PROJECT REPORT

ON

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION IN SPORTS

Submitted in partial fulfillment of requirement of PGDM (IB)

Batch 2012-2014

Submitted to: Submitted by:

SEEMA AGARWAL RISHABH BATRA

Associate Professor 65/PGDM(IB)

JAGANNATH INTERNATIONAL MANAGEMENT SCHOOL

KALKAJI

1

CONTENTS

S. no DESCRIPTION Page no.

1 Acknowledgement 4

2 Certificate of completion 5

3 Student’s Declaration 6

4 Executive summary 7-9

5 Chapter-1

Introduction

- Introduction of globalization

- Introduction of globalization in

sports

10-19

6 Chapter-2

Objective of the project

20

7 Chapter-3

Research Methodology

21-25

8 Chapter-4 Analysis and Findings

- Historical background

- Current state of the field

- Impact of Globalization in sports

- Related Examples

26-82

9 Recommendations and Limitations 83

10 Conclusion 84-86

2

11 Appendices 87

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

3

I take this opportunity to express my profound gratitude and deep regards to my

guide Seema Agarwal for her exemplary guidance, monitoring and constant

encouragement throughout the course of this thesis. The blessing, help and

guidance given by her time to time shall carry me a long way in the journey of life

on which I am about to embark.

I also take this opportunity to express a deep sense of gratitude to Company,

Shelly Chopra (External Mentor), for her cordial support, valuable information and

guidance, which helped me in completing this task through various stages.

Lastly, I thank almighty, my parents, brother, sisters and friends for their constant

encouragement without which this assignment would not be possible.

RISHABH BATRA

CERTIFICATE OF COMPLETION

4

This is to certify that Mr. RISHABH BATRA, pursuing PGDM (IB) from JIMS KALKAJI,

has completed his project on the topic “IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION IN

SPORTS” under my guidance.

His work is appreciable.

Project Guide:

Seema Agarwal

Associate Professor

STUDENT’s DECLARATION

5

I hereby declare that the project report titled – “Impact of globalization in

Sports “ is my own work and has been carried out under the table guidance of

Seema Agarwal (Associate Professor at JIMS Kalkaji) and

Shelly Chopra (External Mentor) . All care has been taken to keep this project

error free and I sincerely regret for any unintended discrepancies that might have

crept into this report

Thank You

(RISHABH BATRA)

PGDM (IB) (2012-2014)

Jagannath International Management School

(KALKAJI)

Date- 25/02/2013

Place-Delhi

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

6

Globalization can be defined as the process of change, increasing

interconnectedness and interdependence among countries and economies,

bringing the world closer through better world-wide communication, transport

and trade links. This process is changing the world dramatically and quickly,

affecting economic, social, political and cultural aspects of life.

The process of globalization is an inevitable phenomenon in human history which

has been bringing the world closer since the time of early trade and exploration,

through the exchange of goods, products, information, jobs, knowledge and

culture.

What is unique is the emergence of a modern form of globalization in recent

decades, aided by the pace and scope of global integration resulting from

unmatched advancements and reduction in the cost of technology,

communications, science, transport and industry.

Markets have become more interwoven and the production process has been

made more efficient by the option to create ‘world products,’ i.e. products whose

components are made in different locations around the world. Also, the ability to

ship information and products easily and cheaply from one country to the next

and to locate the manufacturing process where labour and work processes are

less expensive has changed the pattern of production and consumption across the

world.

Improved technology in transportation and telecommunications

Movement of people and capital

7

Rise of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)

Transnational Corporations (TNCs)

Nowadays, you see people from India wearing NFL hats, people from America

wearing soccer jerseys with the names Messi or Henri, and people from France

wearing basketball caps. How has this amazing internationalization of sports

fanaticism occurred? The answer, I tell you, is globalization, or the integration of

facets of life from different cultures into comprehensive proclivities.

Before-hand, at the advent of modern sports, these sports were popular

only in the nations they were created in. Basketball, football, and baseball were

only popular in the US, soccer was only popular in international Spanish nations,

and cricket was only popular in Britain. However, as time passed by and

globalization mechanisms increased, the sports popularities increased. Cricket

expanded to Australia and India, as well as many other Middle-Eastern countries.

Basketball has spread to almost all countries around the world. In fact, with the

new popularity of basketball all over the world, many NBA teams recruit from

outside of the US now. Look at Yao Ming: this guy is one of the most dominant big

men in the game, and he isn’t from an American city, he’s from China. Look at the

big-man sharpshooter Dirk Nowitski—from Germany. Hakeem the dream Olajuan

—Nigeria. The list goes on and on.

Also, while America is still at the top of the basketball, other teams have

reached the top of the basketball world. Teams like Germany, Lithuania, and even

8

Argentina, who won the Olympic basketball tournament in 2004. The days of the

“Dream Team” are long gone.

Globalization has also occurred extensively in soccer: actually, it has

probably had the most widespread globalization. Soccer has the most popularity

out of any sport worldwide, as evidenced by the different international leagues,

the recruitment of international players, and the World Cup for soccer that is held

every four years.In baseball, Japan has gained ground and has become a baseball

power.Tennis has also been globalized. Currently there is a tennis player on the

professional circuit from every nation of the world, except Afghanistan. This truly

shows the widespread popularity of tennis. Every year, there is the Davis Cup,

which is like a World Cup for tennis that takes place every year. Now, foreign

players win majors more than the hometown favorites. The last player to win

Wimbledon, the British major, was Fred Perry, and he did it 76 years ago.

It’s part of the NFL’s promise to have increased international participation. And

the commissioner of the league says that soon there will be more international

games played.

Whereas beforehand there was no diversification of sports internationally, now

the globalization of sports has caused more sports to be popular worldwide. And

it’s not going to stop; there is an increasing amount of communication

mechanisms out there right now. There’s email, there’s the internet, and there

will continue to be an increase in international communication.

Chapter-1

INTRODUCTION

9

Globalization can be defined as the process of change, increasing

interconnectedness and interdependence among countries and economies,

bringing the world closer through better world-wide communication, transport

and trade links. This process is changing the world dramatically and quickly,

affecting economic, social, political and cultural aspects of life.

The process of globalization is an inevitable phenomenon in human history which

has been bringing the world closer since the time of early trade and exploration,

through the exchange of goods, products, information, jobs, knowledge and

culture.

10

What is unique is the emergence of a modern form of globalization in recent

decades, aided by the pace and scope of global integration resulting from

unmatched advancements and reduction in the cost of technology,

communications, science, transport and industry.

Markets have become more interwoven and the production process has been

made more efficient by the option to create ‘world products,’ i.e. products whose

components are made in different locations around the world. Also, the ability to

ship information and products easily and cheaply from one country to the next

and to locate the manufacturing process where labour and work processes are

less expensive has changed the pattern of production and consumption across the

world.

Improved technology in transportation and telecommunications – the

cost of how people communicate and travel has drastically reduced in the

last few decades, from cheaper air travel and high-speed rail to the rapid

growth of the internet and mobile phones.

Movement of people and capital – increasing numbers of people are now

able to move in search of a new home, job, or to escape danger in their

own country. Money is being moved globally through electronic transfer

systems.

Developing countries are becoming a more common place for international

investment due to the huge potential for growth.

11

The lowering of trade barriers since the Second World War has been a

major factor in the growth of world trade.

The World Trade Organization (WTO), formerly the General Agreement on

Tariffs and Trade, has been responsible for negotiating reductions in tariffs

and other barriers to trade in rounds of talks, the most recent of which was

the Doha round.

Rise of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) – as global awareness of

certain issues has risen, so has the number of organizati

ons that aim to deal with them. Many of these issues are not constrained

by country boundaries, e.g. climate change.

Transnational Corporations (TNCs) – accessing new markets across the

world which are opening up in developing countries. Businesses are also

encouraged to source workers globally, as some jobs can be done by

foreign workers for a much lower cost than domestic workers, such as

manufacturing jobs.

Benefits and disadvantages

While globalization is a catalyst for human progress, it is also a chaotic process

which offers both benefits and disadvantages to people across the world. Within

Britain the benefits are often seen as unevenly distributed.

12

Those that have been successful in opening up to the world economy, include

countries such as China, India and Vietnam, who have significantly reduced

poverty in their respective countries. The World Bank states that between 1990

and 2005, poverty rates in China fell from 60% to 16%, leaving 475 million fewer

people in poverty.

For consumers, globalization can mean a wider choice of goods at lower prices,

for example, supermarkets now source produce from all over the world. Clothes

shops are able to source cheaper clothing from overseas factories.

The last decade has also seen an increase in the outsourcing of innovation, where

research and development (R&D) is increasingly outsourced to cut costs and get

products to new markets faster.

Alex Steffan, co-founder of WorldChanging.com, discusses how we are affected by

being so disconnected from the process of creating the things that we consume.

Positive consequences of globalization include:

• improvements in local productivity can promote prosperity

• the movement and sharing of information, knowledge and expertise

• the improvement of international standards for variables such as

education and health

• increases the variety of goods available to the world market and provides

a bigger range of markets for internationally sourced products

Negative consequences of globalization include:

• the loss of employment in manufacturing in developed countries such as

13

Britain

• a drift towards a more homogenized culture and society internationally

• local economies may be more vulnerable to fast changes in the

international economy

• increased centralization of power in the hands of large transnational

corporations

• the location of industry in less developed countries, for many reasons,

often leads to environmental degradation

Globalization is often criticized on the basis that is has led to the exploitation of

workers and the environment. With an increasing awareness of the

environmental impact of what we buy. Consumers are increasingly aware of the

distance produce has travelled before being sold to us (known as food miles).

Similarly health and safety laws and regulations are often less demanding in

developing countries.

GLOBALIZATION IN SPORTS

14

In a few short centuries, primitive pasture games relying on balls of rocks, rags,

feathers or hair transformed into global events with intricate rules, with television

and the internet tracking cricket matches in Australia to soccer in Zaire.

Any sport can now attract players or audiences in any part of the globe, and yet

conventional wisdom suggests that as an activity takes on global stature, it

becomes more controlled and competitive, disconnecting from local origins.

