other hand, production

dictionaries are used the other way around: [] starting with a meaning they wish to

express and looking for the word that expresses it (2007, p. 239). In short, reference

dictionaries are packed with much information about a target word, and in contrast,

production dictionaries allow students to find new words and find out the meaning of what


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The strategy of translating can be helpful especially in early stages of language

learning since it makes things explicit for learners. However, as Oxford (1990, p. 84)

stresses word-to word translation should be avoided. Harmer (2007, p. 133) sees some

benefits in using mother tongue in a language classroom. First, he points out that: It is

useful for students to notice differences between their L1 and the target language. It willhelp learners understand certain language matters, explain things that are not clear, explain

errors, or it can also be effective way of reviewing how well learners have understood the

subject matter at the end of each unit. Further, he explains that using L1 has a positive effect

on group dynamics- students can give ongoing feedback about the course.

Oxford (1990, p.85) describes transferring as a strategy which means directly

applying previous knowledge to facilitate new knowledge in target language. She gives an

example of transferring where a student with hearing the expression of weekend (vikend)

correctly knowsthrough transfer that it means the same as in Czech hezky vikend (Have a

good weekend).

Creating structure for input and output

Strategies that are trying to help students structure and organize the new language

input into manageable shape are: taking notes, summarizing, and highlighting. These

strategies are essential for both comprehension and production in the target language.

Taking notes, as the term suggests, this strategy involves writing down the main

idea or specific points in students own words.Ellis and Sinclair (1991a, p. 152) name this

strategy as noting down, and define it as writing down important items as they occur.

However, this strategy is highly personal, therefore, there is no right way of practicing it.

Some notes that students take are likely to be well organized, some chaotic. Yet even those

notes that seem chaotic can be highly effective for the person who took them. This suggests

that instead of telling students how to take notes, we should offer them various examples to

choose from, such as a semantic mapping, point by point, diagrams, etc.

The strategy of summarizing involves putting the main ideas into own words,

including the important points only. It is a beneficial technique, especially for beginners,

since students cover the main points succinctly and it helps them to recapitulate the main

facts. Nunan (1999, p. 184) includes this strategy into linguistic section and defines it as:Picking out and presenting the major points in a text in summary form. This form does not


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have to be only in spoken or written form, easy way of how to summarize subject matter can

be through depicting pictures. Summarizing also works well as a test-preparing strategy.

Highlighting is the last of the three strategies included in this section. Oxford (1990,

p. 47) presents this strategy as using a variety of emphasis techniques (such as underlining,

starring, or color-coding) to focus on important information in a passage. This strategy is

also used to emphasize main ideas and supporting details to help students to improve the

organization of their writing.

Based on the DLI research into learning strategies being used on STANAG courses,

of the five strategies under investigation, the compensation and metacognitive strategies

were the most developed. Affective strategies have not been included into the questionnaire.

Therefore, activities and tasks concerning these sections were not included into the strategytraining, and consequently they are just briefly introduced in this part of work.

Compensational strategies

Another section of language learning strategies is named compensational strategies,

and as the name suggests, they enable learners to understand and use the new language even

with incidental lack of knowledge, unknown word, or missing information. These strategies

serve learners to overcome these language gaps and help them to use the new language for

both, comprehension and production. Oxford points out that these techniques are intended

to make up for an inadequate repertoire of grammar, and especially, of vocabulary (1990,

p. 47).

Oxford (1990, p. 48) distinguishes ten compensational strategies forming two sets:

(1) Guessing Intelligently in Listening and Reading, and(2) Overcoming Limitations in

Speaking and Writing.

Guessing strategies entail using variety of linguistic and non-linguistic clues to

guess the meaning. Generally, good language learners try to guess unknown expressions in a

large extend, whereas less adept learners try to look up every word into a dictionary.

Eight strategies used in this set dedicate to the question How to overcome

limitations in speaking and writing. Some of the strategies are determined solely for

speaking, some can be used for writing as well: using linguistic clues, using other clues,

switching to the mother tongue, getting help, using mime or gesture, avoiding


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communication partially and totally, selecting the topic, adjusting or approximating the

message, coining words, and using a circumlocution or synonym.

Indirect strategies

As the term suggests, indirect strategies promote learning languages in an indirect

way. They are not directly involved with the target language but they manage and contribute

to language learning. Both, direct and indirect strategies are interconnected and provide

support for each other. Oxford (1990, p. 15) likens indirect strategies to the Director of the

play who serves a host of functions, like focusing, organizing, guiding, checking,

correcting, coaching, encouraging, and cheering the Performer (direct strategies). The

Director is an internal guide and support to the Performer. This section is made of

metacognitive, affective, and social strategies.

Metacognitive strategies

Metacognitive strategies are regarded as very important in successful learning.

