Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR)

Vol-3, Issue-10, 2017

ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in

Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Page 61

A Review on Polymer, Graphene and

Carbon Nanotube: Properties, Synthesis

and Applications

Binoy Bera Department of Computer Science and Engineering, West Bengal University of Technology,

Kolkata-700064,India

Abstract: In recent days, Polymer is very useful and

important material for its unique properties and

applications. A Polymer is a large molecule or

macromolecule which is composed of several

repeating subunits, called monomer. Polymers are

classified depending on several parameters like

chemical structure, polymeric structure,

arrangement of monomer, tacticity etc. It has several

applications in the field of industry, science and

medical. Several properties of polymers can be tuned

by embedding different materials with it. Among

them graphene and carbon nanotube are most

desirable material. Graphene is the latest discovery

belonging to the group of carbon allotropes and a

versatile material in nanotechnogy due to its unique

electronic, optical and mechanical properties. It is a

two dimensional material, a Single layer of graphite.

It has several properties such as conductive, flexible,

highly strong and transparent. On the other side,

carbon nanotube is most valuable material in several

applications for its unique electronic, mechanical

and optical properties. Like graphene and graphite,

it is also a carbon based material. Due to its high

surface to volume ratio, even a low content of

nanotube in polymer matrix can change the

interphase or interface region which changes their

properties significantly. The electromagnetism and

microwave absorption properties of several material

can be modified by incorporation of desired value of

carbon nanotube with that material. Dielectric

properties of several polymer materials also can be

modified by embedding carbon nanotube with it. It is

also acted as a filler material for introducing

Piezoelectricity in some Polymer material. Here

properties of polymer, graphene and carbon

nanotube has been discussed in brief. Synthesis and

applications of these three materials are also the key

focus of this paper.

Keywords: Carbon; Graphite; Carbon nanotube;

Chemical vapour deposition; drug delivery;

graphene; Polymer; tensile strength; tissue

engineering; Two dimension.

1. Introduction

A Polymer literally means many parts. It is a specific

thing, usually a molecule or material made of smaller

repeating units which are called monomer. 'Poly'

means many and 'mer' means meros(units) i.e. when

many meros join together, then they are called

Polymer. It has a high molecular mass. Here

monomer joins together by using covalent bonding,

hydrogen bonding etc. On the basis of type of

monomer, it is classified as homopolymer and

copolymer. When one type of monomer is used to

form the Polymer, then they are called homopolymer

(polyethylene[1]

, polyvinylidene fluoride[2-4]

etc). On

the other hand when two or more monomer joins

together, then they are called co- Polymer (PVDF -

TrFE)[5]

. Polymer is also classified as naturally

occurring Polymer and synthetic Polymer. Polymers

such as proteins, starch. Cellulose found in nature are

called naturally occurring Polymer[6]

. Polymers

which are made commercially are called synthetic

Polymer[7]

. Polymer can be classified on several

parameters like chemical structure, polymeric

structure, arrangement of monomer, tacticity, thermal

behaviour, molecular forces, and method of

synthesis[8-12]

. On the basis of Polymeric structure, it

is classified as linear, branched and cross linked

polymers. Linear Polymer consists of a long string of

monomers, attached in a linear manner. Branched

Polymer consists of branches at irregular intervals

along the polymer chain. Cross liked Polymer

contains short side chains that connect different

Polymer chains onto a network. On the basis of

arrangement of monomers, it is classified as block

polymers, graft copolymers. On the basis of tacticity,

polymers are classified as isotactic, syndiotactic and

atactic polymers. Isotactic Polymers are those

polymers whose side groups of the monomers lie on

the same side of the chain. Polymers whose side

chain are arranged in an alternative manner are called

syndiotactic Polymer. If the side groups are arranged

in an irregular or random manner, then it is called

atactic Polymer. On the basis of thermal behaviours

of polymers upon heating, they are classified as

thermoplastic and thermo sets. Polymers are

Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR)

Vol-3, Issue-10, 2017

ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in

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classified as elastomers and fibres on the basis of

molecular forces. Here number of monomer can be

from N =100 to N = 10000, even N is may go higher

than 100000. Here N is called degree of

Polymerizations. N can be determined from this

formula N = molecular weight of Polymer

molecule/molecular weight of monomer. Repeating

units i.e. used in Polymer formation, are often made

of carbon, hydrogen and sometimes oxygen,

nitrogen, sulphur, chlorine, fluorine, Phosphorus

even silicon. Recently porous polymer is much more

interesting due to their porous structure. In that case

porosity [13-14]

is very important property. Depending

on that property, it is suitable in several applications

like energy harvesting, drug delivery, tissue

engineering e.t.c. In the applications of

nanotechnogy, graphene is a versatile two

dimensional semiconducting material. Graphene, a

Single layer of graphite, is an allotropes of carbon.