But does the process of global growth necessarily eliminate local connections or

fervor? Can innovation accompany tradition? And how do endeavors that require

fierce competition reveal a common humanity? Editors Richard Giulianotti and

15

Roland Robertson delve into such questions with “Sport and Globalization,” a

compilation of essays written by sociologists and anthropologists.

The nine essays largely assume global-local tensions, and yet also highlight the

powerful role of sports in social and cultural change. “As modern sport has

become global in scope it has largely lost its playful character and its professional

practice has become both a global media spectacle and a serious and financially

significant global business,” concludes sociologist Barry Stuart.

Yet despite such global growth, agues political sociologist Chris Rumford, sport

still emits a clarion call to the most rigid of characters, including the Taliban in

Afghanistan, who anxiously sought International Cricket Council recognition for

Afghanistan shortly before their ouster in 2001.

The editors and other essayists in “Globalization and Sport” point to two forms of

global growth, referring to the integration of local practices as “glocal” and the

overwhelming of local ways as “grobal.”

Some sporting formats adapt more readily than others and some impose more

constraints, often through national or international regulatory boards. “Local

appropriation is seldom simply assimilating and imitating,” notes William W. Kelly.

Styles can emerge in sports that reflect and reinforce both local and national

values.

The local does not necessarily resist the global, and yet many researchers tend to

privilege the local, much as audiences tend to cheer and admire the underdogs,

explain David L. Andrews and George Ritzer.

Sport’s purpose is no longer limited to entertainment, often intermingling with

trade, business and politics. Talent, speed and innovation are recognized

16

transnationally in business or sport, and Thomas Hylland Eriksen’s essay details

reasons why some sport phenomena spread while others do not: The most

popular cultural products – whether books, food or sports – tend to require little

culturally specific knowledge, have an “emotional, sensory or intellectual appeal”

that transcends local concerns; and can be effectively marketed across borders,

particularly via television or the internet. “In other words,” he writes, “low

common denominators, a cheap entrance ticket and immediate gratification are

factors facilitating global dissemination.” For Eriksen, soccer is a hamburger, and

speed skating is akin to ahusmanskost, or a Swedish fish meatball.

Competition and its regulation need not be totally centralized.

Global sports such as golf and tennis manage without a world championship,

instead competing with a set of world tournaments, with frequent upsets of even

the most dominant players, explains Rumsford. Other sports, such as cricket,

undergo post-Western transformation as former British colonies tussle with

traditionalists over one-day versus multiple-day matches. Rumsford maintains

that a global sport such as cricket lacks a single global modernity.

Skill combined with simplicity in regulations, reduced time requirements and

viewer friendliness are characteristics that can merge diverse cultures, Eriksen

suggests. Likewise, in an essay about Dutch soccer style, Frank J. Lechner joins the

editors in pointing out that “Postmodern nations engage complex globalization to

produce new identities, defining their particularity in relation to universal

standards.”

17

The most intriguing parts of the book are where historical details of specific sports

– cricket, soccer, Gaelic football, hurling, speed skating, baseball – are offered as

evidence for the essayists’ arguments on how the local interacts with outside

forces, whether protecting, mimicking or influencing. The United States,

originator of many cultural trends, is almost “an island until itself when it comes

to team sports,” notes Eriksen, as he rejects baseball, US football, basketball or

ice hockey as sports with true global reach.

The book is academic in tone, with too many parentheses and “–tion” words, such

as legitimization, annihilation, commodification and spectacularization. Still, the

essays are provocative and far-reaching, and the book could discover a wide

audience beyond sociologists. Anyone involved in the highly competitive,

interdisciplinary and multicultural world of sport will want to understand

globalization’s influence and patterns.

This student of globalization welcomed a set of essays addressing diverse sports,

regions and issues, but would prefer a more specific overarching theme in future

collections. One approach might be to compare the movement of sports around

the globe with the promotion of governance or religion, pointing to similarities or

differences. Another approach could center on economic issues. The book was

published prior to widespread recognition of the global economic crisis now

under way.

Giulianotti and Robertson briefly point out that poverty, unemployment and

forced migration in the developing world have “disconnected large populations

from their sporting facilities and outlets.” Yet readers can’t help but be curious

about a recent abrupt shift in attitudes – from widespread expectations that of

18

rising global wealth to thriftiness and caution about investments – and which

sport traditions might endure the current downturn.

Another intriguing approach might center in on conflicts among sports or even

disdain for a sports culture. Indeed, the book’s closing essay, by Gary Armstrong,

centers on the 2005 national election in Liberia when international soccer star

George Weah lost to Harvard-educated grandmother Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf, and

offers a reminder of sport’s limited power. Gender concerns, economic troubles

and diverse talents can outweigh the media attention directed at major figures in

sports. Despite sport’s special appeal and symbolism, societies expect

responsibility from organizers and individual players.

Much of sport’s power is derived from the narratives of players and teams that

emerge over time, and over-commercialization, rapid growth, intrusive

nationalization, arrogant celebrity hierarchies as well as relentless quests for

victory or profits that can taint those stories.

Chapter-2

OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT

19

TO STUDY WHAT IS GLOBALIZATION, WAS IT INVOLVED IN SPORTS IN THE

EARLIER TIMES AND WHAT ALL TRENDS IT HAS DEVELOPED IN THE RECENT

YEARS, AND TO ANALYZE WHAT ARE ITS IMPACTS ON SPORTS.

Chapter-3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

20

Marketing research is the function which likes the consumers, customers &

public to the marketer through information which is used to identify & define

marketing opportunities & problems, generate, refine & evaluate marketing

action; monitor marketing performances & improve understanding of marketing

as a process.

It has following steps:

I: PROBLEM DEFINITION

II: DEVELOPMENT OF AN APPROACH TO THE PROBLEM

III: RESEARCH DESIGN FORMULATION

IV: FIELDWORK OR DATA COLLECTION

V: DATA PREPARATION AND ANALYSIS

VI: REPORT PREPRATION AND PRESENTATION                          

2.1 RESEACH DESIGN:

It is framework or blueprint for conducting the market research project. It

specifies the details of procedures necessary for obtaining the information

needed to structure and/or solve marketing research problem. Research design

broadly classified into two parts :

21

Exploratory Research

Conclusive Research

EXPLORATORY RESEARCH:

Exploratory research looks for hypothesis in well-established fields of

study. Hypothesis usually comes from ideas developed in previous researches or

are delivered from theory. Hypothesis is tentative answer to the question that

serves as guide for most of the research projects

It seeks to discover new relationships. All marketing research projects

start with it. This is a preliminary phase & is absolutely essential in order to

obtain a proper definition of problems at hand. The major emphasis is on the

discovery of ideas & insight.

CONCLUSIVE RESEARCH:

Conclusive research provides information that helps the executive so that

he can make a rational decision. This study has done well while attempting to

arrive at a more clear description of an apparent problem.

2.2 TARGET POPULATION:

The collection of elements or object that possesses the information sought

by the researcher and about which inferences are to be made. Target population

should be defined in term of Element and Sampling unit.

22

ELEMENT:

Object that possess the information sought by the researcher and about

which inferences are to be made.

SAMPLING UNIT:

The basic unit containing the elements of the population to be sampled.

2.3 SAMPLE SIZE:

Sample size refers to the number of elements to be used in a study.

2.4 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES:

Sampling Techniques are of two types:

a) Non probability (non random)

b) Probability sampling (random sampling)

2.5 SCOPE OF STUDY:

The scope of the study will be useful in future. Through this study we can

know what is the scenario of globalization in the recent years and what are the

globalization factors that influence the business. Through this study we will find

out the globalization effects on business.

2.6 DATA COLLECTION METHOD:

The data collection process can be relatively simple depending on the type

of data collection tools required and used during the research. Data collection

23

tools are instruments used to collect information for performance assessments,

self-evaluations, and external evaluations. The data collection tools need to be

strong enough to support what the evaluations find during research. Here are a

few examples of data collection tools used within three main categories.

Secondary participation:

Postal mail

Electronic mail

Telephone

Web-based surveys.

In-person observations

In-person surveys – used to gain general answers to basic

questions

Direct or participatory observations – where the researcher is

directly involved with the study group

Interviews – used to gain more in depth answers to complex

questions

Focus groups – where certain sample groups are asked their

opinion about a certain subject or theory.

I. Case Studies And Content Analysis:

Case studies and content analysis are data collection tools which are based

upon pre-existing research or a search of recorded information which may be

24

useful to the researcher in gaining the required information which fills in the

blanks not found with the other two types during the data collection process.

Some examples of this type of data collection tool would include:

Expert opinions – leaders in the field of study

Case studies – previous findings of other researchers

Literature searches – research articles and papers

RESEARCH METHODLOGY OF THIS PROJECT REPORT:-

The ability to gather, analyze, evaluate, present and utilize information is

therefore is a vital skill today.

1) Data Collection:-

• The analysis will be done with the help Secondary data.

• The data is collected mainly from websites, annual reports, research

reports, already conducted survey analysis, database available etc.

Chapter-4

ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS

25

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

A brief history of globalization

Globalization involves the interplay of markets, technology and State, which are

amongst the oldest and most distinctive human innovations. Exchange, the

26

fundamental principle on which markets are organized, is known to exist in the

most primitive human societies. Man is not the only living creature with the

ability to store surpluses and live in complex societies controlled by chiefs —

consider the industrious ants and bees — but he is unique in his ability to socially

redistribute these surpluses through increasingly complex divisions of labour

under the authority of the State.

The saga of globalization is that of an unbound Prometheus, with surges in

productivity and growth unparalleled in history as markets, technology and states

are progressively freed from local demand and supply constraints. Although the

term 'globalization' has gained currency only recently, the forces driving this trend

can be traced back to the end of the middle Ages in Europe.

Pre-modern societies, however, were above all else defined by localism and

decentralization. Most people remained at their place of birth right through their

lives. Migration was a one-way street to resettle in virgin territory in response to

conquest, calamity or local demographic pressure. Religious experience was

mostly limited to the local parish, with wider pilgrimages limited to a select few.