Oxford explains that it is a set of strategies is used to oversee, regulate or self-direct

language learning, and they are intended to help learners to control and coordinate their own

learning process by the use of centring, arranging, planning, prioritising and evaluating

students learning(Oxford, p. 136). Thus, they relate to everything that deals with learners

control of his/her own learning. Ellis and Sinclair (1991a, p. 151) emphasise that

metacognitive strategies are those which are more generalized, unlike cognitive ones which

are more task specific. Moreover, memory strategies are definitely more effective when they

are supported by metacognitive strategies.

Language learners are often overwhelmed by too many unfamiliar words, confusing

spelling, difficult grammatical rules, etc. With this novelty many students, and especially

beginners, lose the track and focus on the language. Using metacognitive strategies can give

students ideas of how to arrange and plan their learning and overcome these difficulties.

Oxford (1990, p. 136) uses an acronym to remember this strategy set: Metacognitive

strategies make language learner more CAPE-able. Shedistinguishes three strategy sets: C

stands for Centering your learning, Astands forArranging and planning your learning, P

stands forPlanning your learning, andE meansEvaluating your learning.


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A group called centering your learning offers three strategies that aid students to pay

attention and devote students energy to language tasks, activities, skills, or materials. These

are: overviewing and linking with already known material, paying attention and delaying

speech production to focus on listening.

Arranging and planning your learning is another set of six strategies, all of which

help learners organize and plan the language learning in order to get the most out of

language learning. These strategies refer to many areas: finding out about language learning,

organizing, setting goals and objectives, identifying the purpose of a language task, planning

for a language task, and seeking practice opportunities.

Two strategies are included in a group called evaluating your learning. As the

name suggest, they help students in checking their language performance.

Self-monitoring- involves noticing and learning from errorsSelf-evaluating- concern evaluating the overall process.

Affective strategies

Language learning can be frustrating in some ways and can cause emotional

difficulties. A good language student is more or less conscious of these emotional problems.

He/she tries to create associations of positive affect towards learning as well as towards the

foreign language and its speakers. Oxford emphasises that this set of strategies develop the

self-confidence and perseverance needed for learners to involve themselves actively in

language learning (1990, p. 8). Consequently, affective strategies are important for

attaining communicative competence, helping students face up to and overcome possible

emotional difficulties.

Majority of adult learners know how to control their negative emotions. On the other

hand, all learners need positive attitudes and emotions to make language learning effective.

Among affective strategies belong: Lowering your anxiety (using progressive relaxation,

using music, using laughter), encouraging yourself (making positive statements, taking

risks wisely, rewarding yourself), ad taking your emotional temperature (listening to your

body, using a checklist, writing a language learning diary, and discussing your feelings with

someone else).


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Social strategies

Social strategies are indirect strategies since they contribute indirectly to learning

and do not lead directly to the acquiring, storing, and retrieving of language. As the name

suggests, these strategies relate with social activities, interaction, or empathetic

understanding. They are important within the field of communicative competence and

include activities in which students are exposed to possibilities to practise their knowledge.

Ellis (2008, p. 77) presents social/affective strategies in his strategy classification. Similarly,

Ellis and Sinclair (1991a, p. 154) include strategies, such as negotiation, resourcing, role-

playing into a social strategy group.

A.Asking questions

Asking for clarification and verification

Asking for correction

B. Cooperating with others

Cooperating with peers

Cooperating with proficient users of the new language

C.Empathising with others

Developing cultural understanding

Becoming aware of others thoughts and feelings

To conclude all that has been said about language learning strategies is that the

knowledge of learning strategies is not automatic. Learning strategies need to be trained and

students need time to experiment with different strategies in order to reach more effective

learning. Another issue to be investigated is a learner in relation to language learning

strategies, and defining a good learner.

Learners in Relation to Language Learning Strategies

Certainly, students are the central objective in language teaching. It is them who

teachers prepare the lessons for, and it is them who the course material is written for, but what

do learners expect from language classes? Ellis and Sinclair (1991a, p. 8) describe that

learners have their individual expectations concerning language learning, their teachers role,

and their own roles. These expectations are very often resulting from the past learning

experience and learners cultural background.


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Although I taught quite a few military courses with same course objectives, materials

or students age, the classes were quite different. The difference has to do with interpersonal

and social factors that have developed within each class (in STANAG courses relating also to

a rank position in military career), different teacher and learner expectations about the nature

of learning process, attitudes, values, and individual personalities. Nunan (1999, p. 156)

emphasises that students come to class with different expectations, and it is up to the teacher

to create a climate in which different role expectations are articulated to the students and

accepted by them.

In this chapter my concern lays on the learners expectations, and their roles in

language class in relation to language learning strategies. I see the learner from the

perspective of communicative language teaching which is implicit in language learning.