Its strucIture is like lots of benzene rings connected

together where hydrogen atoms are replaced by the

carbon atoms. It is the basic structural element of

other allotropes such as graphite, charcoal, carbon

nanotubes and fullerenes. It was originally observed

in electron microscope in 1962, but it was studied

only while supported on metal surfaces[15]

. Later in

2004, the material was rediscovered by Andre Geim

and Konstantin Novoselov at the university of

Manchester[16]

.

Figure 1: Classification of polymers

Its amazing properties as the lightest and strongest

material, compared with its ability to conduct heat

and electricity better than any other material, makes

them suitable to integrate into several applications.

However, due to its unique properties, graphene has

turned into a hot topic both in the industry and

academia. With these unique features, graphene has

applications in flexible and wearable electronics,

antennas, pressure sensor design, flexible

displays, photovoltaics and rechargeable batteries.

Furthermore. It is also used as additive material for

producing piezoelectricity in several Polymer

material[17-26]

. The remarkable thing about graphene

is that it's 2D crystalline structure. On the other hand,

the discovery of carbon nanotube[27-29]

in 1991

opened up a new era in material Science and

technology. The name of carbon nanotube is derived

from their size since the diameters of nanotube as

small as 1 nanometer and length upto several

centimetres. A carbon nanotube is a tube shaped

material which is made of carbon, having a high

aspect ratio. Until the mid-1980's pure solid carbon

was thought to exist in only two physical forms,

diamond[30-32]

and graphite[33-35]

. In 1985, a group of

researchers led by Richard Smalley and Robert cart

of Rice university in Houston and Harry kroto of the

university of Sussex in England discovered C60

cluster, a new form of allotropes of carbon. It was a

spherical shape and formed a ball of with 32 faces(12

were Pentagon and 20 were hexagon exactly like

soccer ball). After that several allotropes of carbon

like C36, C76 and C84 were also discovered. In 1991,

SUMIO IIJIMA discovered a needle like material

when examining carbon materials under an electron

microscope. Then it was proved to have a graphite

structure and named it as carbon nanotube. It shows

incredible and unique electronic, magnetic and

mechanical properties which have caused researchers

to consider using them in several fields. Now

researchers are doing their experiment on carbon

nanotube as a filler in Polymer based energy

harvesting devices[36-44]

. Carbon nanotubes are

composed of carbon atoms linked in a hexagonal

shapes, with each carbon atom covalently bonded to

three other carbon atoms. They are normally

categorised in two types, single walled carbon

nanotube(SWCNT)[45]

and multi walled carbon

nanotube(MWCNT)[46]

. Carbon nanotubes which

occur as multiple concentric cylinders of carbon

atoms are called multi walled carbon nanotubes. On

the other hand, carbon nanotube which have only one

cylinder are called single walled nanotube. Again

carbon nanotubes has a cylindrical shape, may be

with open ends or closed ends. Diameters of single

walled carbon nanotubes and multi walled carbon

nanotubes are typically from 0.8 to 2 nm and 5 to 20

nm respectively. Although MWCNT diameters can

exceed 100 nm. However when a graphene layer is

wrapped into a cylindrical or tube structure, they are

called carbon nanotube. In MWCNT, each tube is

Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR)

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held at a distance from either of its neighbouring

tubes by interatomic forces.

Figure 3: (a) single walled carbon nanotube; (b)

multiwalled carbon nanotube; (c) carbon nanotube

with closed end.

2. Structure and Properties

2.1 Polymer

Polymers are made of several monomers connecting

together. So the basic properties of Polymer is

identified by its constituent monomer. Polymer

properties are also depends on the arrangement of

monomer and how they are connecting each other.