Empires meant mostly march of armies over land, and were never

transcontinental, with the notable exception of North Africa adjoining the

Mediterranean. State power was a coalition of local power elites owing allegiance

to a monarch who never had access to centralized administrative machinery.

With near universal poverty a structural constraint on demand, markets were

neighborhood-trading places, with long distance trade mostly limited to luxury

goods for the small power elite. New ideas, information and technology spread

27

slowly since transportation and communication were based on animal traction.

Four distinct phases of globalization can be discerned in modern history.

The first phase began in the sixteenth century with the passing of pre-modern

localism, improvements in maritime technology leading to the great age of

maritime exploration, discovery and mercantilism, the European Renaissance,

centralizing tendencies associated with absolute monarchy and the emergence of

modern nation states following the Peace of Westphalia of 1648, and the spread

of the ideals of the American and French Revolutions from the eighteenth

century.

The second phase from the late eighteenth century was marked by the spread of

the Industrial Revolution and vast improvements in human technology, inanimate

traction, productivity and demand, which led to mass production and conveyance

of merchandise goods and people, cross-border integration through bulk long-

distance trade, colonial plunder, investment flows and empire during a phase of

European imperial expansion which saw the flag follow trade across the globe.

The Industrial Revolution opened up a rapidly widening income gap between

Europe and America on the one hand, and the rest of the world on the other.

History of globalization in Sports

28

Sports in American History: From Colonization to Globalization journeys from the

early American past to the present to give students a compelling grasp of the

historical evolution of American sporting practices.

29

This text provides students with insights that will allow them to develop new and

alternative perspectives, examine sport as a social and cultural phenomenon,

generate a better understanding of current sport practices, and consider future

developments in sport in American life.

This expansive text is the most comprehensive resource on sport history,

providing coverage of sport by historical periods—from the indigenous tribes of

pre-modern America, through colonial societies, to the era of sport in the United

States today. Unlike previous sport history texts, Sports   in   American 

History examines how women, minorities, and ethnic and religious groups have

influenced U.S. sporting culture. This gives students a broader knowledge of the

complexities of sport, health, and play in the American experience and how

historical factors, such as gender, ethnicity, race, and religion, provide a more

complete understanding of sports in American history.

30

GLOBALIZATION IN RECENT YEARS

Yet, based on experiences throughout the world, several basic principles seem to

underpin greater prosperity. These include investment (particularly foreign direct

investment), the spread of technology, strong institutions, sound macroeconomic

policies, an educated workforce, and the existence of a market economy.

Furthermore, a common denominator which appears to link nearly all high-

growth countries together is their participation in, and integration with, the

global economy.

31

There is substantial evidence, from countries of different sizes and different

regions, that as countries "globalize" their citizen’s benefit, in the form of access

to a wider variety of goods and services, lower prices, more and better-paying

jobs, improved health, and higher overall living standards.

It is probably no mere coincidence that over the past 20 years, as a number of

countries has become more open to global economic forces, the percentage of

the developing world living in extreme poverty—defined as living on less than $1

per day—has been cut in half.

As much as has been achieved in connection with globalization, there is much

more to be done. Regional disparities persist: while poverty fell in East and South

Asia, it actually rose in sub-Saharan Africa. The UN's Human   Development 

Report notes there are still around 1 billion people surviving on less than $1 per

day—with 2.6 billion living on less than $2 per day. Proponents of globalization

argue that this is not because of too much globalization, but rather too little. And

the biggest threat to continuing to raise living standards throughout the world is

not that globalization will succeed but that it will fail. It is the people of

developing economies who have the greatest need for globalization, as it

provides them with the opportunities that come with being part of the world

economy.

These opportunities are not without risks—such as those arising from volatile

capital movements. The International Monetary Fund works to help economies

manage or reduce these risks, through economic analysis and policy advice and

through technical assistance in areas such as macroeconomic policy, financial

sector sustainability, and the exchange-rate system.

32

The risks are not a reason to reverse direction, but for all concerned—in

developing and advanced countries, among both investors and recipients—to

embrace policy changes to build strong economies and a stronger world financial

system that will produce more rapid growth and ensure that poverty is reduced.

The following is a brief overview to help guide anyone interested in gaining a

better understanding of the many issues associated with globalization.

33

Globalization in Sports in Recent Years

Throughout the twenty-first century, globalization has spread across economy,

political relations, people, and popular culture all over the planet. The world of

sports has also been radically globalized during this same period of time.

34

NBA and MLB are filled with players that reside from countries outside of the

United States. The arrival of Yao Ming added thirty million Houston Rockets fans

to a team that only has one million viewers in the US currently.

With the rise of the US Soccer team, the World Cup has truly become a global

competition. Regular season football and hockey games are now played abroad,

while foreign soccer teams tour on American soil.

How will the globalization of sports change the games we know and love today?

Will these changes improve sports for the fans or only line the pockets of owners

and corporations?

To what extent will the relevancy and hierarchy of the established leagues be

transformed by the pressures of global markets?

In a six-part series, these and many other questions will be addressed and also

explained how each of the major sports can best transition into this global society

while maintaining its quality of play.

The history of international sports, up to this point, has been sporadic.

In 1896, the revival of the summer Olympics was the first truly global competition,

but it was restricted to amateurs.

The World Soccer Cup emerged in 1930 as the first global competition that

allowed professional athletes.

35

Soccer championships (such as the European Champion Clubs' Cup, which later

evolved into the Champions League) would also arise throughout the world in the

mid-twentieth century.

Outside of soccer, globalization has been limited. American sports leagues have

added Canadian franchises in Toronto, Vancouver, and Montreal while the NHL

expanded hockey to the United States.

However, since the 1990’s, globalization has excelled with the advancements of

technology and the acceptance of professional athletes in the Olympic Games.

The domination of the 1992 USA Dream Team basketball squad has inspired

foreign youth to play American sports while the 1994 World Soccer Cup led to the

AYSO (American Youth Soccer Organization) to supersede Little League.

Today, players from across the world fill American sports leagues and European

soccer clubs and these games, broadcasted on national television and the

Internet, began the globalization of sports.

What changes does globalization provide for professional sports leagues?

The future of sports lies in the change from continental markets to global

markets. Americans in the past five years have been seen regularly wearing

Manchester United jerseys and Lakers fans can be found in China.

Eventually, leagues will have multi-continental franchises and road trips will tire

players even more. Franchises and the surrounding sports league will see greater

profit as the global market provides limitless expansions of revenue.

36

The percentage of international players will continue to grow along with the

popularity of global competitions, such as the World Baseball Classic and the

UEFA Champions League.

It is not even unlikely that ESPN International will appear in some countries.

These trends seem general, but different industries have different reactions to the

global economy. For how each of the major sports is dealing with globalization

and how it affects them, please read the rest of this series.

The next edition will be released tomorrow, when I will discuss how NBA has

made basketball the world’s most popular sport and what challenges does the

League face with its international fan base.

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON SPORTS

37

Impact of globalization and technology on professional sports

Technological advances are bringing sporting events to more people than ever

before. Mobile devices, net books, laptops and satellite televisions have increased

international viewership of sporting events. For the 2010 World Cup, ESPN3

clocked nearly 7.4 million viewers, generating 15.7 million hours of viewing. The

network's World Cup application was downloaded more than 2.5 million times

and accessed by an average of one million users per day.

38

Though the World Cup may be seen as an outlier in terms of revenue generated

and number of viewers, the international fan base continues to grow—even for

smaller scaled local sporting events—with the aid of ever-advancing technology.

This is due in part to athletes playing abroad, which may generate interest in a

player's native country, and in part to the relatively new ability to watch games

taking place anywhere in the world through live web stream or satellite television.

Cross-border deals are also part of the equation as foreigners increasingly

purchase interests in local teams, such as Mikhail D. Prokhorov recently becoming

the first foreign owner of an NBA team. The potential sale of Liverpool, a soccer

team in the English Premier League, has drawn the interest of potential

purchasers from across the globe. This influx of interest creates opportunities for

local and foreign sponsors and advertisers. The

increased globalization of sports has also increased the value of many sport

properties as evidenced recently by the $2 billion price tag—double the previous

contract—for overseas television rights for the next three years of Premier

League games.

Globalization of the NBA is not a new phenomenon, but technological advances

are helping it continue. Today, the NBA finals are televised to more than 200

countries in over 40 languages. More than half of all NBA.com traffic comes from

outside of the U.S. Due to its enormous popularity in China and because of high-

profile players Yao Ming and Yi Jianlian, the number of Chinese sponsors and

advertisers in the NBA is growing. Recently, the NBA announced a multi-year

marketing partnership with the BBVA Group, a leading Spanish bank.

39

As part of the partnership, BBVA will serve as the official bank of the NBA, WNBA

and the NBA D-League in the U.S., Spain and Puerto Rico. MLB is also seeing its

brand grow. Thanks to players such as Ichiro Suzuki, a significant number of

Japanese sponsors, including Nintendo, MasterCard Japan, Ajinomoto, Sanyo

Electric and Hitachi, can be seen throughout MLB stadiums. The benefits of

globalization are not limited to foreign companies; many U.S. companies are also

getting in on the action. The NBA's popularity in China is a significant reason for

Nike's revenue growth in that country, which rose 22% in 2009.

Many sports are using advances in technology to expand, driving an

increase in opportunities for advertisers and sponsors. Because international

games are so easily accessed, they reach more people in more countries than

ever before.

Sponsors and advertisers are no longer limited to local markets or traditional

forms of advertising and should explore different markets and media to reach as

many "local" sports fans as possible.

Nowadays there is no doubt that sport and physical activity have become

universal phenomena. All countries could find common points in their cultures

and strengthen them. In the era of globalization, close cooperation among

countries is more urgent than ever. This necessity has become more visible due to

special world conditions and gradual growth of communication beginning in the

late1950s and early 1960s. The international federations, international World Cup

associations, and common wealth country competitions are examples of

globalization in sport. Under such conditions, one could claim that every change

in the vision of a nation could affect other nations too.