Majority of language learning strategies are oriented towards students acquisition of

communicative competence. This aim requires development of communicative skills in

interaction among students. Oxford (1990, p. 8) defines features of language learning

strategies dealing with learners, she says these strategies:

1) allow learners to become more self-directed;

2)

contribute to the main goal, communicative competence;

3)

involve many aspects of the learner, not just cognitive.

Nunan (1999, p. 10) shares similar view as Oxford, and adds that: The notion that

different learners have different communicative requirements, and that these ought to be

reflected, both in the context of the curriculum and learning process (how it is taught), was

also reinforced by an ideological shift in focus away from the teacher towards the learner.

Consequently, the next step in the development of a learner-centered classroom is to train

learners to identify their own learning styles and strategies.

Another interesting view into LLS is presented by Ellis and Sinclair who claim that a

successful language learner uses more strategies than the unsuccessful one. They summarize

a general characteristic of a good learner into seven categories: good language learners are

self aware, inquisitive and tolerant, self-critical, realistic, willing to experiment, actively

involved, and organized (Ellis and Sinclair, 1991a, p. 6). Although this is very interesting

insight into what might make a good learner, it is very general view because learners differ

from each other. As an example, Leaver, Ehrman, and Shekhtman explain that there is a

close relationship between styles and strategies: Individuals with one set of styles


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(preferences) probably use very different strategies from those with another set of styles

(2005, p. 65). For example, a preference for reading over talking can indicate a visual style

(rather than auditory). In short, although the relationship between LLS and the students

proficiency is clear (more advanced students use a greater variety of LLS), students should

be encouraged to discover what works best for them as individuals.

Learners need to become familiar with the techniques which meet their needs, and if

learners feel uncomfortably in any environment or doubt about their own learning approach,

then it surely has a negative impact on their motivation and the quality of their learning.

Ellis and Sinclair (1991a, p. 5-6) associate with this view and say that:Each learner

develops strategies and techniques which suit his or her individual needs and personality

and implements these in different ways.

Nevertheless, just teaching new strategies to learners will not achieve much unlesslearners begin to want bigger responsibility for their learning. Since adult learners are

mature enough to take on the responsibility for their learning and they are the centre of my

attention, it may be helpful to examine this age group in the following chapter.

Adult Learners

This chapter will try to answer what it concerns to teach adult learners. I try to depictthe advantages and problematic areas of teaching in adult classes. Comparing adult learners to

younger students, there are some differences. Teaching adult learners may seem as problem-

free process, but even adults have many characteristics which can make learning difficult.

Many students returning to STANAG course to learn English have come to class with

their past school experience. Concerning the languages, they previously used to concentrate

on studying grammar, structures, word to word translation, or textbook mechanical drills with

just slim opportunities to use the language as a means of communication. Unfortunately, ALC

course books are structured in very similar way.

I noticed that many students find it difficult to change their learning style into student-

centred learning, thus interactive and communicative activities. They expect to be traditional

students, as they used to be in past, who were always told exactly what, how and when to do

things. It is hard to re-program such students, because they do not see the point of pair or

group work, games, tasks, sophisticated activities, and above all, they prefer teacher-front

tutoring. They rely entirely on the teacher and expect him/her to be in control of learning

process all the time. Harmer (2007, p. 85) confirms that: Adult previous learning experiences


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may have predisposed them to one particular methodological style which makes them

uncomfortable with unfamiliar teaching patterns. Conversely, they may be hostile to certain

teaching and learning activities which replicate the teaching they received earlier in their

educational career.

Hopefully, though, teachers of adult learners take all these factors into consideration.

They need to be able to modify the learning process, so that it would be suitable for their

students. They need to try to minimize the bad effects of past learning experiences, reduce

the fear of failure by offering achievable activities, and listen to the students preferences

and concerns.

Admittedly, many adult learners have usually had a few attempts to learn language,

and many of them given up each time. Why do adult learners leave their learning effort so

easily? Perhaps they set themselves unrealistic aims, and consequently they are unhappy with

the progress they make. They may be dissatisfied with the teacher, course material, or they

find the course difficult. Many older students worry that their intellectual powers may be

diminishing with age (Harmer, 2007, p. 85). This, combined with traditional methodology

often leads to de-motivation, frustration and ineffective learning.

Nunan (1999, p. 15) underpins the practice of innovating adult learning by systematic

sensitizing and gradual involvement of learners into process underlying their learning, as well

as taking greater responsibility for their learning. Students need to use multiple ways of

studying in order to find out how to learn through discovering various learning strategies, so

that they can become better learners. Harmer (2007, p. 85) highlights the importance to

involve adults life experience in the learning process which can be done by incorporating

various alternative methods, such as projects, tasks, research, simulating of real-life situations,

etc, or implementing a whole range of learning strategies into the learning process.