Physical properties of a Polymer are depends on the

size of the length of the polymer chain. Several

properties like melting temperature, boiling

temperature, viscosity, resistance to flow are

increased due to increase in length of the polymer

chain. Polymer is also characterized by its

crystallinity. Semi crystalline Polymer are more

tougher I.e. they can be bent more without breaking

than amorphous polymers. Several other properties

like piezoelectricity , ferroelectricity are determined

by their crystallinity, electro active phase.

Mechanical properties such as tensile strength,

young’s modulus are also important in its application

basis.

Polymer type Ulti

mate

tensil

e

stren

gth

(MPa

)

Elongati

on(%)

Tensile

modulus

(GPa)

Acetalcopolymer 60 45 2.7

Acetalcopolymer+30

%glassfiber

110 3 9.5

Acrylic 70 5 3.2

Nylon6 70 90 1.8

Polyamide-lmide 110 6 4.5

Polycarbonate 70 100 2.6

Polyethylene 15 500 0.8

Polyethyleneterepht

halate

55 125 2.5

Polyimide 85 7 2.5

Polystyrene 40 7 3

Figure 4: Tensile strength, elongation and tensile

modulus of different polymers.

A Polymer has tensile strength means it is strong

when it is stretched or compressed. To measure the

tensile strength of any Polymer sample, first it is

stretched by a machine such as an instron. This

machine clamps each end of the sample. When it is

stretched, a force F is exerted by the sample. By

simply dividing that force by the cross sectional area

of the sample give the measurement of tensile

strength. When this strength is divided by the strain

(a)

(b)

(c)

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(change in length/actual length) gives the young’s

modulus.

Figure 5: Characteristics and properties of polymer.

2.2 Graphene In simple terms, graphene is a thin layer of pure

carbon. It is a Single tightly packed layer of carbon

atoms that are bonded together in a hexagonal

honeycomb lattice. Furthermore, it is an allotropes of

carbon in the structure of a plane of sp2

bonded

atoms with molecule bond length of 0.142

nanometers. Layers of graphene stacked on top of

each other form graphite, with an interplanar spacing

of 0.335 nanometers. It is the thinnest compound at

one atom thick, the lightest material with weight of

0.77 milligrams of 1 square meter area. Moreover, it

is the strongest material (100-300 stronger than steel

and with a tensile stiffness of 150,000,000 Psi), the

best conductor of heat at room temperature (4.84 ±

0.44) *103 W/m/K and also the best conductor of

electricity (electron mobility more than 15000

cm2/V/S. Graphene also exibit a half integer

Quantum hall effect due to the charge carriers act as

quasi-particles, otherwise known as massless Dirac

fermions. In this effect, the path of the carriers

become curved, leading to an accumulation of

opposite charges at either end of the material. Due to

the 2D structure of graphene, the electron

confinement produces discrete band levels known as

Landau levels, which are filled by the charge

carriers. It can withstand upto 42 N/m of stress with

a youngs modulus of 1.0 TPa.

Figure 6: graphene structure in different ways.

2.3 Carbon Nanotube

Several carbon based material have been discovered

so far. Among them graphite, and carbon nanotube

are interconnected to each other. Graphite is the most

stable form of crystalline carbon. It consists many

layers of carbon atoms. The carbon atoms are

strongly bound to each other through covalent

bonding. The layers are weakly bound to each other

by Lagrange vanderwalls type interaction. Here

carbon-carbon distance and inter layer distance are

~0.14 nm and ~0.34 nm respectively. However

graphene is a single atomic layer of crystalline

graphite. When these graphene sheets wrapped into a

cylinder, are called then carbon nanotube. The way

graphene sheets are wrapped, is represented by a pair

of indices(n,m). The integers n and m denote the

number of unit vectors along two directions in the

honeycomb crystal lattice of graphene. If m=0, the

nanotubes are called zigzag nanotubes, and if n=m,

the nanotubes are called armchair nanotubes.

Otherwise they are called chiral. The diameter of this

nanotube can be calculated from its indices (n,m).