40

Additionally, it could be expected that social demand, ideas, interests and even

world values are being manipulated and are beginning to resemble each other

more day by day. Since even a tiny event can be seen live throughout the world, it

is not difficult to predict people’s interactions during forthcoming years in the

21st century (EICHBERG, 2003). It is now obvious that planning for each and every

phenomenon entails a global vision, and sport is not an exception to this trend.

Globalization is a process of political, economical, social and cultural changes that

Culminates in improvement of relations and more interaction and mingling in the

world. Researchers claim that forming of a third universal culture, the

combination of available cultures, is underway.

According to Hall (1990) globalization is not equal to the breaking down and

substitution of cultures but it is a kind of minor renovation of conventional

cultures. However, some other researchers see it as a kind of Americanization.

Emergence of various amenities such as the internet, e-mail, satellite

communication and so on, plays an important role in the development of

organizations. In most cases, the emergence of such amenities increases the

information transfer and exchange in a less expensive manner. The incurred cost

recoveries due to these amenities, in terms of transportation, manpower and

other resources makes the role of globalization and communications even more

plausible.

Therefore, in most countries of the world, the increasing investment is occurring

for purpose of developing communication facilities and improving information

systems in sport organizations. The main reason for this should be sought in the

impact of information technology and communication in all organizations

41

including sport organizations. Globalization and information technology are

considered the determinants of social demand and its harmonization. Apart from

the negative aspects of globalization, it should be emphasized that the same

change is happening in sport; therefore, we are seeking the answer for this

question: -What is the role of globalization in future

Strategies of the country?

Experts in a particular field are the most reliable and authenticated groups that

could provide beneficial information about the policies and strategies for the

same field. Unfortunately, the viewpoints of experts have not been exerted, in a

widely and planned manner, in sport policy development so far. Therefore, this

study is likely to apply the experts' ideas in sport policy development. The goal of

this study is to determine the role of globalization in future strategies of the

country’s sport.

METHODS

-Subjects

Subjects of this study were 169 active academic staffs in physical education

departments, from all over Iran. Subjects held either M.S. or PhD degrees. They

ranged in age from 32 to 61years. They were contacted and asked to review the

questionnaire to be sent to all faculties of departments specializing in sport

studies working at universities in Iran.

42

- Procedures

The protocol was done in two steps. In Step 1, a panel of five sport management

faculty with an aggregate of 31 years of experience in the field consensually

identified the five “most important factors effecting sport strategies”. In Step 2,

the panel was asked to name the physical education scholars they felt should be

included in the Delphi panel. Four of the five responded, yielding a list of 19

potential panelists. The purpose of the study was explained, the timetable for the

study was presented, and each was asked whether he or she would participate.

All agreed to participate. The panel consisted of Ten men and four women, all

from universities of Iran. The Delphi technique consists of iterated rounds of

survey questions, with each round building on the preceding round. Findings from

each round are fed back to the panelists who then respond. Responses can be

both qualitative and quantitative. In successive rounds, panelists are encouraged

to explain their responses and to indicate the bases for agreement or

disagreement with other panelists. Research indicates that three iterations are

typically sufficient to identify points of consensus and systematic points of

difference, and that more iteration can bore panelists, thus reducing the validity

of findings. The purpose of the first round was to elicit respondents’ views about

the ability of the questionnaire to reach to the goals of study. The experts were

faculties of large Iranian university sport management schools who had extensive

experience in planning and management.

In the first phase, the focus and intent of the questions were determined. In the

second phase, the appropriate sequence for questions was identified.

43

In order to check the appropriateness of the questions for the research goals, the

questions were then submitted to the faculty members who had participated in

steps 1 and 3 of the selection of Delphi panelists. The faculty members approved

the questions. The questions were then e-mailed to each of the 14 panelists, who

were asked to provide detailed responses to each question. Their responses were

collated and the content was analyzed independently by an analyst using the

procedures described by Weber.

Once the independent analyses had been completed, the analysts met in order to

compare the themes each had identified. Initial agreement ranged from 84–92%,

depending on the question being analyzed. Disagreements were resolved

through consensual discussion. Eleven to 16 themes were identified for each

question. Likert -type scales were used in order for the Delphi Panel members to

refine their responses.

For all questions panelists were asked to rate the importance of each theme on a

five point scale ranging from no importance to critical importance. They then

specified their estimate of the probability that the ideal quality represented by

the theme would occur. All qualitative comments and explanations panelists

provided for each theme under each question were provided as well. Panelists

were also reminded of their own rating for each item. After completing the

questionnaire it was sent to all faculties mentioned before.

- Statistics

This study was conducted in descriptive way and the data were gathered via

questionnaires with their validity approved by Chronbach’s alpha. In the data

analysis, to determine the concomitant weight of each variable’s internal factor,

the method of Factor Analysis was adopted.

44

To ascertain the difference among the educational background of subjects and

their comments the MANOVA method was applied.

The Sport and Identity Paradox

Sports events and their outcomes become most meaningful and powerful — and

so most amenable to capital accumulation and political exploitation — where

there can be an extrapolation of socio-cultural significance from the action on and

around the field of play. This split discourse of sport is produced in the interplay

of tensions between ‘noble’ universalism and ‘base’ partisanship. Sport’s reliance

on passionate national differentiation and celebrity is so thoroughgoing as to

question its suitability as an exemplar of global culture. In this sense, sport is

rather less sympathetic to globalization than other cultural forms, such as music

(Rowe, 1995) or film, which may be more easily communicated as universal in

nature and, even when deeply connected to notions of identity, do not

necessarily foreground the idea of hierarchically based, competitive national

performance.

The history of sport in modernity is conventionally written as a process of cultural

diffusion from Victorian Britain, with rationalized and regulated physical play

either directly exported as part of the apparatus of imperialism and/or absorbed

through the unfolding process of colonialism.

The co modification of sport, perfected in the United States, then produced

second and successive waves of sports diffusion, as much through appropriation

and advocacy by the state as by the market.

45

The development of the apparatus of sport in each country varies according to

the specific character of its historical social formation, but there are few sports

that have not — either voluntarily or under duress— been aligned with some

conception of nation.

This is because international sporting competition functions so effortlessly as

metaphor for the state of the nation at the popular political level, while at the

level of cultural economy ‘indigenous’ sports are less tradable within the

burgeoning ‘media sports cultural complex’ in all but the largest and most affluent

sports markets. In fact, despite the success of sport in the institutionalized

diffusion of the framework for regulated, competitive physical play, the record of

the actual ‘export’ of national sports is much less impressive. Truly international

sport consists only of a relatively small set of games that are regularly and readily

translatable as the ‘Esperanto’ of mediatized entertainment.

Nonetheless, any sport can claim to be ‘international’ even where contested by a

limited set of territories marked by geopolitical and/or sporting systems of

governance (for example, rugby league), or where it is dominated by one country

while attracting overseas fan interest and foreign labour (as in the case of US

baseball and its domestic World Series). This structural importance of the nation

persists despite the increasing circulation of sportspeople around the globe as

part of the new international division of cultural labour. For example, more

association football players operate outside their countries of origin than ever

before, and their clubs complain of the loss of, and potential damage to, their

labour power caused by international demands.

46

Football more than any sport can lay claim to be the ‘global game’. Yet the clubs

still retain a ‘national’ brand irrespective of the composition of their playing and

coaching staff and of their shareholder register, and their players are still

expected to return to ‘home base’ in their respective continents for peak

international sports tournaments like the World Cup.

Furthermore, as Patrick McGovern (2002) has recently noted in analyzing patterns

of recruitment of foreign players2 to the English football leagues between 1946

and 1995, labour-market trends have been international rather than global in

nature, and the range of supply countries highly limited. His study (albeit one that

stops just before the crucial 1996 Bosman European Court of Justice ruling that

deregulated footballer movement within the European Union)3 shows that: In

particular, a preference is shown for players who socially, culturally and

linguistically resemble those who are hiring them — a case of ‘homosocial

reproduction’ (Kanter, 1997).

The nation, therefore, is never far below the surface of sports discourse, always

threatening to assert itself and to circumscribe the free circulation of sports

personnel and the meanings that can be derived from its operation (e.g. Duke and

Crolley, 1996; Stevenson, 2002). As Dayan and Katz (1992) note, media sports

events generate ‘contest’ narrative forms that are perfectly suited to articulations

of nation. Sport’s dependency on the nation, therefore, always reinserts the

restrictive framework of modernity into the fluid workings of post modernity.

47

In so doing — and in a highly emotional manner — sport operates as a perpetual

reminder of the social limits to the reconfiguration of endlessly mutable identities

and identifications. This does not have to be the literal invocation of the nation

state.

As noted above, the sporting nation is not coterminous with the sovereign, legal

nation. In events like the football World Cup, the non-existent English nation, as

symbolized by the flag of St George, can materialize in international sporting

competition just as Catalan nationalists strategically capitalized on the

opportunities afforded by the 1992 Barcelona Olympics (Hargreaves, 2000).

International sport can, then, be a key marker of national fantasy or aspiration,

but above all it is generative of a symbolic entity that comes into being by affixing

a notion of identity that is likely to be an impediment to the free-floating

cosmopolitanism so crucial to the ethos of globalization. It could be objected that,

in an adaptation of a classical Marxist economic base–cultural superstructure

model, sport’s fixation on the nation functions as cover for more profound

changes occurring at the political economic level.

Sport can, therefore, be seen as a sop to sovereignty and difference, masking the

creeping control of global institutions.

On screen, the world secular religion of football might appear to fuse with

branded transnational capitalist consumption, leading the football teams of

nations to resemble just so many niches in a global market. Mega-media sports

events do, indeed, reflect the domination of the North America–Europe–Japan

triad in trade and foreign direct investment.