Turning to the topic of advantages of teaching adults, they have a wide range of life

experiences, therefore the lessons are rich in topics (as mentioned above in issue 10). Unlike

young learners, adults are aware of the achievement they want to reach. Also, adult learners,

and especially military students, are well disciplined and prepared to work, in spite of tedious

lessons or boring materials. Adults are also prepared to persevere in their activity for a longer

period than youngsters, even if too much boredom can lead to de-motivation. Next, the range

of activities can be broader as adult thinking is on higher level. They are able to think in an

abstract way, and therefore to use more sophisticated activities.


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Next chapter is devoted to the role of instructional materials used in STANAG

courses with regard to communicative teaching methodology.

The role of instructional materials in STANAG courses

Turning to the point of the way military courses are taught nowadays, teaching style

and favourite methods of a teacher depend on the level of his/her interest for language

teaching process which can be further developed by inner or outer factors. Definitely,

language should be learned actively and creatively so that it can be used for production.

Students need to acquire courage to use the target language as well as to get the essential

impetus and practice in the classroom. They should be able to apply in real life what they

have been taught in the classroom.

Using some alternative methods, such as projects, TBL, communicative language teaching,

etc., can be useful on STANAG courses since students are full-time learners with broad range

of hobbies and interests who have access to a wide range of material and resources which they

can reflect into their tasks completion. Also motivation plays an important part in learning

process since learning means overcoming obstacles and sedulity.

One of the important elements of teaching is the teachers attempt to try to engage

students with the content of a textbook. This implies arousing the students interest in a topic,

making sure that the material is clear to the learners, making sure there is variety of activities

developing the subject matter being taught, and last but not least textbooks can offer activities

aimed at training language learning strategies which can help students to manage a subject

matter more easily and more effectively.

This chapter debates the question of the instructional materials which are being used in

English language military courses. I decided to describe general features of the main teaching

material in STANAG courses which is the ALC course book. I will explore grammar,

vocabulary, reading, listening, speaking, writing, function, and communicative competence

aims of the book.

Grammar grammar structures are initially introduced in highlighted boxes,

accompanied by example sentences. It is followed by oral or written drills,

completion and accuracy exercises. Grammar patterns are taught stepwise, new

structures extend those already met before. Book quizzes at the end of each book

provide an easy means of revising key grammar.


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Vocabularyeach chapter is introduced by a list of English words to be learned.

They are divided according to verbs, nouns, phrasal verbs, idioms, expressions,

prefixes, suffixes, and others. Further, words are presented in context of a rather

boring article, new words are underlined, students repeat. Vocabulary is learned in

repetition drills, completion exercises, and dialogues in pairs.

Reading- specially writtendialogues, only few short texts. It lacks authentic texts.

The aims of reading- skimming, scanning, silent reading, summarizing, inference.

Listening- special language laboratory reinforcing books can be used to improve

listening skills where two types of listening exercises occur: drills and

comprehension (gist + detail information) exercises.

Speaking- chorus drills, dialogues in pairs, fluency in the later stages, role plays.

Pronunciation exercises deal with sounds, stress, and intonation.

Writing- the books are based on the fact that adults are used to accept information

in written form. That is why completion exercises are widely used thorough the

course books, also writing summaries, paragraphs, and letter writing skills are built

up gradually.

Function- is being taught through dialogues to be read and practiced.

The aims of the course book- The book is to prepare for the book quiz at the end of

each book (week), so that the learners are familiar with the format of the exam.There is emphasis on vocabulary, grammar, the four skills, and function. Fluency

is developed through dialogue exercises. Aim is to make students understand the

grammar, memorize the vocabulary, be able to understand spoken language, and

succeed in book quizzes.

A few examples of what teachers in our department think about ALC textbooks are

added to the entire overview:

ALC books are good in the fact that it is a complete course and easy to follow for ateacher, however they are out of date and quite boring for the students. As a teacher I find

they restrict my imagination in teaching if I stick to the books.

This course book gives too little different activities, there are only few exercises which

are repeated over and over, therefore Im forced to go and copy some additional material

from other sources.

Im happy with the textbook. I dont think teachers and students in military courses

need to use much of the interactive activities. A pair work or group workjust compounds

mistakes most of the time. It is job creation which requires a great deal of effort and time. As


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more and more technology is being introduced to the classroom, the modern activities will

rapidly disappear along with the black board. The only reason it is used and fronted is

because of middle management across the world today; those brought up on the trendy

teaching practices of the late 1970s.

I consider the textbook useful if that is what the institutions continue to want. The

educationalists who wrote (published) them will be laughing all the way to the bank.

Unfortunately, until BILC2 is brought under the control of people who know what NATO

needs, 6001 Stanag will remain a massive waste of resources.

There are different opinions about ALC course books. Positive views can be

summarized into these points: it is a complete course which is eas

Implementing Learning strategies into military Language courses.pdf

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