D=a/π√(n2+nm+m

2)=78.3√[(n+m)2-nm] pm, where a

= 0.246 nm. Single walled carbon nanotube

properties changes significantly with the (n,m)

values. It has excellent mechanical[47]

and

electronic[48]

properties. In MWCNT, the graphene

sheets are arranged in concentric cylinder, e.g. ,

a(0,5) single walled carbon nanotube within a layer

(0,14) single walled nanotube. Carbon nanotube are

the strongest and stiffest material yet scientist

discovered in terms of tensile strength and elastic

module. Covalent sp2

bonds formed between

individual carbon atoms, results in showing high

strength[49-52]

. However graphene is a two

dimensional semimetal but carbon nanotube can be

either metallic or semiconducting. For a (n,m)

nanotube, if n=m, the nanotube is metallic. If (n-m)

is a multiple of 3 and n≠m and nm≠0, then it is

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Vol-3, Issue-10, 2017

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semimetallic with a very small band otherwise it is a

moderate semiconductor.

Figure 7: Structure of carbon nanotube.

Figure 8: Properties of carbon nanotube.

3. Synthesis

3.1 Polymer

Polymer is synthesized by using polymerization

process where monomers joins together using

covalent bonding. Laboratory synthetic methods are

divided into two categories, step-growth

polymerization and chain-growth polymerization. In

chain-growth polymerization process, monomers are

added to the chain one at a time only and in step-

growth polymerization chains of monomers combine

with one another directly.

3.2 Graphene

Graphene can be synthesized in three different ways

such as chemical vapour deposition[56]

, chemical or

plasma exfoliation from natural graphite[57]

,

mechanical cleavage from natural graphite[58]

.

Among all these methods, chemical vapour

deposition is most common method used for

production of graphene. In CVD process, graphene is

formed on the surface of substrate which is placed in

a reaction chamber. In that process, high heat is

applied to break the carbon bonds of precursor

materials. Normally heat required in that process is

around 2500 degree celcius without catalyst. So for

reducing the temperature to 1000 degree celcius, a

catalyst such as copper is used.

Figure 9: Chemical vapour deposition method for

graphene synthesis

3.3 Carbon Nanotube

Several techniques have discovered so far for

producing carbon nanotubes. Techniques for

producing carbon nanotubes are arc discharge[59]

,

laser ablation[60]

, high pressure carbon monoxide

disproportionation[61]

and chemical vapour

deposition[62-63]

. Most of these properties took place

in vacuum or with process gas. Among all these

methods, chemical vapour deposition is popular and

suitable for preparation of carbon nanotubes. In CVD

technique, a carbon source in the gas phase and a

energy sources such as plasma or a resistively coil is

used. Furthermore resistively coil is used to transfer

the energy to this gaseous molecule. Hydrocarbon

like methane, carbon monoxide and acetylene is used

as a sources of carbon. At high temperature, the

hydrocarbons are broken into hydrogen carbon bond,

producing pure carbon molecules. This carbon

molecules diffuse towards the substrate which is

heated and coated with catalyst (first row transition

metals like Ni, Fe or Co) where it will bind. Carbon

nanotubes are formed if the proper parameters are

maintained. All these process happened in a quartz

tube. The advantages of this process such as low

input power, lower temperature range, relatively high

purity and possible to scale up the process. In this

method both multi walled and single walled carbon

nanotubes can be formed.

Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR)

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Figure 10: Chemical vapour deposition process for

CNT synthesis.

2. 4. Applications

4.1Polymer

Today Polymer has several application[64-68]

in our

daily life. Synthetic Polymer are used rapidly for

carrying goods. It is also used in industrial

applications. It is used in different industries like

automotive, aerospace, medical, building, carrying

goods, packaging. Polymers can be used as piping

systems for chemicals, transport hoses, conveyor

belt, tanks and a large number of other products.

Polymer properties are also important for their

suitable choice of applications. Polymers are also

used as coating material that provides superior

adherence and protection from corrosion. Polymer

coatings can be applied to metals, ceramics as well as

synthetic materials. Polymer coating into a metallic

surface increases its ionic resistance. Acrylics and

alkyds are widely used in farm equipment and

industrial products. Polyurethane is used in conveyor

equipment, aircrafts, radomes e.t.c. Some Polymers

in coating allows the creation of hydrophobic

surfaces and the effective prevention of the sticking

of various substances such as adhesives/rubber/

synthetic materials to their surfaces. Natural

polymers are used in drug delivery systems, tissue

engineering applications. Mainly biopolymers are

used for this kind of applications. It is also used to

design artificial skin, bone, cartiledge and several

organs. Piezoelectric Polymer like PVDF, PVDF -

TrFE is used in energy harvesting application. This

kind of Polymer generates voltage when a

mechanical force or pressure applied on it. On the

basis of these properties, it is used for powering self-

powered micro or Nano devices. Piezoelectric

Polymer is also used to harvest energy from different

renewable resources like wind, rain and ocean wave.