48

Of the 15 partners of the Korea/Japan 2002 World Cup, 14 came from the Triad ,

with the remaining partner coming from co-host Korea, in a tournament

organized by FIFA (the acronym for the Federation International de Football

Association), the historically Francophile peak governing body . Of course, the

restricted scope of globalization in such examples provides its own questioning of

the globalization thesis, but even if global power were to be more widely

dispersed, a left functionalist perspective reduces sport’s complex workings

within the popular socio-cultural sphere to that of a mechanical effect of capitalist

ideology. While the potential for ideological manipulation of sport and the

tendency towards conservatism of sporting organizations and personnel is readily

apparent, the ideological complexion of the institution of sport cannot

be so neatly classified, just as expressions of nationalism do not in all instances

operate as ideological cement preserving the unity of class-ridden societies for

the benefit of their ruling class. Here globalization might be said to have its

progressive side as a counterweight to ultra-nationalism. The rhetoric of

globalization does, however, in practice predominantly reflect the drive of global

capital to extend and deepen its dominion.

But even if its dynamic impulses were more benign, sport’s constant evocation of

the nation as its anchor point and rallying cry makes for an uneasy relation to

globalization advocacy. It is improbable that sport can be reconfigured as post-

national and substantially stripped of its ‘productive’ capacity to promote the

forms of identity because these are, simultaneously, the source of its affective

power and the potentially activated resistive impediments to the globalization

process. This paradox was evident in global sport’s most recent and spectacular

festival.

49

Reflections on the Korea/Japan World Cup, 2002

Observation of the recent Korea/Japan World Cup from three different vantage

points illustrates how the nation, imagined or real, is so central to sport as to

present a constant potential interruption to the smooth passage of globalization.

This was not a rigorous methodological exercise, but an attempt to trace

elements of national cultural formations during a mega-media global sports

event. ‘La Coupe du Monde’, as the peak spectacle of the self-described ‘world

game’, generating massive broadcast rights fees and recruiting major corporate

partners, seems to represent globalization in and through sport par excellence.

But there are limits even to the cultural portability of association football. In

countries where it is known as ‘soccer’, like Australia, Canada, New Zealand and

the US, the linguistic marker signifies that it is not the dominant code of football.

This word choice may also have an explicitly political edge, as in the case of the

Irish nationalist preference for the term ‘soccer’ to demarcate it more effectively

from ‘indigenous’ Gaelic football. Korea/Japan 2002, it could be argued,

nonetheless represented a substantial step towards the globalization of football

with the appearance for the first time of China, the world’s most populous nation.

China’s involvement, however, also raised the stakes of the nationalist rivalry in

east Asia that was so starkly revealed in the difficult relationship between the co-

hosts, whose deep historical enmity is well known, and between whom there is

continuing tension over the Japanese educational erasure of culpability for

Second World War atrocities, and reluctance to make reparation.

50

Ironically, furthermore, as Korea met Turkey in the play-off for third place, North

Korea and its southern neighbor were involved in a naval engagement resulting in

several fatalities on both sides, and placing the militaries of both nations on full

alert. This failure of the World Cup’s equivalent of the Pax Olympia dramatically

revealed the limitations of sport as a global pacifier and, in this case, the potential

of the World Cup to exacerbate regional national resentment. Mega-media sports

events like the World Cup and the Olympics take place at particular sites, and

what occurs is relayed to differentiated audiences in customized fashion.

Watching the World Cup from the vantage point of three countries with different

historical and contemporary experiences of football demonstrated how the same

spectacle mutates according to national context and viewing position. The main

focus here is on the UK, where interest in the event was more intense, with brief

observations of contrasting national cultural milieu.

In Australia, the World Cup could be watched on television in prime time as

the tournament was taking place in the Asia-Pacific region for the first time.

Australia, however, has only once qualified for the World Cup (in 1974), and

failed to do so again in 2002. This meant that football spectators in Australia had

a wider repertoire of viewing positions than those of participating nations. These

included the universalist appreciation of the world game; ‘adoption’ of a favourite

team (on some grounds of affinity, glamour and so on); the finding of Australian

connections (such as an Italian player who had lived in the country as a child) and

(as would have often occurred irrespective of Australia’s involvement) support for

a team of the viewer’s national-ethnic origin, such as Italy, England, Turkey, China

and South Africa.

51

In the case of Australia, therefore, the absence of direct national representation

opened up more diverse viewing spaces than would have been possible had the

national team qualified, which would have immediately mobilized an intense,

nationalist discourse. The nation, present or absent, is then still crucial to the

experience of the World Cup. The location, geopolitical position, history and

demography of the nation will, in turn, condition responses to the event at the

various points of intersection with global forces.

This observation was borne out in a different country visited briefly during

the World Cup (not counting the credit card advertisements and screened games

in the quasi-postnational space of the airport transit lounge). Holland, unlike

Australia, usually reaches the World Cup but also did not qualify for Korea/Japan

2002. Association football is the dominant winter sport in that country (rather

than the ‘poor cousin’ as it is in Australia), thereby seeming to create greater

resentment at non-participation. Far distant from the site of the tournament,

‘Europeanness’ came to the fore in Holland, with a greater concentration on and

identification with Dutch- and Europe-based players and teams.

Some supportersof the Dutch team were able to express negative identification in

the form of the teams that they didn’t want to win (and, contra European unity,

this seemed mainly to be France or Germany).

In cabled European televisual space, however, British, German, Belgian,

French and other nation’s viewers could watch their team as presented by their

own national broadcasters.

52

Touristic spaces were created for viewing the World Cup, some of which had the

quality of postmodern pastiche, as in the cases of the English and Irish theme

pubs promising ‘All World Cup Games Live’. At a time when the most conspicuous

political issue in the European Union (signalled by a turn to the right in France,

Italy, Denmark, Austria and Holland itself) was immigration and asylum seekers,

there was visible support on Dutch streets for the various nations of origin that

comprise the contemporary Netherlands, such as Tunisia, Brazil and Nigeria. As

might be expected of viewers of an international tournament, the emblems of

nation were everywhere to the fore, and few seemed to take the opportunity to

adopt a position of neutrality in the role of global cultural citizen. This role was

even less visible in the next nation state visited — the UK — and, within it, the

sporting nation of England. ‘Britishness’ had been much fore grounded during

recent golden jubilee celebrations of the reign of Queen Elizabeth II as a

constitutional monarch, although the flag of St George, as an emblem of England,

supplemented and often replaced the Union Jack (the sign of the nation state in a

now post-Scots, Welsh and Northern Irish devolution Britain) in bedroom and

shop windows, and other publicly visible sites. The World Cup offered an even

more compelling opportunity for the aggressive assertion of

‘Englishness’ through the flag of St George and licensed a temporary, symbolic

secession from Great Britain (mirrored, it might be noted, in pre-tournament

debates in Scotland concerning the ‘traitorous’ tendency there to support any

team playing against England).

53

As in earlier tournaments (e.g. Carrington and McDonald, 2001, and Garland and

Rowe, 1999, on jingoism during Euro ’96), the participation of a team, extracted

from the nation state and invested with a specific national character for the

purposes of sport, activated conceptions of the nation that were the antithesis of

‘progressive’ global cosmopolitanism. While it is necessary to be cautious in

naively ascribing cultural and ideological representativeness to the tabloid press,

the popular media amplified strong, nostalgic and inevitably fantastical myths of

nation in and through football.

To take a small number of examples, The Sun opened its front-page text with the

anticipatory statement that ‘All of England will get up for the Cup tomorrow to

see our heroes tackle Nigeria . . . at half past Sven [the given name of the

England’s Swedish-born manager]’, while the back-page headline recorded the

‘Beckham Battle-Cry’ to ‘FINISH THE JOB LADS. For the next game, The   Sun 

promised that, ‘ENGLAND’S soccer heroes will inflict pain on the Danes today by

booting them out of the World Cup’. As a game against Brazil approached, the

wrap-around front and back page consisted of only player and manager

headshots and the headline ‘YOU CAN DO IT LADS’, while inside stories included

‘One Flies Flag for the Lads’ carrying a fake internet photograph of the Queen in

an England shirt with her face painted with the flag of St George. The story ‘BEAT

’EM FOR MY GRANDAD, Says Bobby Moore’s [the late, World Cup winning

England captain] grandson’ was one of many nostalgic references to England’s

solitary World Cup tournament win in 1966. The Daily Mirror, for example, on the

same day listed 12 reasons ‘WHY WE’LL WIN’ on its front page, adding that these

were all precedents from 1966.

54

On the day of the game, the front page of the Daily Mirror consisted of white

space, a small flag of St George and the small, centered headline, ‘This page is

cancelled. Nothing else matters.’ Its World Cup supplement noted that, while the

‘loyalties’ of Japanese fans were ‘split’: ‘The whole of England has been brought

together with a dream of victory. We want it, we need it, we crave it. The country

is speaking with one voice: DO IT FOR US!’.

The next day, after England’s loss, the Daily Mirror’s black wrap-around carried a

front-page picture focusing on distraught England goalkeeper David Seaman,

accompanied by the headline ‘Anyone for tennis’, while the back page carried an

image of a controversial German victory in the same round with the statement

‘AND JUST WHEN YOU THOUGHT IT COULDN’T GET ANY WORSE . . .’

Within a few days, The   Sun rearticulated football and monarchy with the

emphasis on the latter, carrying a prominent front-page image of Prince

William in jeans juggling a football.

This brief snapshot of English tabloid media discourse during the 2002 World Cup

illustrates the ways in which international sport compulsively reactivates and

recalculates’ long-standing and emergent myths of nation.

Constant homage were paid to ‘our lads’ and ‘our heroes’, with frequent cross-

references to serving military personnel in Afghanistan such as the Royal Marines,

who were ‘hunting Taliban’ while monitoring the progress of the World Cup

during their tour of duty. Interpellations of the national ‘us’ (despite the fact that

the national ‘we’ is an effect of sporting governmentality — and incorporates

‘citizens’ who are not football supporters of any kind) constitute the kind of

discourse that is inimical to globalization rhetorics.

55

For example, in Britain, confronted with the prospect of a referendum on the

replacement of the national currency (sterling) in favour of the multinational

Euro, the World Cup fostered a political and cultural climate that was unlikely to

be favourable to changes seeming to infringe national sovereignty by replacing

the heavily symbolic pound in the name of cross-border exchange rate efficiency.

The cultural atmosphere in early 21st-century England was close to the kind of

discourse reflected in much earlier representations of sport and nationhood, such

as Geoffrey Green’s famous reflections in the London Times on the significance of

the English national team’s first home defeat at Wembley Stadium by

‘communist’ Hungary in 1953: ‘England at last beaten by the foreign invader on

solid English soil’. During the 2002 World Cup, the English nationalist fetishization

of David Beckham’s hair and left foot, and of Michael Owen’s groin; the

continuing reference to the Falklands/Malvinas War on the eve of its 20th

anniversary in the lead-up to the game against Argentina; and the anxiety about a

possible German tournament win, were all examples of the foregrounding of

local, idiosyncratic rivalries and identifications.

On a wider stage, the victory of first-time participants Senegal over world

champions France in the opening match was open to colonial interpretation, just

as the first-time hosting of the World Cup in Asia provoked interpretive narratives

of the rising nations of the Orient challenging the established hegemony of the

Occident.

Spectacular expressions of South Korean nationalism and the more general

carnivalesque presentations of national culture that football generates

problematize the meanings and effects of sport.

56

The sport carnival’s turning of the ‘world upside down’ by celebrating the nation

may be interpreted in functionalist terms as a safety valve for resistance to

globalization. But, less automatically, it can clearly operate as a force that

provides considerable cultural reinforcement for those who wish to preserve

older structures and boundaries — and, indeed, to (re)construct new ones.

DISCUSSION

In this study the loading of globalization was relatively high and its impact on

sport strategies was significant. In addition, the most significant impact of

globalization should be sought in harmony with the values and needs of different

countries. This issue is confirmed by other researchers as well. Any shift in the

visions and values of a society affects other societies and these values interact

strongly with each other. There are multiple reasons including, products, air

pollution, and difficulty in making decisions for space, the seas and a special area

health, education and so on. The globalizing flow that connects the countries

together indicates that could build the wall around them and protect themselves

from this flow.

Fishman (1996) considers globalization as a process in which geographical

limitations in social and cultural compositions are being abolished. Some

researchers are pessimistic about these changes and do not consider them helpful

for world community. Mannington (2001) sees the globalization as a form of

imperialism or cultural empire building in which receivers of these universal

cultures become the new workforce and consumers of its market products.

57

The process of globalization does penetrate into native cultures. The native

culture could survive subjectively but the competition between these two

cultures is not fair. Although the subjects of this study did not believe the above-

mentioned idea, they did not suppose that this process would culminate in

destruction of native culture. They regard the introduction of new sports helpful,

in part, for native culture. Various amenities such as the internet, e-mail, satellite

communication and so forth play an important role in developing these structures

and in many cases presence of such amenities pave the way for transferring large

amounts of information inexpensively and utilizing a minimum of the existing

workforce. In the current study, the significance of congruence of large scale

planning with developed countries was emphasized and to a lesser degree, the

congruence with developing countries. It goes without saying that the governing

process in place in the developed countries is the source of innovations and

creation of new ideas. The reason for such comments probably lies in the

subjects' interest in moving forward.

Considering that all routine activities including sport are affected heavily by

communication technology, how could we neglect the scientific organizations?

There is some evidence that the more we move forward the greater will be the

gap between developed and developing countries in terms of talking of

phenomena. Some research finds commonalities between the European

community and African countries in terms of sanitary priorities. Sport for all is

going to become more common among developed and developing countries .

58

The final result of this process, namely emergence of harmony, but not in an

imperialistic form, could reflect the people’s demand and commitment .

On the other hand, in many developing countries sport is given lower priorities. In

Kenya even the most elementary sport facilities are not provided (MONNINGTON,

2001) and generally speaking economic and social problems hinder the

investment in sports in these countries. Some other developing countries like

Malaysia, Singapore, India, Pakistan and Hong Kong meticulously try to improve

their industrial and technical capabilities. It seems that the first priority in such

countries is not developing elite sports. Rather, they should try to enhance health

and community sports among the people in their nations. The respondents to the

questionnaire not only emphasized protecting native culture against any damage

but also focused on the congruence of sport strategies with globalization. This

comment is concordant with previous studies. Even the most pessimistic

researchers against globalization see it as indispensable and numerous sources,

confirm the shifting of people’s vision toward sport and its ever increasing

development in the world. Instead of various visions on globalization, the incurred

impacts could not be denied in all areas including sport. Therefore, it is necessary

to be aware of the ways of exploitation from amenities instead of adopting the

irrational policies. The results of the current study also emphasize the necessity to

pay attention to globalization. Globalization is an indispensable process and

successful managers are those who understand strategic opportunities. Social

demand is strongly affected by globalization. Therefore, when developing

strategies, the social demands should be taken in to account.

59

How Globalization Is Making Sports Better

Nowadays, you see people from India wearing NFL hats, people from America

wearing soccer jerseys with the names Messi or Henri, and people from France

wearing basketball caps. How has this amazing internationalization of sports

fanaticism occurred? The answer, I tell you, is globalization, or the integration of

facets of life from different cultures into comprehensive proclivities.

Before-hand, at the advent of modern sports, these sports were popular

only in the nations they were created in. Basketball, football, and baseball were

only popular in the US, soccer was only popular in international Spanish nations,

and cricket was only popular in Britain. However, as time passed by and

globalization mechanisms increased, the sports popularities increased. Cricket

expanded to Australia and India, as well as many other Middle-Eastern countries.

Basketball has spread to almost all countries around the world. In fact, with the

new popularity of basketball all over the world, many NBA teams recruit from

outside of the US now. Look at Yao Ming: this guy is one of the most dominant big

men in the game, and he isn’t from an American city, he’s from China. Look at the

big-man sharpshooter Dirk Nowitski—from Germany. Hakeem the dream Olajuan

—Nigeria. The list goes on and on.

Also, while America is still at the top of the basketball, other teams have

reached the top of the basketball world. Teams like Germany, Lithuania, and even

Argentina, who won the Olympic basketball tournament in 2004. The days of the

“Dream Team” are long gone.

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Globalization has also occurred extensively in soccer: actually, it has

probably had the most widespread globalization. Soccer has the most popularity

out of any sport worldwide, as evidenced by the different international leagues,

the recruitment of international players, and the World Cup for soccer that is held

every four years.

In baseball, Japan has gained ground and has become a baseball power.

Tennis has also been globalized. Currently there is a tennis player on the

professional circuit from every nation of the world, except Afghanistan. This truly

shows the widespread popularity of tennis. Every year, there is the Davis Cup,

which is like a World Cup for tennis that takes place every year. Now, foreign

players win majors more than the hometown favorites. The last player to win

Wimbledon, the British major, was Fred Perry, and he did it 76 years ago.

The same with golf. You may think that Tiger Woods is the only dominant

golfer out there, but this simply isn’t the case anymore. There are so many great

golfers from all around the world now.

Last but not least is football. This sport has long been called America’s

Game. The cheerleaders, the tailgating, the game itself; If you like football, you

must be an American right? WRONG. It is true that American football hasn’t

globalized as fast as many of the other sports out there, it is well on its way in the

right direction. Real-time example: right now the New England Patriots have

traveled to Old England to play a football game. The Tampa Bay Buccaneers also

made the long journey to play.

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It’s part of the NFL’s promise to have increased international participation.

And the commissioner of the league says that soon there will be more

international games played.

Whereas beforehand there was no diversification of sports internationally,

now the globalization of sports has caused more sports to be popular worldwide.

And it’s not going to stop; there is an increasing amount of communication

mechanisms out there right now. There’s email, there’s the internet, and there

will continue to be an increase in international communication.

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The Global Flows of International Professional Baseball System

Abstract

This paper employs concepts drawn from a five-phase model of globalization

adapted from the work of Maguire et al. in 2002, which aids in developing an

understanding of the global phenomenon of professional baseball. It reports that

the five flows of globalization, namely, migrant dimension, technology dimension,

economic dimension, media dimension, and ideological dimension are shaping

the outcomes of various local professional baseball cultures within the global

context and vice versa. The paper concludes that Major League Baseball (MLB) in

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the U.S. is confirmed as the core economy within world professional baseball; and

the global forces, the power of MLB in particular, have been impacting and

shaping the outcomes of different local professional baseball cultures with a

particular focus on the relationships between the above five flows.

Introduction

During the past generation, especially from the 1980s to the present, the world

has experienced fundamental changes, and “globalization has emerged as one of

the foremost discourses” (Jackson & Hokowhitu, 2002). According to Bramham

and Spink (2001), such dramatic changes can be thought of in six separate

dimensions. First, there has been a growing awareness of

the ecological environment and the global impact of human activities upon a

fragile and interdependent biosphere. Second, social action groups and political

movements have tended to transcend the local and to make common cause at a

transnational scale. Some of this activity has been facilitated by a revolution of

global technology. Third, there has been a cultural transformation, particularly in

terms of the decline of tradition. Cultural values can no longer be contained and

constrained within a single nation state. Boundaries become increasingly porous

as they experience growing flows of people, culture, information, goods, and

services. Fourth, social transformations are taking place that loosen the

constraints of traditional institutions and local communities on individuals. Fifth,

in relation to political  change, the growing importance of transnational

institutions and agencies, such as the European Union (EU) has become

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increasingly apparent. Finally, there are economic factors changing global patterns

of investment, production, distribution and consumption (Bauman, 1998).

The global development of sport has also accelerated from the 1980s. For

example, one can find the flows from country to country of sporting goods,

equipment, and landscapes that have grown such as the development of the

media-sport production complex and project images to global audiences. In the

academic field, the subjects of growth of internationalization or globalization have

received much attention from numbers of academics (cf. Chiba, 2004; Lawet al.,

2002; Magnusson, 2001; Maguire et al., 2002; Takahashi & Horne, 2004). In this

paper, the authors employ concepts drawn from a five-phase model of

globalization approach, adapted from the work of Maguire et al. in 2002, with a

focus on understanding the global phenomenon of professional baseball. They

seek to report how the five flows of globalization: migrant dimension, technology

dimension, economic dimension, media dimension, and ideological dimension are

shaping the outcomes of various local professional baseball cultures within the

global context and vice versa.