So Polymer (in the form of raw materials, Polymer

compounds, foams, structural adhesives and

composites, fillers, fibres, membranes, emulsions,

coatings, rubber, sealing materials, solvent) is useful

in all applications.

Fig. 11: Application of polymers in different field.

4.2 Graphene

Due to the excellent and amazing properties,

graphene has the potential applications to

revolutionized entire industries - in the field of

electricity, conductivity, energy generation, batteries,

sensors and more. Graphene is the world's strongest

material, and so it can be used to enhance the

strength of other material, specially Polymer which

has less strength. Graphene enhanced composite

materials can find uses in aerospace building

materials, mobile devices e.t.c.. Furthermore,

graphene is the world's most conductive material to

heat. It is also strong and light which makes it

suitable in heat sink Applications. It is also used in

battery and supercapacitor applications[69]

. So almost

in every field, graphene has suitable application[70]

.

Used in

industri

al

applicat

ion,

polythe

ne bags,

pipes

e.t.c.

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Figure 12: applications of graphene.

4.3 Carbon Nanotube

Carbon nanotubes have extraordinary electrical

conductivity[71]

, heat conductivity[72]

and mechanical

properties[73]

which makes them suitable in numerous

applications. It is the best known field emitters of

any material. Now plastics are used as a replacement

of metal in several applications. But they are not

conductive to electricity. Carbon nanotube has higher

aspect ratio and their tendency to form ropes

provides inherently very long conductive pathway

makes them suitable as a additives with plastics to

make it conductive so that it could be used as a

replacement of metal in several applications. It is

also used as electrodes in batteries and capacitors.

Though it has potential applications as solar

collection, nanoporous filter catalyst supports and as

coating matetial. It is also used as additives in several

polymers to make them piezoelectric. This property

is used in harvesting mechanical energy into

electrical energy. So in all the fields, CNT is very

useful and important material.

Figure 13: Different applications of carbon

nanotube.

5.Conclusion

Polymers are studied in the fields of biophysics,

macromolecular science and Polymer science.

Polymers, Polymer derivatives and Polymeric

combinations which play special and important roles

in diverse field of human activities. Polymers are

normally synthesized through polymerization process

where many monomers bonded together by using

covalent bonding. Polymer is used in carrying goods,

for making pipes. Even energy is harvested through

polymers. Some Polymer gives voltage as output

when they are heated. Based on these properties, they

are used rapidly in sensor and actuator applications.

Beside this, bio-polymer is used in drug delivery,

tissue engineering applications. So polymers are

widely used in almost every field of science[74-78]

,

medical, industry and human day to day life.

Today's the electronic industry is almost based on

silicon material. Every electronic devices such as

diode, transistors, metal oxide semiconductor field

effect transistors e.t.c. are mostly fabricated by using

silicon as raw material. Now the discovery of

graphene opens a new era for fabricating such kind

of electronic devices. Graphene alone will never

replace silicon for the simple fact that graphene isn’t a semiconductor. A sheet of pure graphene conducts

electricity brilliantly, but it can’t shut off the flow of

electrons. That’s the difference between a conductor

and a semiconductor. In that case graphene is useful

as additive with other material for fabricating this

type of electronic devices. Nobody can predict what

would be the future. It may happen that graphene

could take the good position in world electronic

market. Application of CNT in various fields due to

its robust structure and metallic or semiconducting

properties makes it one of the promising material in

nanotechnogy. It has potential of making almost

every manufacturer product faster, lighter, stronger,

smarter, safer and cleaner. Carbon nanotubes has

theoretically higher performance than copper, which

makes them suitable several applications. As we

progress into an era of nanotechnogy, molecular

devices are becoming promising becoming

alternatives to the silicon technology. Carbon-

nanotube field-effect transistors, are being

extensively studied as possible replacement of silicon

MOSFET. Due to its many unique properties, it is

also used as a additives with several material for

making them suitable in desired applications. So

almost in every field of science and technology CNT

is very useful.

Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR)

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