Theoretical Background

With the radical changes taking place in this global context, a major concern has

been raised regarding the consequences of globalizing the sport field. Elite sport

now occurs on a worldwide scale and is patterned along what academics term

‘global flows’ (Maguire et   al., 2002). In a set of flows in global processes,

Maguire et   al. propose an elementary framework for exploring such

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phenomenon, suggesting that there are five dimensions of global flows: migrant

dimension, technology dimension, economic dimension, media dimension, and

ideological dimension.

According to Maguire et   al. (2002), “the migrant dimension involves the

international movement of people such as tourists, exiles and guest workers and

so on.” This concept of migration refers to the make up of persons who have

constituted the shifting world where guest workers, other moving groups, and

persons constitute an essential feature of the world in general. In the sport arena,

the global migration of sports personnel (e.g. players, coaches etc.) has been a

pronounced and established feature of the sporting ‘global village’ in recent

decades (Maguire, 1999). For instance, the movement of player migration occurs

in some sports, such as professional baseball, between North America, Latin

America, and East Asia.

The technology dimension, “created by the flow between countries of the

machinery and equipment produced the flow between countries by corporations

and government agencies,” (Maguire et al., 2002) making technology “a shaping

factor at the nexus of alternative global sport futures, and as such it is a pivotal

driver of sport’s global evolution” (Westerbeek & Smith, 2003: 153). Modern

technology, such as the development of media, sport equipment etc., has created

financial benefits and publicity for professional baseball.

“The economic dimension has been obviously concerned on the rapid flow of

money and its equivalents around the world” (Maguire et al., 2002). It is evident

that the flow of finance in the global sports arena has come to focus on the

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international trade in personnel, prize money and endorsements, and the

marketing of sport along specific lines. Some good examples are manifested in the

transformation of sports such as USA basketball and baseball, Olympic Games,

and Football World Cup etc. into global sports.

Another factor that must be considered is “the media dimension, entailing the

flow between countries of information and images that are produced and

distributed by newspapers, magazines, radio, film, television, video, satellite,

cable and the World Wide Web” (Maguire et al., 2002: 5). Currently, global and

local media sport organizations have aligned a range of sporting events to meet

the global audiences’ interests, of which spectacle, personality, and excitement

are emphasized. The sport-related media continuously ‘broadcasts’ images of

sports to large global audiences. For example, consider worldwide audiences for

the World Baseball Classic in 2006.

The ideological dimension is “linked to the flow of values centrally associated with

the state or counter-state ideologies and movements” (Maguire et al., 2002). In

the professional baseball business, players are regarded as individual

entrepreneurs with rights (e.g. negotiation) (Suzuki, 2000). Nevertheless, except

for the MLB, the leagues seem to have different stories (Lee et al., 2006).

Discussions

“Sports migration is bound up in a complex political economy that is itself

embedded in a series of power struggles characterizing the global sports system”

(Maguire et al., 2002: 32). The U.S. is a central part of the global system. The most

striking example of transnational power of sports organization is Major League

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Baseball (Rosentraub, 2000). Players from outside the United States are defined

as guestworkers in this system. In MLB, many players have been recruited from

Latin American countries, such as the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, and

Venezuela. Indeed, U.S. domination increasingly relies on Latin America talent, as

illustrated by the professional sporting relations between the U.S. and Latin

America (Klein, 1995). On the other hand, one could find that players came from

Netherlands despite the fact that football is the most popular sport in Europe.

There has been an influx of talented players from Latin America, Europe, and

Australia because U.S. capital, technology, and media have provided rapid

development related to professional baseball labor conditions. This, together with

the infusion of Asian players (Takahashi & Horne, 2004) has fostered the

exploitation of the North American professional baseball market over the past

years.

The baseball business is booming in Asia as a rapidly-swelling band of fans follow

the exploits of home-grown players on the other side of the Pacific.

The growing prominence of foreign born baseball players in MLB appears not only

in the performances of foreign superstars such as Sammy Sosa but also in overall

number of foreign players now on MLB rosters (Marcano & Fidler, 2000). By 2005,

242 overseas players, which occupied 29.2% of 829 Major League players, were

featured from 15 countries together with Puerto Rico and the Virgin Island. The

Dominican Republic leads all countries with 91 players; Venezuela is second with

46; and Puerto Rico is third with 34 (Major League Baseball, 2005). The import of

MLB players from East Asia in this half decade has also shown a dramatic growth.

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Twenty-one Japanese, 9 Koreans, and 3 Taiwanese played in the U.S. during the

2001-05 period. “These results indicate that most of the demand for major league

players is focused on foreign-born players”. Foreign players strive to play in the

Major Leagues because that is the highest level. More importantly, this claim

clearly implies “the global migration of sports personnel has been a pronounced

feature of recent decades and appears likely to continue in the future”.

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EXAMPLES

1. Globalization Of Football

Football in one of the most popular sports of the world, and is often regarded as

most globalized profession. Today, the best players and their services can be

offered to clubs in different countries and whatever the price they want and the

top players can make salaries of millions a year plus whatever additional

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endorsements they receive. The globalization in football has benefited many

players and teams enabling them to find a wider support base outside their

traditional local areas. Today, majority of the clubs have multiple foreign players,

simply implying football as global sport.

To be very precise, the game of football has now become a global sport where

spectators from all over the world can enjoy variety of different leagues. The

globalization of football has created international rivalries yet it has also the

power to bring communities together.

Simply referring FIFA World Cup, we can say the tournament brings the world of

football together for an entire month. According to Franklin Foer, the national

teams usually create a tribal sense of nationalisms amongst the football

supporters and fans. He further explains that the nationalism is show in wearing

football shirts, craves as well as flying flags for expressing pride. According to him,

the tournaments including FIFA World Cup, the Africans Cup of Nations as well as

the UEFA European Championship bring football supporters from different

nations of the world and this naturally lead to the globalization of football game.

We can simply say that different tournaments plays major role in making football

as a global sport. However, the game of football brings players together form

every part of the world. Besides players, the game also brings together football

fans, coaches and clubs from every part of the world. For instance that game of

football helps to unite the nation of Ghana and it gained independence from

British imperial rule in 1957. Ghana has now become one of the most passionate

football nations in both Africa and the world.

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2. The Effects of Globalization on Soccer in India

The nation of India supports over fifteen percent of the world’s population,

making India the second most populous nation in the world. Interestingly, the

median age in India is 25; India is one of the youngest nations among large

economies. India’s history has been marked by numerous invasions from various

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cultures which have been absorbed and modified to create the current racial and

culture synthesis India enjoys. India is home to many intense sporting fans.

Indians are passionate about a variety of sports – especially cricket, field hockey

and soccer. Despite domestic passion for the previously mentioned sports India

has not, yet, exported itself onto the world’s global sporting stage in the realm of

the World Cup or the Olympics. It is worth mentioning that the Indian cricket

team is considered one of the strongest teams in the world. At the Sydney

Olympics of 2000, India won one bronze medal, which seems surprising

considering India’s large population and the county’s love of sports. To better

understand the world of Indian sports it is helpful to look at some background

information. For instance, 44 percent of Indians spend less than a dollar a day,

which would seem to have a great effect on the training, recruiting and

development of many sports within India. The technology boom of the 1990s

created many technology driven industries within India. Likewise, the advent of

relatively easy access to satellite television created a vast market within India for

soccer, particularly European leagues such as the English Premier League (EPL).

The popularity of foreign soccer leagues has had a positive effect on the

development of soccer in India because it exposes many more Indians to the

game. However, the high ratings for English soccer have not done a great deal to

improve domestic interest. As in other countries, there is a disconnect in soccer’s

popularity. Though many avidly watch the EPL and similar top-ranked leagues,

fewer Indians have proven to actually follow their own local leagues. Watching

televised international soccer stars continues to be more popular than attending

or playing games locally. This lack of interest in Indian domestic soccer has hurt

the national team-dropping it to an all-time low rank in the FIFA world rankings.

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Globalization has had a deep impact on India in many positive and negative

ways. It creates technology-driven industries yet spurs the migration of Indians

with technical skills to other countries, creating a “brain-drain” at home. Likewise,

globalization has impacted the sporting culture in India, particular the sport of

soccer. Soccer clubs such as Manchester United and AC Milan are household

names in India, due to the effects of globalization. Soccer is basically viewed as a

commodity – created in Europe and then exported around the world to the

masses.

V. Krishnaswamy in his article, “Football and Globalization,” discusses the impact

of teams from countries such as Senegal and Korea making the World Cup:

But before you start clapping or dreaming of a Senegal or Korea up there on the 

top of the heap in 2010 or 2014, look at the other side. Globalization does not 

necessarily mean the gap between the first world (European and Latin American 

teams) and the Third World (Asia largely and to some extent Africa) in football is 

going to become narrower. Within Asia, only a handful of teams – primarily South 

Korea, Japan and China – are likely to rise further. And in Africa it will still be the 

same four to six countries – Cameroon, Nigeria, Senegal or Algeria. Add to that 

South   Africa   and   in   times   to   come,   maybe   Ghana   or   Sierra   Leone.   The 

globalization of world football may only mean more European and Latin American 

coaches  in Asia  and Africa and more talented Asian and African footballers   in 

Europe – not even Latin America, which is itself struggling from the lack of funds. 

Just when it seems it   is helping perk up standards,  it  turns  its face and moves 

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away. It does enrich the world, but leaves its own home in tatters. Not even for a 

fleeting moment should one believe that the rise of Senegal in the world cup … will 

raise the standard of football in that country. Just forget it. It has not happened, 

nor is it likely to happen. If anything, the domestic football scene in Senegal will be 

even more impoverished.

This is an interesting and popular view of the impact of globalization on countries

that are not as developed as the Western industrial democracies. This quote

highlights the disconnect between the growth of the sport of soccer amount the

population in terms of viewership of foreign leagues without the growth of the

sport on the field. It is yet to be seen if the domestic league in India will gain

support and be able to grow talented Indian soccer players to be able to qualify

India for the World Cup in the future. It is now unclear what the future effects

globalization will have on the sporting culture of India.

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3. The globalization of cricket

The ICC seems quite serious about promoting cricket around the world even in

countries without any serious tradition of the game. The recent discussion about

20/20 at the Olympics is part of that trend.

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There is no question that the format is quite well-suited to the Olympics and the

presence of cricket there will promote the game globally.

So what are the prospects of cricket becoming more popular around the world?

And how will it affect the balance between test cricket and 20/20?

Personally I seriously doubt that test cricket will ever catch on anywhere outside

the existing countries; considering that its popularity is on the wane among

several of the current test countries. If you haven't grown up watching test

cricket, it's not a very accessible sport IMO.

OTOH I think 20/20 has huge potential in terms of global appeal. From the

entertainment point of view 2-4 hours is probably the ideal length and it is the

first cricket format which is down to that length. Its closest competitor is baseball

and IMO 20/20 with its high scoring and greater variety of action is more

accessible to someone who is new to both. Once you have an entertaining format,

cricket has a lot of obvious advantages when it comes to spreading globally. It

makes a lot of money already and will probably make even more in the near

future. Its existing base is nicely spread across the world in five continents

The bottom line is that I could see cricket becoming global but only for 20/20. The

inevitable effect would be test cricket being overshadowed. Is that likely to

happen? Is it a good thing? Obviously it will be sad for fans of test cricket but it

will mean a lot more cricketers around the world able to make a living from

cricket.

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4. The globalization of golf: A future Tiger Woods world golf tour?

The Globalization of golf is a must. The world is in a constant mode of change.

There should be areas of commonality that all people can enjoy and participate.

Gold is one of them, as the greens add to a community, and are a pleasant site.

If we cannot choose the direction of world events, then we must realize that

there does exist a choice. A choice to not simply sit back and complain while the

world rolls along in its usual fashion. Conflict, pain, pre-determined destinies.

Then the choice exists to find areas where all people can identify and strive

toward a better life. Golf can do this, and perhaps bring about the realization of a

dream for those who wish to be the next Tiger Woods.

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For some reason, when a nation pursues sports it generates much attention - not

only for the athlete, but the very fabric of its social structure. True, most athletes

are young, but the world is interested in how nations develop their young.

There are some things that cannot be learned quickly, and time - which is all that

most folks have or possess, is a costly commodity. Each nation, each citizen must

return to its inhabitants a certain nominal percentage of what it harnesses in

terms of achivement and knowledge to the next.

From this vantage point it then takes its departure and perhaps claims its legacy.

A Tiger Woods is, without his realizing, a Good Will Ambassador. This of course

opens the door to the next question, which this writer prefers: Do nations or the

global world need heroes? Particuliarly in sport? I think that the answer is

evident. If a people desire freedom to the extent that they are willing to walk

through a desert or paddle a leaky craft to freedom, then the globalization of golf

will certainly offer an incentive to pursue a more democratic existence as

democracy breeds opportunity, advantage, and the pursuit of pleasure. More

demands more.

And what of the impact on golf widows? Guess that will be addressed at the 19th

hole after the first major golf tournament. After all, once a player always a player,

as any golfer will attest to.

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5. Badminton Hand Signals

In any sports that we see today, participants and game supervisors use hand

signals to communicate with each other, regulate the game and keep track of

scores. The same is followed in badminton, which we may name as badminton

hand signals.

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In this era of globalization, it is often difficult to communicate verbally during a

game, particularly by the game supervisors. It is because the players' attention is

primarily riveted to the game. Moreover the players come from different parts of

the world.

Some of them may not know the language used and others may have difficulty in

following the accent, even if they know the language. Above all, when the crowd

is excited, it is often difficult to adjust scores and manage the game properly if

verbal communication alone is used to regulate the game and keep track of

scores.

Badminton hand signals are used precisely to overcome this difficulty. In

badminton, besides participating players, there is a Referee who is in overall

charge of the game, an Umpire, a service judge and a line judge. All these people

use badminton hand signals to regulate the game.

Hand signals followed by the umpires are

Raising his right hand straight above his head. When misconduct sufficient

enough to apply rule 16.8 is reported about a player or the umpire witnesses it,

he should call the player. The service judges are responsible for monitoring

whether a player serves correctly as per rules. Hand signals followed by the

service judges are

Raising the right arm in front slightly, flexing the elbow and keeping the palm

vertically facing the opposite direction. It is done to indicate that the shaft of the

racket when hitting the shuttle was not below the level of the wrist holding the

81

racket and/or the shaft of the racket was not facing downwards when hitting the

shuttle during serving.

Keeping the palm horizontally facing downwards at the level of the abdomen,

followed by moving it to the left and right below the level of waist. It is done to

convey that the shuttle, as a whole was not under the level of the waist while it

was struck during serving.

Extending the right leg and pointing the hand towards the foot. It is done to

indicate that one or both feet were not in the service court or remains constant

till the serve was completed.

Resting the palm of the right hand on right side of the abdomen, keeping the

palm facing the left side of the body, with fingers pointing downwards and

pointing the fingers of the left hand to the palm of the right hand with the palm

of the left hand facing the abdomen. It is done to show that the first point of

contact with the shuttle was not the base of the shuttle.

Hand signals shown by line judges include –

Extending both hands horizontally to the sides of the body. It is to indicate the

shuttle landed outside.

Pointing the hand to the line. To show that the shuttle has fallen inside correctly.

Closing both eyes with hands. To convey to the umpire that you are not sure

where the shuttle landed.

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Chapter-5

RECOMMENDATIONS AND LIMITATIONS

1.) Improvements in new technologies and strategies in sports can promote

prosperity.

2.) The movement and sharing of information, knowledge and expertise.

3.) The improvement of international standards for sports.

4.) Increases the variety of Games and countries which are interested in

getting involved into the sports.

5.) The loss of new talent in the games in developed countries such as Britain.

6.) A drift towards a more homogenized culture and society internationally.

7.) Under development countries may be more vulnerable to fast changes in

the internationally developed countries.

8.) Increased centralization of power in the hands of developed countries.

9.)Globalization is often criticized on the basis that is has led to the

exploitation of players and the playing environment.

10.) Rights and safety of player’s laws and regulations are often less

demanding in developing countries.

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Chapter-6

CONCLUSION

Our paper has identified and described the emerging phenomenon of the

globalization of sports, and has shown that existing management concepts

are difficult to apply as the business parameters are different from those of

any other business and not very well covered so far in existing research.

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Although sports is becoming commoditized, the business rules are still

unclear off the pitch, offering a broad area for further research in

international business.

This paper has sought to highlight how commercialization and globalization has

changed the worldwide picture of sports. As we can conclude a sport manager, in

order to be competitive in the global marketplace and in order to be able to react

to the changes of the international rules of commercialization have to be aware of

the needs of the market and “consumers”-fans that address.

According to Markle(1997), sports managers need to understand the nature of

the business and the disposition of the consumer through demographics,

psychographics, socioeconomics, etc…sports managers need to built their

business, the product and the perception of the product to be attractive and

appealing … to built relationships with sponsors, to learn their business needs and

become an agency rather than a salesperson. They should under-promise and

over-deliver”

Also we should always have in mind what Robert L. Boucher suggests : “ call me

naïve, but it is possible that today’s promoters of commercialism in sport have

become intoxicated by sponsorship revenues? …is it right for a sport manager

only to be conduit by which a sponsor can achieve greater market penetration?

My contention is simply that in our quest for legitimation, we may have sold our

souls to the interests of big business.

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It can be argued that much of what comprises the Sport Management domain is

not related to business and producing entertainment for profit. In fact, a large

percentage of sport enterprises in the global community are of an amateur nature

where the motives of participants, spectators and administrators are of a more

altruistic nature. Perhaps Chelladurai’s (1992) observation that there are really, in

fact, two fields, that management of human services in sport and management of

entertainment services through out sport, is entirely accurate. In any event, the

need to return in a balance in orientation and to refocus has never been more

pressing”.

In conclusion, sport program growth and development which pays attention to

globalization could maintain the national values. It is suggested that in future

planning after policy makers pay attention toward social needs, universal needs

should also be taken in to consideration. The conducted studies showed that the

21st century is the century of approaching the world’s nations’ values and need

for each other. In addition, establishing sport internet websites tends to play an

important role in sport development.

The ever-increasing trend of people using personal computers provides the

appropriate opportunity for sport policymakers to transfer a variety of

information to the community beyond applying conventional methods. In future

planning for sport, special attention should be paid to new sport activities and

providing the amenities necessary for those people at the recreational and non

official levels, without any mention of damaging native sport and culture.

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Chapter-7

APPENDICES

- Maguire, J. (1999). Global sport. Identities, societies, civilizations Polity

Press: Cambridge.

- Maguire, J. (2005). Power and Global Sport: Zones of Prestige, Emulation

and Resistance. Routledge: London

- Maguire, J., Jarvie, G., Mansfield, L., & Bradley, J. (2002). Sport Worlds: A

Sociological Perspective. Champaign: Human Kinetics.

- BEYER, P. Religion and Globalization, London, Sage, 1994.

- BOULTBEE, J. Expert for sport for all or elite sport? Professional coaching

and management – paper presented in the 9th world sport for all congress-

the Netherlands, 2002.

- COALLER, F. The mixed economy of leisure, In: Henry I. (editor)

management and planning in the leisure Industries, London, McMillan,

1990.

- DAVIS, B.; ROSS, B.; JAN, R.; DENNIS, R. Physical education and the study of

sport- Mosby 11th edition, 2000.

- DIETZ, T. Methods for analyzing data from Delphi panels: Some evidence

from a forecasting study. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 31:

79-85, 1987.

- EICHBERG, H.; JARIVIE, G.; MIDOL, N. Youth Body Culture and Identity-

report to European Commission No. 98-10EET_0026-00, 1992.

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